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Utility of ERTS for Monitoring the Breeding Habitat of Migratory Waterfowl
... Satellite remote sensing is effective in monitoring changes in the surface water extent of terminal lakes (e.g., Rundquist et al., 1987;Harris, 1994;Birkett, 2000). Likewise, satellite data are useful in mapping the location of water bodies using "traditional" classification and density slice approaches (e.g., Work et al., 1974;Work and Gilmer, 1976;Best and Moore, 1981;Frazier and Page, 2000). Many researchers prefer the density slice approach because it simply involves the establishment of a threshold water/non-water brightness value in a given spectral band (usually middle infrared, or MIR) and subsequent division of all band pixels into water and non-water classes. ...
... Remote sensing provides general data about wetlands (such as size, location, type, and water quality characteristics), as well as offering the ability to monitor wetlands over time (Carter, 1982). Work et al. (1974) used Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data to inventory prairie ponds and lakes in eastern North Dakota for waterfowl management. Their density slice of MSS Band 7 (800-1,100 nm) tended to miss ponds smaller than the 0.4 ha MSS pixel size. ...
... A Landsat TM Band 5 density-slice technique was selected because of its high level of accuracy (Work et al., 1974;Best and Moore, 1981;Frazier and Page, 2000), combined with its simplicity. Although a maximum-likelihood supervised classification can attain accuracy similar to the Band 5 density slice, the relative complexity of the supervised technique, as well as its need for greater processing power, makes the density-slice method more attractive when extracting water pixels from Landsat TM data. ...
A decadal-scale wet spell in the closed Devils Lake basin of North Dakota has resulted in increases in the elevation and extent of the basin's terminal lakes— Devils and Stump—as well as increases in the size and number of small prairie pothole ponds. Changes in lake surface area have been studied thoroughly, whereas the fluctuations in pond surface area have been virtually ignored. We use a subpixel classification technique in combination with a Landsat TM and ETM+ Band 5 (middle infrared; 1,550–1,750 nm) density slice to improve estimates of changes in the combined area of ponds in the basin for selected years between 1991 and 2002. The resulting information is a first step toward more accurate assessment of the impact of wetland flooding on the region.
... Several researchers have explored the use of Landsat data to map wetlands. For example, Work et al. (1974) used Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data (79 × 79 m spatial resolution) to map wetlands in a portion of the Prairie Pothole Region of North Dakota, and Seevers et al. (1975) manually classified wetlands larger than 4 ha from MSS data in the Sandhills of Nebraska. Gilmer et al. (1980) digitally processed MSS data to extract wetland extent in east central North Dakota, statistically calibrating their results with wetland information 80 TODHUNTER AND RUNDQUIST derived from air photos corresponding to randomly sampled subsets of their study area. ...
... Density slicing requires the user to both interpret the Band 5 histogram and to examine known water pixels to determine an upper threshold brightness value for water. All pixels with brightness values equal to or less than the selected threshold value are classed as water, and all others as non-water, resulting in a binary data set (Work et al., 1974;Work and Gilmer, 1976;Gilmer et al., 1980;Best and Moore, 1981;Lunetta and Barlogh, 1999;Frazier and Page, 2000). A limitation of the density slice approach is that it fails to detect water bodies smaller than the spatial resolution of the satellite sensor (30 × 30 m, or 0.09 ha, in the case of TM). ...
The Devils Lake Basin of North Dakota, an interior drainage basin located within a dry, subhumid environment, has experienced pervasive flood conditions since the 1993 onset of a wet spell of unprecedented magnitude and duration. This unique natural-hazard environment has resulted in flooding from both the expansion of the surface area of the basin's terminal lakes (Devils Lake and Stump Lake) and increases in the number and size of rural wetlands. To assess the relative extent of both terminal lake and rural wetland flooding, we focused on Nelson County, which contains Stump Lake and is representative of other counties in the basin. Remotely sensed data acquired by Landsat Thematic Mapper was used to map open-water extent in 2001, and results were compared to 1992 land-cover data provided by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Our analysis indicates a 53% increase in the size of Stump Lake and a 426% increase in the area of rural wetland ponds. Stump Lake flooding is spatially restricted and has had limited impact upon the surrounding lakeshore environment. Rural wetland flooding is pervasive and has a deleterious effect upon the region's agricultural economic base.
... The second approach is to use satellite images, especially from Landsat, to map lake areas. Landsat time series allow for wetland change detection with different image processing methods such as density slice, maximum likelihood, and sub-pixel unmixing (Frazier & Page, 2000;Ozesmi & Bauer, 2002;Sethre et al., 2005;Work et al., 1974). For example, Beeri and Phillips (2007) used Landsat images from 1997 to 2005 to develop a model for detecting the seasonal advance and retreat of surface waters. ...
... First, Landsat images have a spatial resolution of 30-60 m, making it difficult to detect wetlands smaller than 0.4-0.8 ha (Ozesmi & Bauer, 2002;Sethre et al., 2005;Work et al., 1974). Second, satellite records are only available since the 1970s, making interpretation of earlier history difficult. ...
... Although remote sensing methods have been extensively used to monitor changes in the surface water extent of potholes and other terminal lakes (e.g., [80][81][82]), few of the results have been used to support specific environmental policies, regulatory actions, or for setting/measuring conservation program goals. The lack of policy linkages to the ongoing research is particularly unfortunate because the remote sensing techniques in the PPR are very reproducible (with great potential for use in other depressional wetlands) and require relatively simple analytical techniques, such as traditional classification and density slice approaches (e.g., [83][84][85][86]). This lack of coordination has profound implications for wetland related ecosystem functions; the PPR is home to more than 50% of North American migratory waterfowl, and provides critical wetland ecosystem services such as reduction of downstream flooding, hunting opportunities, and birding/recreation. ...
The use of remote sensing for environmental policy development is now quite common and well-documented, as images from remote sensing platforms are often used to focus attention on emerging environmental issues and spur debate on potential policy solutions. However, its use in policy implementation and evaluation has not been examined in much detail. Here we examine the use of remote sensing to support the implementation and enforcement of policies regarding the conservation of forests and wetlands in the USA. Specifically, we focus on the "Roadless Rule" and "Travel Management Rules" as enforced by the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service on national forests, and the "No Net Loss" policy and Clean Water Act for wetlands on public and private lands, as enforced by the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Army Corps of Engineers. We discuss several national and regional examples of how remote sensing for forest and wetland conservation has been effectively integrated with policy decisions, along with barriers to further integration. Some of these barriers are financial and technical (such as the lack of data at scales appropriate to policy enforcement), while others are political.
Significant progress has been made in using remote sensing as a means of acquiring information about wetlands. This research provides a brief review of selected previous works, which address the issues of wetland identification, classification, biomass measurement, and change detection. Suggested new research emphases include compiling basic spectral‐reflectance characteristics for individual wetland species by means of close‐range instrumentation, analyzing canopies architectures to facilitate species identification, and assessing the impact on composite spectral signatures of wet soils and variable depths of standing water beneath emergent canopies. These research foci are justifiable when considered in the context of environmental change / variability and the production of trace gases.
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