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The impacts of job embeddedness on high-tech employees entrepreneurship
Abstract
High-tech employees always possess high entrepreneurial qualities, owing to accumulation of work experience and knowledge. This paper introduces a perspective of embeddedness and establishes a conceptual model of hi-tech employees' turnover and start new Arm. Then, we use Game Theory to analyze the relationship between human capital or social capital and employees' rewards. Moreover, the result reveals how the factors based on job embeddedness influence employees' decisions to quit their job and start own business. This finding provides some suggestion to manage mobility of employees and increase success rate of high potential entrepreneurship.
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This paper focuses on the development of technology‐based entrepreneurial spin‐offs in the Göteborg region. Employment growth and patenting activities of university spin‐offs (USOs) from Chalmers University of Technology are compared with the development of other new technology‐based firms. The results indicate that the majority of the Chalmers USOs are very small firms with low growth. Corporate spin‐offs (CSOs) are found to grow faster than other technology‐based firms, both USOs and non‐spin‐offs. However, the Chalmers USOs are found to be more successful in terms of patenting activities. It is speculated that USOs are especially beneficial to regional development when they are acting as technology suppliers to other local companies.
This research focuses on creating a theory of the "organizational advantage," a new concept identified within business and management. Using social capital research as a foundation for this theory, three of the study's objectives are identified: 1) incorporate different aspects of social capital to identify three common dimensions; 2) explain the role of each dimension in the process of creating and exchanging knowledge; and 3) maintain the belief that organizations are capable of creating extraordinary amounts of social capital on all three dimensions. Additionally, the relationship between social capital and intellectual capital is explored, as is the impact of this relationship upon a firm's perceived organizational advantage. In order for exchange and combination of resources to occur as a means of creating value, the research identifies three necessary conditions, including the opportunity for exchange and combination to occur, the expectation that exchange and combination generates value, and the motivation that exchange and combination in some way will be productive. This research further identifies a fourth condition, combination capability, as a significant factor in value creation. Due to social capital's influence upon the conditions needed for exchange and combination, social capital aids in the creation of intellectual capital. The research further hypothesizes that a firm's ability to create and utilize social capital contributes to performance differences among firms. Several limitations are identified, including omission of the negative impact of social capital upon a firm and the costs associated with creating and preserving a firm's social capital. The findings of the study are generalized to other institutional situations, and areas for future research are identified. (AKP)
A new construct, entitled 'job embeddedness,' is introduced. It includes individuals' (1) links to other people, teams, and groups, (2) perceptions of their fit with job, organization, and community, and (3) what they say they would have to sacrifice if they left their jobs. We developed a measure of job embeddedness with two samples. The results show that job embeddedness predicts the key outcomes of both intent to leave and 'voluntary turnover' and explains significant incremental variance over and above job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job alternatives, and job search. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Academy of Management Journal is the property of Academy of Management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
The emerging literature on entrepreneurial networks suggests that entrepreneurial action sets may be organizational in nature and may be investigated in organizational terms. We link three pre-founding entrepreneurial action set variables: (1) Size, (2) Degree (a measure of inter-connectivity within the entrepreneurial action set), and (3) Frequency (a measure of how often entrepreneurial action set members Interact with each other) to first-year new organization growth. Data were gathered through structured interviews with 44 entrepreneurs and analyzed with multiple regression. The hypotheses were strongly supported by the data.
Offers reflections on the study of the determinants of voluntary turnover based on empirical research conducted since 1972 at the University of Iowa (Iowa City) by Price, Mueller and their colleagues. The largest share of this research is constituted by 33 studies, mostly theses and dissertations. Reflections are offered about the causal model used and the measures advanced. Alternative models of voluntary turnover are described and possible future research is indicated. A measurement Appendix is also presented. The purpose of the paper is to improve the explanation of voluntary turnover.
We use a simple model to analyze the founding stage of new firms. Our goal is to characterize the directional causality between the expected rewards from entrepreneurship and the length of prior labor market experience that entrepreneurs possess. We test predictions about the timing of the formation of new firms on a sample of Italian entrepreneurs who founded new firms in the period 1992-2004. We obtain three main results. First, the timing of the foundation of new firms is determined primarily by the expectation of higher income and not so much by the perception of risk. Second, earlier experience of entrepreneurs in full time employment has a positive impact on the size of newly founded firms. Third, when we separate founders who work alone from founders who work with family partners, we find that the latter establish and control larger firms.
This paper reports the results of a qualitative study of motivation and barriers to employee participation in virtual knowledge-sharing communities of practice at Caterpillar Inc., a Fortune 100, multinational corporation. The study indicates that, when employees view knowledge as a public good belonging to the whole organization, knowledge flows easily. However, even when individuals give the highest priority to the interests of the organization and of their community, they tend to shy away from contributing knowledge for a variety of reasons. Specifically, employees hesitate to contribute out of fear of criticism, or of misleading the community members (not being sure that their contributions are important, or completely accurate, or relevant to a specific discussion). To remove the identified barriers, there is a need for developing various types of trust, ranging from the knowledge-based to the institution-based trust. Future research directions and implications for KM practitioners are formulated.
The concept of embeddedness has general applicability in the study of economic life and can alter theoretical and empirical approaches to the study of economic behaviors. Argues that in modern industrial societies, most economic action is embedded in structures of social relations. The author challenges the traditional economic theories that have both under- and oversocialized views of the conception of economic action and decisions that merge in their conception of economic actors atomized (separated) from their social context. Social relations are assumed to play on frictional and disruptive, not central, roles in market processes. There is, hence, a place and need for sociology in the study of economic life. Productive analysis of human action requires avoiding the atomization in the extremes of the over- and undersocialized concepts. Economic actors are neither atoms outside a social context nor slavish adherents to social scripts. The markets and hierarchies problem of Oliver Williamson (with a focus on the question of trust and malfeasance) is used to illustrate the use of embeddedness in explicating the proximate causes of patterns of macro-level interest. Answers to the problem of how economic life is not riddled with mistrust and malfeasance are linked to over- and undersocialized conceptions of human nature. The embeddedness argument, on the contrary, stresses the role of concrete personal relations and networks (or structures) in generating trust and discouraging malfeasance in economic life. It finds a middle way between the oversocialized (generalized morality) and undersocialized (impersonal institutional arrangements) approaches. The embeddedness approach opens the way for analysis of the influence of social structures on market behavior, specifically showing how business relations are intertwined with social and personal relations and networks. The approach can easily explain what looks otherwise like irrational behavior. (TNM)
New organizations do not emerge full blown from the idiosyncratic minds of individual entrepreneurs. Their ideas for new organizations, their ability to acquire capital and other essential resources, and their likelihood of survival as entrepreneurs derive from the contexts in which they live and work. The Entrepreneurship Dynamic explores the conditions that prompt the founding of large numbers of new organizations or entirely new industries, and the effects on existing industries, economies, and societies. ---------- Claudia Bird Schoonhoven is Professor of Organization and Strategy in the Graduate School of Management at the University of California, Irvine. She is co-author of The Innovation Marathon: Lessons from High Technology Firms. Elaine Romanelli is Associate Professor of Management at the Georgetown University School of Business. ---------- Scholars and popular writers have written a great deal about entrepreneurs and the formation of new companies, but they have not succeeded in predicting when and where large numbers of new organizations will emerge. This volume attempts, from the viewpoint of the interdisciplinary field of organization studies, to answer two major questions about entrepreneurship: First, what are the conditions that prompt the founding of large numbers of new organizations or entirely new industries? Second, what are the real and significant effects of such entrepreneurial activities on existing industries, economies, and societies? The authors emphasize that new organizations do not emerge full blown from the idiosyncratic minds of individual entrepreneurs. Their ideas for new organizations, their ability to acquire capital and other essential resources, and their likelihood of survival as entrepreneurs derive from the contexts in which they live and work. At the same time, new organizations fundamentally and immediately transform their contexts. The first part of the book explores the mental models that founders of new companies bring with them from previous experiences, the ways in which their ideas come not only from the companies in which they work but from the surrounding organizational communities, and the importance of local and regional dynamics in nurturing innovative communities. Other papers in this section shift perspective from geographic communities to other contextsââ¬âthe university, the knowledge industry, and the technology cycle. The second part of the book explores the role of entrepreneurial activity in the transformation of contexts and the evolution of industries, focusing on the processes and tools that entrepreneurs use to legitimate new organizational populations, and the collateral industries and communities that build up around new organizational populations, aiding in the development of new companies. ---------- ââ¬ÅThis outstanding work will be required reading for all entrepreneurship scholars.ââ¬?ââ¬âAndrew H. Van de Ven, University of Minnesota ââ¬ÅA detailed and fresh look at the conceptual end of the business of making money in developed societies.ââ¬?ââ¬âEnterprise and Society ââ¬ÅClaudia Schoonhoven and Elaine Romanelli have delivered a compelling edited volume to enrich our understanding of entrepreneuship as a contextual process . . . .[The Entrepreneurship Dynamic] is an impressive exploration of the conditions, processes, and outcomes of the entrepreneurial process . . . .[It] is an excelllent volume that deserves a prominent position on the bookshelves of serious students of entrepreneuship and organizations . . .Our bottom line: buy it, read it.ââ¬?ââ¬âAcademy of Management Review ââ¬ÅThose who are looking for new approaches and resarch directions will find The Entrepreneurship Dynamic a rich and variegated source of ideas.ââ¬?ââ¬âPhilip Anderson, INSEAD ---------- Table of Contents for The Economic Approach to Law Chapter 1: Introductory Concepts What is Law and Economics? Positive and Normative Analysis Is Efficiency a Valid Norm for Evaluating Law? Efficiency Concepts Pareto Efficiency Potential Pareto Efficiency, or Kaldor-Hicks Efficiency Consensual Versus Nonconsensual Exchange The Coase Theorem The Law in ââ¬ÅLaw and Economicsââ¬? The Nature of the Common Law The Court System in the United States Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Appendix to Chapter 1: Review of Microeconomics The Theory of the Consumer and Market Demand The Theory of the Firm and Market Supply Market Equilibrium Perfect Competition Monopoly Oligopoly and Game Theory Welfare Economics Welfare Theorems Market Failure Uncertainty and Imperfect Information Choice Under Uncertainty and Insurance Moral Hazard Adverse Selection Chapter 2: An Economic Model of Tort Law What Is a Tort? The Social Function of Tort Law Elements of a Tort Claim Cause-in-Fact Proximate Cause Liability Rules An Economic Model of Accidents: The Model of Precaution The Unilateral Care Model Social Optimum Actual Care Choice by the Injurer Comparison of Strict Liability and Negligence Bilateral Care Model No Liability and Strict Liability Negligence The Hand Rule The Reasonable-Person Standard Contributory Negligence Negligence with Contributory Negligence Strict Liability with Contributory Negligence Further Topics Sequential Care Accidents The Injurer Moves First The Victim Moves First Last Clear Chance Comparative Negligence Causation and Liability Cause-in-Fact Proximate Cause Res Ipsa Loquitur Uncertainty over Causation Activity Levels Punitive Damages The Judgement-Proof Problem The Impact of Liability Insurance Litigation Costs Legal Error The Statute of Limitations for Tort Suits Intentional Torts Valuing Human Life and Safety Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Chapter 3: Applying the Economic Model of Tort Law Products Liability A Brief History of Products Liability Law An Economic Model of Products Liability Equilibrium Price and Output for a Dangerous Product Care Choices by Manufacturers and Consumers Consumer Perceptions of Risk A Note on Custom as a Defense Recent Trends Evidence on the Impact of Products Liability Laws Concluding Remarks Workplace Accidents Respondeat Superior Accidents in which the Victim is an Employee Workersââ¬â¢ Compensation Laws Liability for Environmental Damages Characteristics of Environmental Damages Multiple Victims Causal Uncertainty Superfund Case Study: Asbestos Medical Malpractice Customary Practice and Informed Consent Do Physicians Practice Defensive Medicine? Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Chapter 4: The Economics of Contact Law I: The Elements of a Valid Contract Contracts and Efficient Exchange The Elements of a Valid Contract Reasons for Invalidating Contracts Mental Incapacity or Incompetence Coercion or Duress Mistake and the Duty to Disclose Private Information Purely Distributive Information Socially Valuable Information Casual Versus Deliberate Acquisition of Information Disclosure of Unfavorable Information Unconscionability Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Chapter 5: The Economics of Contract Law II: Remedies for Breach The Efficient Breach Model Money Damages and Efficient Breach Incentives for Efficient Reliance Mitigation of Damages Impossibility and Related Excuses Efficient Risk Sharing Commercial Impracticability Specific Performance Transaction Costs Subjective Value and Efficient Breach The Value of Consent Self-Enforcement of Contracts Liquidated Damage Clauses Product Warranties Express Warranties Implied Warranties Long-Term Contracts Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Chapter 6: The Economics of Property Law: Fundamentals The Nature and Function of Property Rights The Definition of Property Rights Property Rights in Incentives The Emergence of Property Rights Enforcement of Property Rights Fundamentals of the Economics of Property Law The Coase Theorem The Assignment of Rights and the Distribution of Wealth Examples of the Coase Theorem The Role of Transaction Costs Enforcement of Property Rights Property Rules and Liability Rules The Choice Between Property Rules and Liability Rules Trespass and Nuisance The General Transaction Structure Consensual Transfers of Property The Legal Protection of Ownership Should the Law Protect the Possessor or the Claimant? An Analysis of Land Title Systems Land Title Systems: Recording Versus Registration Land Title Systems in the United States Title Protection and Economic Development Limited and Divided Ownership Leasing The Lease: A Contract or Conveyance? Mitigation in Leases The Law of Waste Sharecropping Private Versus Group Ownership The Optimal Scale of Ownership Public Goods The Anticommons Problems and the Right to Partition Time-Limited Property Rights: Intellectual Property Patents Copyrights Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Chapter 7: Involuntary Transfers and Regulation of Property Involuntary Transfers and Restrictions on Transfers Between Private Parties Adverse Possession The Mistaken Improver Problem Inheritance Rules Primogeniture The Rule Against Perpetuities Government Acquisition of Property Under Eminent Domain The Eminent Domain Clause Public Use and the Scope of the Takings Power The Meaning of Just Compensation Case Study on the Determination of Just Compensation: ââ¬ÅThe Assassinââ¬â¢s Bequestââ¬? Eminent Domain and Land Use Incentives The No-Compensation Result Arguments Against the No-Compensation Result Government Regulation of Property The Compensation Question Tests for Compensation An Economic Model of Regulatory Takings Implications of the Efficient Compensation Rule Investment-Backed Expectations: Does the Market Eliminate the Need for Compensation? Regulation Versus the Common Law Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Chapter 8: The Economics of Dispute Resolution The Litigation Process Why Do Trials Occur? The Differing Perceptions, or Optimism Model The Asymmetric Information Model The Social Versus Private Incentive to Sue Procedural Rules and Litigation Costs Discover The English Versus American Rule The English Rule and Settlement The English Rule and the Incentive to File Suit Evidence on the Impact of the English Rule Rule 68 Contingent Fees The Benefits of Contingent Fees Contingent Fees and Settlement Do Contingent Fees Promote Frivolous Suits? Frivolous Suits Court Delay Alternative Dispute Resolution Evolution of the Law Selection of Disputes for Trial Is the Common Law Efficient? Empirical Evidence on Legal Change Judicial Decision Making and Legal Change Decision by Precedent An Economic Model of Precedent Precedents as a Stock of Knowledge Procedural Responses to Legal Errors The Standard of Proof Appeals as a Means of Error Correction What Do Judges Maximize? Judicial Self-Interest and the Law Pragmatism and the Economic Approach to Law Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Chapter 9: The Economics of Crime Distinguishing Crimes and Torts Crimes Are Intentional Other Reasons for Public Enforcement Examples of Private Enforcement Property Rules, Liability Rules, and Criminal Sanctions The Economic Model of Crime The Offenderââ¬â¢s Decision to Commit a Crime and the Supply of Offenses Optimal Punishment The Optimal Fine Gain Versus Harm-Based Fines Fines and Imprisonment Prison, Probation, and Parole The Probability of Apprehension is Variable Why Are Fines Not Equal to Offendersââ¬â¢ Wealth? Repeat Offenders Empirical Evidence on the Economic Model of Crime The Death Penalty Economics of the Death Penalty Constitutional Issues The Bail System Private Protection Plea Bargaining Economic Models of Plea Bargaining Plea Bargaining and Deterrence A Comparative Perspective Topics Crime and the Business Cycle Gun Laws and Crime Primitive Law Enforcement Some Constitutional Issues Free Speech The Rule Against Self-Incrimination The Right of Privacy Conclusion Discussion Questions Problems Answers to In-Chapter Exercises Notes Works Cited Index
Technological innovation was essentially to create new knowledge. And knowledge transfer was the driving force of new knowledge creation. This paper summed up six important factors influencing knowledge transfer within R&D unit from the perspective of knowledge transfer infrastructure, including tacitness knowledge, transfer willingness, transfer ability, trust, knowledge distance, and absorptive capability. It showed that a certain differences existed under different contexts through data analysis based on 127 survey samples, which could provide implications for technological innovation improvement.
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