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Exciting red and competent blue: The importance of color in marketing
Abstract
From beverages to consumer electronics, marketers are using color in innovative ways. Despite this, little academic research
has investigated the role that color plays in marketing. This paper examines how color affects consumer perceptions through
a series of four studies. The authors provide a framework and empirical evidence that draws on research in aesthetics, color
psychology, and associative learning to map hues onto brand personality dimensions (Study 1), as well as examine the roles
of saturation and value for amplifying brand personality traits (Study 2). The authors also demonstrate how marketers can
strategically use color to alter brand personality and purchase intent (Study 3), and how color influences the likability
and familiarity of a brand (Study 4). The results underscore the importance of recognizing the impact of color in forming
consumer brand perceptions.
... Extensive literature has investigated the psychological functioning of color (Babin et al., 2003;Elliot & Maier, 2007Gundlach & Macoubrey, 1931;Hagtvedt & Adam Brasel, 2017;Mehta & Zhu, 2009;Puccinelli et al., 2013;Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994). In particular, considerable attention has been paid to psychological and behavioral reactions to warm and cold colors (Bagchi & Cheema, 2013;Elliot & Maier, 2012Labrecque & Milne, 2012;Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994). ...
... More specifically, red is perceived as the warmest hue, leading to increased alertness and competitive performance (Elliot & Maier, 2012). Blue, on the other hand, is perceived as the coolest hue, which evokes calm and relaxation (Elliot & Maier, 2014;Labrecque & Milne, 2012). ...
... The current study suggests the feeling of harmony elicited by analogous colors may act as a means to alleviate feelings of conflict arising from social exclusion.The current study contributes to the existing body of literature on color research. First, this study emphasizes the significance of exploring color preferences within the context of color combinations.While previous research has primarily concentrated on the influence of individual colors on consumer behavior(Gorn et al., 2004;Kareklas et al., 2019;Labrecque & Milne, 2012;Mehta & Zhu, 2009), only a limited number of studies have delved into the effects of color combinations on consumer behavior(Deng et al., 2010;Jeon et al., 2020). Our findings imply that the preference for an individual color does not necessarily translate to the same preference when it is used in combination with other colors. ...
This study investigates the impact of social exclusion on consumer preferences for color combinations. Drawing on findings from five experimental studies, we demonstrate that individuals who have experienced social exclusion display a heightened preference for analogous color combinations, as opposed to complementary ones, compared to those who have not experienced social exclusion. Our research posits that this preference arises from the feeling of conflict induced by social exclusion, leading individuals to choose products and environments with analogous colors as a coping mechanism to alleviate this feeling of conflict. By establishing a connection between social exclusion and color combination preferences, our study contributes to a deeper comprehension of the factors influencing consumer choices in the realm of color. Furthermore, we demonstrate the broader consequences of social exclusion on consumer behavior. Our research also indicates that utilizing analogous color combinations in both product and interior design can substantially enhance the appeal for socially excluded individuals.
... Variations in these color dimensions can alter customers' perceptions and preferences (Bagchi and Cheema 2013;Buechel and Townsend 2018;Deng, Hui, and Hutchinson 2010;Gorn et al. 1997Gorn et al. , 2004Hagtvedt and Brasel 2017). For example, compared with logos with less saturated colors, logos with more saturated colors can make brands appear more exciting and competent (Labrecque and Milne 2012). For this research though, we focus explicitly on the effects of hue. ...
... Hues are potent, effective conveyors of brand impressions because they carry meanings (Labrecque 2020;Labrecque et al. 2013;Sample et al. 2020). Prior work identifies two categories of meanings conveyed by hues: embodied and referential (Labrecque 2020;Labrecque and Milne 2012;Labrecque et al. 2013). Embodied meanings refer to hedonic responses triggered by a hue's physical characteristics, such as the relaxed feeling states generally elicited by short-wavelength hues or the perceptions of arousal often triggered by long-wavelength hues (Gorn et al. 1997(Gorn et al. , 2004Labrecque et al. 2013). ...
... Hues can convey positive meanings. In consumption and branding contexts, blue tends to evoke competence and calmness, red can suggest cheerfulness and liveliness, green might signify eco-friendliness and ethicality, yellow and orange can convey warmth and optimism, and purple often conveys sophistication and femininity (Gorn et al. 2004;Jacobs et al. 1991;Labrecque and Milne 2012;Madden et al. 2000;Pastoureau 2017Pastoureau , 2019Sundar and Kellaris 2017). Yet, hues are ambiguous visual cues because they evoke negative meanings too (Gorn et al. 1997;Kareklas, Muehling, and King 2019;Labrecque et al. 2013;Madden et al. 2000). ...
Why, how, and when can logos with a blue positive space communicate competence versus sadness? Why, how, and when might logos with a red positive space evoke impressions of liveliness versus aggressiveness? As the current research establishes, a black background strengthens the negative meanings associated with the hue of a logo’s positive space and weakens its positive meanings. Conversely, a white background strengthens its positive meanings and weakens its negative meanings. These automatic effects occur because the hue of the positive space interacts with the color of the negative space to determine whether logos communicate positive or negative brand impressions more vividly. These effects are broadly applicable to both well-known and unknown brands, yet they are attenuated for meaningful logos and filled-frame logos. With these novel findings, this article identifies specific factors that can alter the meanings of logo hues, provides a theoretical lens for understanding the interplay of the background color and the hue of the positive space, and offers guidelines for crafting effective logos. This article also reveals which brands can benefit most from conveying negative impressions through their logos: Logos with a black (white) background enhance evaluations of brands that possess negatively (positively) valenced personality traits.
... Consequently, a large volume of studies has emerged with the aim of understanding the relationship of influence between the personality and the visual elements of the brand. However, despite the growing scope of the subject, these studies each analyze only a particular visual element, for example, logos (van Riel and van den Ban 2001; Ribeiro 2021), colors (Clarke and Costall 2008;Labrecque and Milne 2012), typographies (Mackiewicz and Moeller 2004;Shaikh 2007), and shapes (Adîr, Adîr, and Pascu 2012;Mehtälä 2021). Therefore, it is noticeable that there is a scarcity of studies that analyze these elements acting together, the so-called the "brand visual identity", a concept defined as a collection of visual elements that can define the personality of a brand (Strunck 2012). ...
... As a marketing tool, this element is considered an important brand attribute, since it can assign different symbolic meanings that are used to create and maintain the desired brand image (Madden, Hewett, and Roth 2000;Bottomley and Doyle 2006;Clarke and Costall 2008). In the context of advertising, color is considered an effective persuasion tool that can attract consumers and form perceptions (Labrecque and Milne 2012), influencing the process of decision-making (Eckman, Damhorst, and Kadolph 1990). Through colors, brands can establish a consistent visual identity that contributes to the effective positioning and differentiation of the brand from its competition (Labrecque and Milne 2012). ...
... In the context of advertising, color is considered an effective persuasion tool that can attract consumers and form perceptions (Labrecque and Milne 2012), influencing the process of decision-making (Eckman, Damhorst, and Kadolph 1990). Through colors, brands can establish a consistent visual identity that contributes to the effective positioning and differentiation of the brand from its competition (Labrecque and Milne 2012). ...
In order to be successful in today’s competitive environment, brands must have well-established identities. Therefore, during the branding process it is necessary to attribute personality traits and visual elements that best represent the desired identity of the brand. With the recent advances in communication, scholars have analyzed how different visual elements (e.g., logo, typography, color) can visually represent the desired brand personality. However, these elements are typically analyzed separately, since few studies show the association of personality traits with the set of visual elements of the brand (the well-known “visual identity”). Therefore, this work aims to develop a methodological framework that allows the design of visual identity based on the Dimensions of Brand Personality, by assigning a set of visual elements (colors, typographies, and shapes) to each dimension (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication and Ruggedness) suggested by Aaker in 1997. Through a quanti-quali approach, the associations suggested in the proposed framework were duly tested through the application of a questionnaire to a sample of consumers, to gather information about their perceptions. Preliminary results suggest that the proposed framework can successfully generate the desired brand personality perception in consumers, according to the design elements used for the creation of the visual brand identity.
... In this paper, we focus more on the post's visual and textimage coherence features, which, as indicated by related work and theories, may affect its received social support. As an example of the visual features, the color of an image can reflect the state of psychological health (Reece and Danforth 2017) of the poster and evoke viewers' emotions (Labrecque and Milne 2012). For the text-image coherence features, inconsistency of a post's visual and textual content for expressing specific ideas or feelings would make readers doubt its authenticity and credibility (Otto et al. 2019). ...
... Colors The colors of an image can evoke viewers' emotions (Labrecque and Milne 2012) and therefore affect their provided social support to the poster. We use the HSV (Hue-Saturation-Value) color space, which characterizes a pixel by three numbers: (1) Hue: the color type ranging between 0 and 360 degrees, e.g., 0 is red, 60 is yellow; (2) Saturation: the intensity of the color ranging from 0 to 1, e.g., 0 represents no color and is a shade of gray; and (3) Value: the brightness of the color ranging from 0 to 1, e.g., 0 represents black. ...
People in grief can create posts with text and images to disclose themselves and seek social support in online grief support communities. Existing work largely focuses on understanding the received social support of a post in pure text but often overlooks the post that attaches an image in grief communities. In this paper, we first computationally characterize the textual (e.g., theme), visual (e.g., color), and text-image coherence (i.e., semantic and sentiment coherence) features of text-image posts in a grief support community. Then, we conduct regression analyses to systematically examine the effects of these features on their received informational, emotional, esteem, and network support. We find that attaching a selfie image in the post positively predicts received informational and emotional support, while the social image of a post is a positive predictor of network and esteem support. A post is also likely to get more social support if its text is describing the visible content or telling a story depicted in the image or the perceived emotions in the text and image are not conflict. These results supplement existing research on mental health communities and provide actionable insights into assisting grief people to seek social support online.
... Colour, being a vital element of marketing communication (Gunina et al., 2017), significantly contributes to attracting consumer attention (Labrecque & Milne, 2012) and enhancing brand recognition (Bottomley & Doyle, 2006). Colour also plays a pivotal role in shaping consumer behaviour, evoking varied emotional responses and affecting their motivations (Aslam, 2006;Page et al., 2012). ...
... Colour also plays a pivotal role in shaping consumer behaviour, evoking varied emotional responses and affecting their motivations (Aslam, 2006;Page et al., 2012). Understanding colour psychology can significantly differentiate a company from its competitors, enhance brand awareness, and more effectively target their specific audience (Singh, 2006;Labrecque & Milne, 2012). For instance, Yu et al. (2020) investigated colours in tourists' destination-related Instagram posts and found their impact on liking and commenting. ...
This study aims to demonstrate the different results of particular methods applied for answering the same research question. By conducting field study, Instagram marketing communication of higher education institutions is empirically investigated. This study provides insights into measures of user engagement on Instagram and to shed the lights on their differences by applying these metrics on real data. The results demonstrate that a) liking and commenting should be studied as separate constructs; b) the level of granularity chosen is important in evaluating Instagram marketing communication; c) control variables should not be neglected in evaluating Instagram marketing communication; d) likes(comments)-to-followers ratio is not appropriate variable to measure user engagement; e) including quasi-moderators to conceptual frameworks should be considered based on literature review. Thus, the contribution of this research is twofold. On a theoretical level, it enhances the existing knowledge base on Instagram user engagement and construct operationalisation appropriate for studying user engagement. On a practical level, the findings from this study could guide evaluation of marketing and communication strategies for brands that employ Instagram as part of their digital marketing mix.
... As a marketing tool, color attracts consumers and can shape their perceptions. Through color, a brand can establish an effective visual identity, form strong relationships with a target market, and position itself among competitors in the marketplace, as the classic case of Coca-Cola versus Pepsi illustrates[7]. ...
Colors possess extraordinary ability to evoke feelings, memories and even influence the processes of enactment decisions. This interdisciplinary study brings together elements of psychology, the human psyche and art as science. From the soothing embrace of the cold blue color to the energetic liveliness of warm red, each color carries its own psychological weight, capable of shaping our mood and affect the way we interpret the world around us. It all starts when light enters the eye and passes through the photoreceptor cells in the retina, during which refraction occurs, where the magic of color perception happens. The brain then seamlessly integrates these signals, allowing us to perceive colors that make it up visible spectrum. Objects we see around us do not have real color and colors exist, but only as a visual sensation in our brain. The actual color of objects that our brain sees depends on the amount of light that will be received or reflected from the surface of objects. In this exploration of color psychology in this paper I will decode the language of shades, to discover the subtle and profound ways in which color will shape our perceptions and how they influence in decision making.
... It was also found that there was a significant difference among respondents regarding the purchase of warm and cool colours as well as warm and neutral colours. These findings support Labrecque and Milne (2012), who stated that to create an identity in the marketplace, brands employed colour and this sets them apart from the competition. Colour has been an integral part of sensory marketing tactics to influence consumers' behaviour and perceptions, induce moods and emotions, and help companies in positioning or differentiating themselves from their competitors. ...
The number of speakers of Betawi Malay is decreasing due to both external and internal factors. The rapid migration to Jakarta, the home of Betawi people, and the negative attitude of the Betawi Malay native speakers towards their language have endangered the existence of Betawi Malay language. The same case also happened to Betawi Malay spoken in Bekasi, the other area where Betawi people live. Tangible efforts to save Betawi Malay language are needed, one of which is through Betawi Malay documentation. In this study, the documentation focused on colour vocabulary. This study aims to find how far the colour vocabulary of Betawi Malay spoken in Jakarta and in Bekasi is different. This study used a qualitative method. 18 native speakers of Betawi Malay living in Jakarta and Bekasi were chosen as the informants. Observations, interviews, questionnaires, and documents were used to collect the data. A semantics approach was used in analysing the data. The results of the study show that the colour used in Betawi Malay spoken in Jakarta and Bekasi is differentiated by colour association, environment, and attitude. Environmental factors are very influential in building the speaker’s way of thinking and the speaker’s identity.
... Brand personality provides professionals with a means of measuring consumer perceptions and guidance in ad development. Shared information refers to the group of relevant personality traits in a market segment (Aaker & Fournier, 1995;Labrecque & Milne, 2012) and which ones do not make sense. More importantly, brand personality can influence the market value (Choi et al., 2017) and be an essential asset of a company because it determines its ability to acquire and sustain consumers (Fournier et al., 2012). ...
Este artigo analisa o desenvolvimento e a contribuição de publicações sobre personalidade de marca para o campo do marketing e do comportamento do consumidor. O levantamento bibliométrico considerou 28 anos de pesquisa. O levantamento de dados incluiu 734 artigos da base Scopus. A revisão de 734 artigos da base Scopus resultou em indicadores bibliométricos. Os resultados identificam linhas de pesquisa específicas, como brand equity, personalidade humana e auto-extensão. O simbolismo e a antropomorfização indicam um caminho para a humanização das marcas. Essa tendência é vital para um melhor relacionamento com os clientes. A aparente mudança no status do tema torna-se relevante para a compreensão do comportamento do consumidor. Apesar dos estudos na área, a aplicação da Personalidade da Marca ainda é complicada para os gestores. O surgimento da comunicação e da personalização no ambiente digital traz oportunidades de uso para diferenciação.
... Prospetto riassuntivo delle variabili tipografiche prese in analisi, con le rispettive aspettative interpretative e i riferimenti pertinenti Per quanto riguarda l'interpretazione degli elementi cromatici presenti nelle insegne, si segue infine lo studio diLabrecque, Milne (2012), che notano ad es. associazioni tra nero e sofisticatezza, marrone/verde e naturalità/sicurezza e rosso ed eccitazione. ...
Questo lavoro è dedicato a enucleare quali sono gli elementi chiave per la creazione
di una brand personality e nello specifico al settore della ristorazione giapponese, una categoria di attività che ha visto negli ultimi anni una crescita esponenziale sul suolo italiano. Nel dettaglio analizzeremo come gli elementi semantici, tipografici e cromatici che vanno a comporre le insegne dei ristoranti giapponesi nel capoluogo toscano di Firenze e i suoi dintorni possano essere veicolo di elementi evocativi che rimandano al Giappone.
... Color can convey two types of meaningsembodied and referentialand the interpretation of these meanings drives consumer behavioral responses (Labrecque and Milne, 2012). Hynes (2009) stated that color is a silent salesperson, able to enhance the recall of a brand, product, and company by suggesting imagery and symbolic values. ...
... It is evident in areas of study like art and marketing. The study of Labrecque and Milne (2012), revealed that high saturation of color in products increases arousal and excitement among consumers. Color is also one of the most predominant stimuli that can elicit an emotional response. ...
The intricate relationship between colors and memory has been a widespread interest in human psychology. The present study sought to better understand the influence of primary colors on memory retention among student gamers in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). Applying a quantitative research approach, specifically an experimental research design, examined two independent variables and a control condition. Respondents were composed of 30 student gamers. Most of them were undergraduate students who were exposed to video game experiments and were chosen purposively. In analyzing the collected data, one-way ANOVA and Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity were utilized. Results revealed that primary colors do not significantly influence memory recall. This implies that better memory performance cannot be attributed to the facets of primary colors. Limitations were acknowledged regarding the chosen sample size and the research instruments’ procedural use. Hence, further studies may be conducted by minimizing the confounding variables and other external distractors in the same environment.
... As reiterated throughout literature reviews, colour plays a pivotal role in brand identity, guiding its formation, evolution, and market perception (Labrecque and Milne 2012;Baxter et al. 2018;Elliot 2019 where both function and aesthetic hold equal sway in consumers' purchase decisions. Thus, the use of colour here is not merely about differentiation but also about eliciting specific emotional and psychological responses aligned with the brand's desired image. ...
This research explores the intersection of colour marketing and brand identity, focusing on the role of iconic colour in furniture branding. A comprehensive framework for crafting a furniture brand’s iconic colour was developed, and structural equation modeling was used to analyze data from three offline experiments with a total sample size of 111 subjects. The findings highlight the crucial influence of iconic colour on brand identity, revealing that both the referential meaning of hue and gender significantly impact brand perception. Contrary to conventional beliefs, variations in saturation and value are not solely detrimental; they can also enrich brand identity. The iconic colour serves as a cornerstone for ensuring consistency across internal and external brand dimensions, solidifying the brand’s core identifiers, and resonating with consumers’ minds. This research underscores the pivotal role of iconic colour in forging a coherent and distinct brand identity, offering valuable insights for marketers and brand strategists in the furniture industry and beyond.
... Research in the field suggests that exposure to certain colors can have significant physiological and psychological effects on individuals. For instance, a study by Labrecque and Milne [12] found that blue has calming effects, leading to reductions in heart rate and blood pressure, thereby alleviating stress. Similarly, the work of Alvarsson et al. [13] demonstrated that green environments, associated with nature, can positively influence mood and stress recovery. ...
Chromotherapy rooms (CRs) are physical spaces with colored lights able to enhance an individual’s mood, well-being, and, in the long term, their health. Virtual reality technology can be used to implement CR (VRCRs) and provide higher flexibility at lower costs. However, existing VRCRs are limited to a few use cases, and they do not fully explore the potential and pitfalls of the technology. This work contributes by comparing three VRCR designs: empty, static, and dynamic. Empty is just a void but a blue-colored environment. Static adds static abstract graphics (flowers and sea texture), and dynamic adds dynamic elements (animated star particle systems, fractals, and ocean flow). All conditions include relaxing low-beta and ocean sounds. We conducted a between-subject experiment (n = 30) with the three conditions. Subjects compiled a self-perceived questionnaire and a mathematical stress test before and after the VRCR experience. The results demonstrated that the dynamic condition provided a higher sense of presence, while the self-perceived stress level was insignificant. Dynamic VR conditions are perceived as having a shorter duration, and participants declared that they felt more involved and engaged than in the other conditions. Overall, the study demonstrated that VRCRs have a non-trivial behavior and need further study of their design, especially considering their role in a future where VR will be an everyday working interface.
... Por ejemplo, el rojo y el cian manifiestan una correlación positiva en la tasa de clicks (click-trough rates) de Instagram, debido a la asociación con el peligro y el estrés que ejerce la combinación de estos dos colores (Jalali & Papatla, 2016). Otros estudios han resaltado, asimismo, el significado del color rojo, asociado con la pasión y a la excitación (Labrecque & Milne, 2012;Yu & Egger, 2021); el amarillo implica alegría y jovialidad, mientras que el verde se relaciona con la seguridad y la conciencia medioambiental. Igualmente, también es conocida la asociación del color azul con la franqueza y la honestidad, siendo uno de los colores preferidos por los usuarios, independientemente del trasfondo cultural de estos (Amsteus et al, 2015;Yu & Egger, 2021). ...
Las redes sociales, y en especial aquellas que otorgan un fuerte protagonismo a la imagen, son una herramienta fundamental para que las marcas de moda puedan ser percibidas como sostenibles. El objetivo de la presente investigación es analizar los elementos y colores empleados por las 10 corporaciones de moda con mayor puntuación en los rankings de sostenibilidad cuando suben fotografías e ilustraciones a Instagram y analizar las diferencias existentes entre las publicaciones relacionadas con la sostenibilidad y las que no lo están. A partir del análisis de los 277.955 posts de las 61 marcas que componen estas 10 corporaciones, se identificaron los que tienen términos relacionados con la sostenibilidad, obteniendo una muestra de 12.639 publicaciones. A continuación, se hizo un reconocimiento automatizado de imágenes utilizando la librería de Python Inception V3 y se analizaron los colores utilizados mediante las librerías PIL y colorsys. Pese a que la ropa y el calzado son los elementos más mostrados cuando se opta por una sola imagen, en la mitad de los casos las marcas combinan varios tipos de imágenes o prescinden incluso del artículo para reforzar el mensaje sostenible con imágenes de naturaleza, deporte, animales o alimentación. En los contenidos sostenibles esta tendencia es más acusada en una estrategia de comunicación orientada a restar protagonismo al artículo final, sometido a un proceso de fabricación industrial, y aportar un contexto más benévolo. Además, hay diferencias cromáticas entre los contenidos sostenibles y los que no lo son.
... Because consumers process textual and visual narratives differently, it may interfere with the transportation power of a visual narrative. We align with other scholars in calling for deeper insights into the interaction effects between texts and images (Labrecque and Milne 2012;Ordenes and Zhang 2019). ...
Marketers today are increasingly using storytelling to engage their audiences. However, the design of narrative visuals is often inspired by a text-centric understanding of narratives. Despite the fast increase in visual content and the distinct processing it induces, extant research on visual narrativity remains fragmented, lacking a comprehensive framework to explain how a single still image can convey a narrative. Our literature review addresses this gap through the lens of narrative transportation theory. Based on a systematic review of 64 articles from marketing and adjacent disciplines, the authors propose that an image must narrate, act, and resonate (NAR) to stimulate narrative processing and transport viewers into its narrative. They also identify specific visual features that can facilitate this process and explore how characteristics of the storyteller, story receiver, and story settings can influence the strength of visual narrative transportation (VNT). Finally, the authors highlight affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses of transported viewers. This research extends narrative transportation theory to the visual domain, offering practical design principles that can be easily applied by marketing professionals. It also outlines an actionable research agenda for marketing scholars to further explore visual narrativity.
... We then discuss how these effects and associations might be used by political parties to inform their chromatic choices for party logos. Consumer research shows that lower saturation levels are associated with qualities of sophistication, "classiness," attractiveness, and being refined, while higher saturation levels are associated with qualities of dominance and toughness (Labrecque and Milne 2012;Pichierro and Pino 2023). Moreover, higher levels of saturation are better at capturing attention (Camgöz et al. 2004) and evoking excitement and arousal (Gorn et al. 1997) in viewers and/or consumers. ...
Populist radical right (PRR) parties tend to stress their differences from other parties. Yet at the same time, PRR parties have increasingly sought to integrate into party systems across the globe. In seeking to understand the way that PRR parties negotiate this paradoxical situation, the literature tends to focus on their policy offerings or discourse. We, on the contrary, investigate an underestimated aspect of their political communication: their visuals. Namely, we focus on the question of if and how PRR parties communicate their similarities or differences from other parties via the color profiles of their logos, given that color is a key way that political parties can signal (a) their ideological commitments (via hue) and (b) their approach to “valence” considerations (via saturation). We expect PRR parties’ attempts to signal their integration into party systems to be mainly sought via saturation, as a proxy for valence perceptions related to parties’ seriousness and competence, while we expect them to signal their difference from other parties via hue, given the incentive for PRR parties to communicate their ideological distance from non-populist parties as a marker of distinctiveness in the political market. We test our research questions by analyzing parties’ logos across 35 democracies in recent elections. Results largely confirm our expectations, demonstrating the utility of focusing on the visual aspects of PRR parties’ political communication. Interestingly, the results do not replicate if we focus on populist parties beyond the PRR party family.
... The shape of a logo is another crucial determinant of its perceived personality. The interplay between logo shape and color profoundly influences likability and familiarity (Labrecque and Milne, 2011). Studies find that a brand logo's circular or angular characteristics can powerfully shape perceptions of the company's image (Jiang et al., 2016). ...
Airline logos are pivotal components reflecting brand identity. This study investigates whether airlines of the same business model tend to employ similar color schemes in their branding and how travelers associate airline logos with their respective business models. Using a comprehensive survey instrument with diverse logo formats, participants recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) provided insights to help answer our research questions. Primary color analysis revealed that Low-Cost Carriers (LCCs) favor vibrant colors like bright yellow or green, while Full-Service Carriers (FSCs) lean towards darker hues such as deep red or blue. Participants tend to associate bird or wing elements with FSC logos and simplistic or abstract designs with LCC logos. Statistical analyses highlighted the influence of color deficiency on logo perception, particularly among travelers with prior travel or international experiences. Experienced travelers with no color deficiency performed better in picking airlines’ business models simply by viewing their logos. Airlines can use these findings to strategically select colors and design elements, accounting for color deficiency, to enhance brand identity and resonance with their target audience, ultimately increasing market visibility and customer engagement.
... The paper thus contributes to our understanding of the factors that shape brand attitudes. While previous research has focused on external factors such as brand story type (Avery et al., 2010), brand logo type (Labrecque and Milne, 2012), and brand crisis type (Sinha and Lu, 2016), the influence of cultural factors has been understudied. This paper bridges this gap by showing that the number of brand endorsers and consumers' self-construal (independent vs. interdependent) interact to impact brand attitudes. ...
Introduction
It was common for brands to use different numbers of endorsers in marketing practice. Nevertheless, research on brand endorsers’ quantity has not yielded a uniform consensus. The previous research about brand endorsers mainly focuses on the appeal of endorsement, brand category, and endorser characteristics, paying less attention to the impact of cultural factors, particularly self-construal. This study delves into selecting brand endorsers across diverse cultural regions for the same brand.
Methods
Drawing on the principles of self-consistency theory and self-construal theory, our research, conducted through three distinct experiments, reveals that consumers tend to hold more favorable opinions about brands endorsed by a single individual. Furthermore, self-consistency emerges as a crucial mediating factor in this phenomenon. Additionally, self-construal is an essential factor among consumers from various cultural backgrounds.
Results
Consumers with an independent self-construal exhibit more favorable brand perceptions when it comes to single-endorser brands compared to their counterparts with an interdependent self-construal. Conversely, individuals with an interdependent self-construal demonstrate a more positive disposition towards brands with multiple endorsers than those with an independent self-construal.
Discussion
This research not only enriches and extends our theoretical understanding of the impact of the number of brand endorsers on consumer brand attitudes but also provides valuable practical insights for optimizing the selection of brand endorsers for companies.
... Content creators, artists, and merchandisers use color psychology to subconsciously influence consumer emotions and behaviors. A study from the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science found that color increases brand recognition by up to 80% [1]. Another study from Emporia State University found that color can influence purchase decisions by 85% [2]. ...
Background luminance drastically affects the color appearance of content. Modern display
technologies allow for the reproduction of highly saturated colors, whose perceived lightness tends to
look ‘dull’ or muted when superimposed on backgrounds of higher luminance values. These perceptual
effects can be predicted by analyzing the relationship between a color’s chromatic contribution to
perceived lightness and how it changes with background luminance. A two-alternative-forced-choice
psychophysical lightness-matching experiment was conducted across different levels of background
luminance. The Helmholtz-Kohlrausch (H-K) effect was found to have a significant impact on
observers’ expectations when assessing the lightness of a chromatic color under changing background
luminance levels. The experimental results show that as background luminance is increased for highly
saturated, low luminance colors, current models overestimate perceived lightness changes by more
than double. To perceptually maintain the intent of creative content, there is a need for color appearance models to accurately predict chromatic lightness under changes to the background
luminance level.
... [5] Labrecque & Milne (2012) argue that visual branding also concerns combining visual elements into a cohesive brand image, and how consumers respond when all these elements are processed simultaneously. ...
The Joint Partners of Farmer Groups (Gapoktan) in Ciburial Village, West Bandung Regency, has great potential in selling horticultural agricultural products, one of the Gapoktans already has potential market demand is Cipta Mandiri. Gapoktan Cipta Mandiri has a high demand for organic vegetable products, digital media marketing increases awareness and expands the market quickly. The high demand creates new problems for Gapoktan Cipta Mandiri, namely product packaging that is not yet able to protect the product for long distance delivery, while consumer demand is not only from Bandung and its surroundings, as well as other large cities that are pretty far away, packaging innovations are needed that can protect the durability of organic vegetables, which are accessible from chemicals, where product spoilage is faster than non-organic products. Vacuum packaging innovations with cooling and anti-rotting systems need to be developed to support market demand which is already quite rapid. This innovation is expected to increase the potential for economic independence in other Ciburial village communities besides Gapoktan Cipta Mandiri. This research aims to determine the role of organic agricultural product packaging innovation in improving the branding and sustainable excellence of Gapoktan agricultural products. Ciburial Village, West Bandung Regency. A total of 100 samples were used from a population of 200 organic vegetable consumers in large cities, consisting of online consumers of organic products from Gapoktan Cipta Mandiri, Ciburial. The results of packaging innovation are proven to increase brand awareness and knowledge as well as the superiority of agricultural products by 78.25%. The branding strength formed from packaging innovation increases the product's competitive advantage by 85.16%. The indirect influence through the variable between branding has a path coefficient value that is greater than the direct influence path coefficient value. The branding strategy increases the impact of the packaging innovation strategy on the competitive advantage of Ciburial Village Gapoktan MSME products.
... Human perception is significantly influenced by color, prioritizing it at 80% over shape when observing objects, gradually diminishing to equal importance with shape after 5 min (1). Color plays a pivotal role in guiding consumer perception, evident on nearly every type of food packaging (2). Beyond its role in preserving and transporting food, packaging contributes to increased sales (3) and serves aesthetic (4) and symbolic functions for consumers (5). ...
Packaging color entices and influences consumer perceptions and significantly affects the identification of products. Marketers manipulate the exterior packaging to influence consumer expectations, experiences, and behaviors. Building upon psychological literature on colors and emotions, we explored the influence of food packaging color and food type on consumers’ purchase intentions. Study 1 explored the interaction effects between food packaging color (warm vs. cold) and food type (vice foods vs. virtue foods) on consumers’ purchase intentions. Study 2 examined whether perceived fluency mediates the interaction effect of food packaging color and food type on consumers’ purchase intentions. The results showed that for vice foods, characterized by tastiness but unhealthiness, the utilization of warm-colored food packaging enhances consumer purchase intent. In contrast, for virtue foods that are healthful but lack gustatory appeal, the use of cold food packaging colors will lead to higher consumer purchase intent. Perceived fluency mediates the interaction effect of food packaging color and food type on consumers’ purchase intentions. This study will assist marketers to exploring a range of possibilities for packing color, impacting both the physiological and cognitive dimensions of consumer behavior related to food products, and offering practical implications for market managers.
... This study is limited to the effects of the frames (complete vs. incomplete) in the logos' structural features on consumers' brand attitudes, and the study has found that the complexity of the brand logos also affects consumers' perceptions (Van Grinsven & Das, 2014). Future research can further explore the interaction between the brand logo's frames and other visual factors, including colors (Labrecque & Milne, 2012) and frame shapes (Liu et al., 2021). In addition, only the impacts of the logos' frames (complete vs. incomplete) on consumers' psychological perception of safety have been tested so far in our research, but other perceptual factors, such as imagination, honesty and efficiency are still not involved (Aaker, 1997). ...
This study examined the effects of the brand logo’s frames (complete vs. incomplete) on consumers’ perceptions and attitudes. There were 452 participants in two studies online. The results show that the brand logos with complete (vs. incomplete) frames have higher safety (in Study 1). Moreover, the logos’ frames of complete (vs. incomplete) brands will generate the positive brand attitudes through increasing the consumers’ psychological perception of safety. For products with high safety attributes, consumers will have a higher evaluation of the brand logos with the complete frames, but there is no effect for products with less important safety attributes (in Study 2). This paper provides some guidance for the research of consumers’ psychological perceptions, and also broadens the scope of application of the conceptual metaphor.
... En consecuencia, se puede reflexionar que el color es un factor que influye en el pensamiento y decisión de compra de los consumidores, por lo que tiene sentido que la mayoría indique que al comprar un producto el color del packaging llame la atención. En contraste, en un estudio denominado "Rojo emocionante y azul competente", se obtuvo que la intención de compra de los clientes se ve altamente influenciada por el color de la marca ya que este atributo habla de la identidad y la personalidad de la misma (Labrecque y Milne, 2012). Asimismo, otro estudio llamado "Impacto del color en el Marketing", encontró que los juicios de productos que hacen los consumidores se basan entre 62% al 90% únicamente en su color (Singh, 2006). ...
El objetivo del trabajo es determinar la influencia del color del packaging de productos en las preferencias de estudiantesuniversitarios, 2022. La investigación presenta un enfoque cuantitativo, de diseño no experimental de corte transversal y alcancedescriptivo, el estudio se realizó a 180 estudiantes de una universidad privada de Asunción, Paraguay. El instrumento de recolección de datos estuvo constituído por un cuestionario basado en diez preguntas cerradas (cuatro conopciones de respuesta según escala de Likert de 5 puntos 1= Totalmente en desacuerdo y 5= Totalmente de acuerdo, y seis conopciones de respuestas múltiples nominales: “Rojo”, “Amarillo”, “Verde”, “Azul”, “Rosado”, “Marrón”, “Blanco”, “Negro”, y “Otros”).Los resultados de la encuesta indican que, en general, los encuestados están de acuerdo en que el color influye positivamenteen su comportamiento de compra. Además, la mayoría de los estudiantes asocian ciertos colores con categorías específicas deproductos. Por ejemplo, el color rosado se relaciona principalmente con productos de belleza (54,4%), el color azul con productosde limpieza (43,3%), el color negro con productos tecnológicos (53,3%), el color rojo con comida chatarra (58,3%), el color verdecon productos orgánicos (83,9%) y el color blanco con productos relacionados con la salud (59,4%). Se concluye que el colorinfluye en la percepción de calidad del producto, además en la intensión de compra del consumidor, por tanto, es un elementoútil como estrategia de marketing para la comercialización de productos.
... Kompleksitas desain logo merek mempengaruhi pengenalan dan sikap merek [1]. Warna logo juga memengaruhi persepsi merek [2]. Namun, saya percaya bahwa aspek ini hanya sebagian kecil dari logo, dan aspek penting lainnya yang telah diabaikan. ...
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengisi kesenjangan pengetahuan yang ada, dengan mengeksplorasi keterkaitan antara self-image congruence, brand logo benefit, commitment dan word of mouth terhadap purchase decision. Pengumpulan data dilakukan secara daring dengan menggunakan skala Likert. Populasi pada penelitian ini adalah nasabah di Bank BJB, dengan total responden sebanyak 165 orang. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian kuantitatif dengan analisis SEM Lisrel. Hasil penelitian ini, dapat disimpulkan bahwa actual self-image congruence dan ideal self-image congruence memiliki pengaruh terhadap brand logo benefit. Selain itu, actual self-image congruence, ideal self-image congruence dan brand logo benefit mempengaruhi commitment. Selanjutnya, actual self-image congruence, ideal self-image congruence dan brand logo benefit juga memiliki pengaruh terhadap word of mouth. Selanjutnya, word of mouth memiliki pengaruh terhadap purchase decision. Dalam konteks industri perbankan., penelitian ini menekankan pentingnya meningkatkan keuntungan logo merek dalam sektor industry perbankan. Penelitian ini memberikan kontribusi dalam pemahaman tentang actual self-image congruence, ideal self-image congruence, commitment, brand logo benefit, word of mouth, dan purchase decision dalam konteks industri perbankan di Indonesia. Implikasi praktis dari penelitian ini adalah perusahaan dapat mengembangkan strategi pemasaran yang lebih efektif dan berfokus pada membangun hubungan yang positif dengan konsumen, yang pada gilirannya dapat meningkatkan loyalitas dan kepercayaan konsumen terhadap merek. Penelitian selanjutnya dapat memperluas cakupan variabel dan sampel yang lebih luas untuk memperdalam pemahaman tentang faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keuntungan dari logo merek dalam industri perbankan pada masyarakat Indonesia.
... Color plays a crucial role in people's daily interpersonal interactions and decision-making [5]. Recently, the psychology of color has received attention from marketing researchers [6]. For example, previous studies found that the colors of products and shopping climates have significant effects on consumers' decision-making and purchasing behavior [7][8][9]. ...
The existing literature on color psychology has focused on the cognitive and perceptual processes of colors. However, few researchers have explored the potential role of colors in shaping people’s environmental decision-making and behavior, a crucial issue related to sustainable development. Indeed, recent research has documented the salient effects of colors on consumers’ decision-making and purchasing behavior. Drawing upon the self-expansion theory, this study aims to investigate an interactive effect of people’s color green preference and their nature exposure experiences on sustainable consumption behavior, as well as the mediating mechanism of nature-connectedness. By conducting a survey study (N = 400), we found evidence of a significant interactive effect of color-green preference and nature exposure experiences on nature connectedness, which, in turn, promoted sustainable consumption behavior. This study extends research in color psychology by exploring how people’s preference for green colors could shape their sustainable consumption behavior. Also, it contributes to the literature on environmental behavior by understanding a self-expansion process of when and why green-preferred individuals consume in an environment-friendly manner.
... Ridgway and Myers (2014) have linked the red color to the brand personality dimension of competence on Aaker's brand personality scale (BPS) (Aaker, 1997) since six traits (confident (45%), leader (31%), successful, (30%), hardworking (25%), secure (23%), and reliable (20%)) from this personality dimension were associated with the red color. However, Labrecque and Milne (2012) found a positive relationship between the red color and the brand personality dimension of excitement, which also was the expected result. Still, it was not confirmed by Ridgway and Myers' study (2014) about fashion brand logos. ...
This research paper examines the importance and implications of conducting price analysis in a high-tech environment, where technological advancements and market dynamics significantly influence pricing strategies. The rapid development of the high-tech industry has created unique challenges and opportunities for organizations in managing their pricing decisions effectively. By analyzing the pricing landscape and adopting advanced analytical techniques, businesses can gain valuable insights into customer behavior, market trends, and competitor pricing strategies. This paper explores various methods and tools used in marketing price analysis, including data-driven approaches, machine learning algorithms, and market segmentation techniques. It highlights the significance of accurate pricing analysis in optimizing revenue, maintaining competitiveness, and achieving sustainable growth in the high-tech sector. Furthermore, the research discusses the potential implications of pricing decisions on customer perception, brand positioning, and long-term profitability. The findings contribute to the existing body of knowledge on pricing strategies in high-tech environments and provide practical recommendations for organizations to enhance their pricing capabilities and overall marketing effectiveness.
... Ridgway and Myers (2014) have linked the red color to the brand personality dimension of competence on Aaker's brand personality scale (BPS) (Aaker, 1997) since six traits (confident (45%), leader (31%), successful, (30%), hardworking (25%), secure (23%), and reliable (20%)) from this personality dimension were associated with the red color. However, Labrecque and Milne (2012) found a positive relationship between the red color and the brand personality dimension of excitement, which also was the expected result. Still, it was not confirmed by Ridgway and Myers' study (2014) about fashion brand logos. ...
This investigation assessed the question of inter-organizational relations that contributes to synergy as well as factors undermining the employees’ efforts to act collaboratively and create synergistic effect. If synergy is well handled, it can create added value and lead to a sustained competitive advantage. A survey was designed to uncover if synergy is being challenged by specific factors. The results of this study show that factors such as teamwork, collaboration, and knowledge sharing are positively related with synergy and creation of competitive advantage. Taken together, the findings from this study suggest that the effects of synergy continue to persist beyond the interaction to form and inspire a formidable competitive advantage that endures over time. It is expected that findings will contribute to describe the ways through which organizational development is related to creating distinctive capabilities and to confirm that the greater the interplay of factors, the greater the competitive positioning and sustainability of an organization.
... Ridgway and Myers (2014) have linked the red color to the brand personality dimension of competence on Aaker's brand personality scale (BPS) (Aaker, 1997) since six traits (confident (45%), leader (31%), successful, (30%), hardworking (25%), secure (23%), and reliable (20%)) from this personality dimension were associated with the red color. However, Labrecque and Milne (2012) found a positive relationship between the red color and the brand personality dimension of excitement, which also was the expected result. Still, it was not confirmed by Ridgway and Myers' study (2014) about fashion brand logos. ...
The issue of trade liquidity analysis is continuously current, significant and complex. Starting from that, this paper analyzes the liquidity of Serbian trade for the period 2013 - 2021 based on ratio analysis, regression analysis and the MARCOS method. The aim and purpose of this is to identify key factors in the function of improving the liquidity of Serbian trade by controlling them more effectively. In this particular case, the coefficient of determination is high at the level of statistical significance ( Adjusted R Square .995; Sig. F Change .004). According to the regression analysis, the influence of certain factors on trade liquidity in Serbia is different. Important factors in this particular case include the size of the company and efficiency. Their effective control can influence the achievement of the target liquidity of trade in Serbia. According to the results of the MARCOS method, the best liquidity of trade in Serbia was in 2021. The following are: 2019, 2018, 2020, 2017, 2016, 2013, 2015 and 2014. Effective management of working capital and sources of their financing can, among other things, influence the achievement of the target liquidity of trade in Serbia.
... Ridgway and Myers (2014) have linked the red color to the brand personality dimension of competence on Aaker's brand personality scale (BPS) (Aaker, 1997) since six traits (confident (45%), leader (31%), successful, (30%), hardworking (25%), secure (23%), and reliable (20%)) from this personality dimension were associated with the red color. However, Labrecque and Milne (2012) found a positive relationship between the red color and the brand personality dimension of excitement, which also was the expected result. Still, it was not confirmed by Ridgway and Myers' study (2014) about fashion brand logos. ...
This paper examines the challenges and perspectives of SMEs in North Macedonia. The study was conducted through a survey for small and medium-sized enterprises in the country, which revealed significant challenges in access to finance, skilled labor, high taxes, administrative burdens, and limited market access. These challenges hinder the growth and development of SMEs, thereby affecting their contribution to the country's economy. Despite the challenges, small and medium-sized enterprises in North Macedonia represent a significant potential for growth and development, which is seen in their contribution to GDP and the country's employment. To address the challenges faced by SMEs, the government and other stakeholders must prioritize measures that reduce the tax burden on SMEs, simplify administrative procedures, provide export subsidies, invest in transport infrastructure, and explore alternative financing options. Investing in education and training programs tailored to the needs of SMEs will help address the skills gap and increase productivity. The study recommends that the government use opportunities such as the country's strategic location to attract foreign investment, promote trade and create favorable conditions for small and medium enterprises. Small and medium-sized enterprises in North Macedonia face significant challenges, but they represent significant potential for growth and development.
... Fenomena ini terjadi dikarenakan adanya pembatasan mobilitas yang diterapkan oleh pemerintah, yang berdampak signifikan pada keterbatasan aktivitas yang dapat dilakukan oleh masyarakat. (Bintang, 2022;Labrecque & Milne, 2012). Mitra UMKM di Desa Cihideung Udik telah menginisiasi upaya penerapan platform Google Business, meskipun pencapaian dalam 63 implementasinya belum sepenuhnya optimal. ...
Abstrak: Pemasaran digital juga mempunyai nilai efisiensi yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan pemasaran yang menggunakan metode tradisional. UMKM di desa Cihideung Udik, melalui wawancara yang dilakukan masih dominan menggunakan pemasaran yang bersifat tradisional. Meskipun desa Cihideung Udik merupakan desa kecil, seharusnya dapat menyerap perkembangan teknologi informasi khususnya pada bidang pemasaran secara digital karena tidak terlalu jauh dari kota besar seperti Kota Bogor. Pengabdi tertarik untuk melakukan pembimbingan dan pelatihan terkait pemasaran digital di Cihideung Udik. Metode yang dipakai dalam pengabdian ini adalah metode terstruktur, sehingga setiap kegiatan dalam pengabdian ini diikuti oleh para mitra sampai selesai. Solusi pengabdian yang ditempuh terbagi atas dua (2) bagian, pertama penguatan pengetahuan informasi pada pemasaran digital, dilanjutkan dengan pengayaan informasi berkelanjutan dalam pemanfaatan pemasaran digital. Hasil yang diharapkan pengabdian ini adalah adanya peningkatan pemahaman dan pengetahuan para mitra dan cara mengoptimalkan pemasaran digital tercermin dari hasil pretest dengan nilai rata-rata 63 dan ketercapaian pengabdian dengan nilai rata-rata posttest 75. Akhir pelaksanaan pengabdian didapatkan bahwa literasi digital mitra meningkat terlihat dari rata-rata posttest dan mitra berkomitmen untuk mengadopsi digital marketing pada produk UMKM. Kata Kunci: pemasaran digital; metode terstruktur; umkm Abstract: The efficacy of digital marketing is greater than that of traditional marketing. Based on interviews, UMKM continues to dominate in the village of Cihideung Udik using traditional marketing. Even though Cihideung Udik is a small village, it should be able to assimilate the development of information technology, particularly in digital marketing, because it is not too far from a large city like Bogor City. In Cihideung Udik, servants are interested in providing guidance and training regarding digital marketing. The method used in this dedication is a structured method, so that the companions must carry out each activity until completion. The dedicated solution is divided into two (2) parts: the first is the fortification of informational knowledge on digital marketing, and the second is the ongoing enrichment of information on the application of digital marketing. As demonstrated by the pre-test average of 63 and the post-test average of 75, the expected outcome of this commitment is an increase in the partners' comprehension and knowledge of how to optimize digital marketing. The conclusion drawn from the execution of this service initiative indicates a notable increase in the digital literacy of our partnering individuals. This augmentation is substantiated by the observed improvement in average post-test scores. Furthermore, our collaborators have exhibited a resolute commitment to the incorporation of digital marketing practices in the promotion of products associated with micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs).
... Meanwhile, Clarke and Costal (2008) mused over the connotations of color and the emotional significance and effects of colors on individuals. In the modern day, this relationship between humans and color has shaped the way people perceive the world around us, with Labrecque and Milne (2012) positing that within a professional environment, color helps to shape consumers determination of the type of personality that the brand embodies, while also having an influence on the likability and familiarly of the company. ...
Nonprofit organizations (NPOs) are undergoing a gradual transformation to adapt to the demands of the modern era. One of the key challenges they face is harnessing the power of social media and online donations effectively, a task made even more daunting for smaller- and medium-sized NPOs operating on limited budgets. In response to this challenge, an experimental study was conducted, focusing on the intersection of website and advertisement design with principles of consumer psychology. This study involved a scenario-based experiment that engaged 452 participants from the United States. The results of the experiment unveiled a significant and intriguing interplay between the use of color and content in shaping online donation intentions and the inclination to share website links. Crucially, this dynamic was found to be mediated by the perceived level of empathy experienced by visitors to NPO websites, which in turn was influenced by their individual desires for social status. The findings offer actionable insights for NPO managers and designers alike. By aligning their website design with customer preferences, NPOs can cost-effectively enhance their online presence. This, in turn, fosters increased engagement on social media platforms and encourages a surge in online donations, facilitating a smooth transition for NPOs into the digital age. In a world where online visibility and fundraising capabilities are vital for NPOs’ sustainability, this research provides a valuable roadmap for their continued success and impact.
... Color, as a subscale of aesthetics, affects emotional value and social value (Toufani et al., 2017). Labrecque and Milne (2012) indicated that color plays a critical role in stimulating emotional responses and influencing individuals' perceptions and attitudes. Elliot and Maier (2012) found that specific colors could evoke particular emotions and hence influence behavior and decision-making. ...
We perceive color everywhere and on everything that we encounter in daily life. Color science has progressed to the point where a great deal is known about the mechanics, evolution, and development of color vision, but less is known about the relation between color vision and psychology. However, color psychology is now a burgeoning, exciting area and this Handbook provides comprehensive coverage of emerging theory and research. Top scholars in the field provide rigorous overviews of work on color categorization, color symbolism and association, color preference, reciprocal relations between color perception and psychological functioning, and variations and deficiencies in color perception. The Handbook of Color Psychology seeks to facilitate cross-fertilization among researchers, both within and across disciplines and areas of research, and is an essential resource for anyone interested in color psychology in both theoretical and applied areas of study.
Marketing is a battle of perceptions, not products. Perception is reality. Everything else is an illusion. And one of the most perceptive tools a marketer can use is colour. Colours are a pervasive source of knowledge. Researchers for decades have concluded that the wise use of colours can help distinguish products from rivals as well as affect perceptions towards products by altering the moods and feelings of the target consumers. This makes colour a key component of perceptual marketing strategies. Hence, marketing professionals have traditionally leveraged this capacity of colours to mould consumer perception and to draw in customers. It affects consumer behaviour and perceptions, stirs up feelings and emotions, and aids businesses in separating themselves from rivals. According to the different synergistic effects of colour, the perception of how well a colour fits a certain brand determines how well a brand could be perceived by the market. It is thus crucial that decision-makers and marketers are truly aware of the value and impact of colour and employ it skillfully in not only logos or products but across the whole brand identity. With the inherent importance of colour in mind, the objective of this research is to explore how crucial the selection and protection of colour is, for a brand and how colour impacts the perceptions of the consumers towards a brand. By the end, after analysing multiple cases and giving supporting instances, the study reaffirms the correlation of colours & consumer perception for decision making and concludes on the vitality of colour.
Cinsiyet, günümüzde pazar bölümlendirmesinde yaygın kullanılan bir kriterdir. Süt, anahtarlık, telefon veya otomobil gibi çeşitli ürün kategorilerinde yapılan cinsiyete dayalı pazar bölümlendirmenin temelinde, bireylerin biyolojik cinsiyetlerinden ziyade toplumun yarattığı "toplumsal cinsiyet" anlayışı bulunmaktadır. Ancak, konunun önemi ile kıyaslandığında ürünlerdeki görsel iletişim öğelerine ilişkin toplumsal cinsiyet kalıp yargılarının ve bu yargıların ürün tercihlerindeki rolünün yeterince incelenmediği görülmektedir. Bu eksiklikten yola çıkarak, bu araştırmada üründeki görsel iletişim öğelerinin tüketicilerin algılamalarına ve satın alma davranışlarına etkileri, toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında ele alınarak incelenmiştir. Nicel yöntem kullanılarak, doğrudan ve dolaylı ölçüm içeren bir anket formu ile 715 katılımcıdan kolayda örnekleme yoluyla veri toplanmıştır. Sonuçlar, tüketicilerin ürünlerdeki görsel iletişim öğelerini değerlendirirken toplumsal cinsiyet kalıp yargılarından yoğun biçimde faydalandığını göstermekte ve marka logo tasarımlarıyla birlikte ürün ambalajının tasarımı ve renginin toplumsal cinsiyet kalıp yargılarıyla tüketicilerin satın alma tercihi arasındaki ilişkiyi daha iyi anlamamıza katkı sağlamaktadır. Çalışmanın bulguları, toplumsal cinsiyet kalıp yargılarının tüketici davranışlarına etkisini anlamamıza ve segmentasyon, konumlandırma ve pazarlama iletişim stratejileri açısından önemli bilgiler sunmaktadır.
Large language models are enabling rapid progress in robotic verbal communication, but nonverbal communication is not keeping pace. Physical humanoid robots struggle to express and communicate using facial movement, relying primarily on voice. The challenge is twofold: First, the actuation of an expressively versatile robotic face is mechanically challenging. A second challenge is knowing what expression to generate so that the robot appears natural, timely, and genuine. Here, we propose that both barriers can be alleviated by training a robot to anticipate future facial expressions and execute them simultaneously with a human. Whereas delayed facial mimicry looks disingenuous, facial coexpression feels more genuine because it requires correct inference of the human’s emotional state for timely execution. We found that a robot can learn to predict a forthcoming smile about 839 milliseconds before the human smiles and, using a learned inverse kinematic facial self-model, coexpress the smile simultaneously with the human. We demonstrated this ability using a robot face comprising 26 degrees of freedom. We believe that the ability to coexpress simultaneous facial expressions could improve human-robot interaction.
Colour specification can be carried out using different instruments or tools. The biggest limitation of these existing instruments consists of the region in which they can be applied. Indeed, they can only work locally in small regions on the surface of the object under examination. This implicates a slow process, errors while repeating the procedure and sometimes the impossibility of measuring the colour depending on the object’s surface. We present a new way to perform colour specification in the CIELab colour space from RGB images by using Convolutional Generative Model that performs the transformation needed to remove all the shading effect on the image, producing an albedo image which is used to estimate the CIELab value for each pixel. In this work, we examine two different models one based on autoencoder and another based on GANs. In order to train and validate our models we present also a dataset of synthetic images which have been acquired using a Blender–based tool. The results obtained using our model on the generated dataset prove the performance of this method, which led to a low average colour error (\(\varDelta E00\)) for both the validation and test sets. Finally, a real-scenario test is conducted on the head of the god Hades and a half-bust depicting the goddess Persephone, both are from the archaeological Museum of Aidone (Italy).
Covid-19 membawa dampak yang besar terhadap lanskap persaingan bisnis secara global mulai dari bisnis skala kecil hingga bisnis skala besar. Hanya bisnis yang secara kreatif mengubah strategi bisnisnya yang mampu bertahan. UMKM secara masif mengubah dirinya menjadi peka dengan teknologi. Griya Kreatif Private merupakan salah satu UMKM di Desa Wage telah melakukan inovasi berupa digitalisasi proses belajar mengajar dan mengikuti kegiatan pameran untuk menjalin komunikasi dengan masyarakat untuk meningkatkan brand awareness dan menawarkan customer experience baru dalam proses belajar. Metode pelaksanaan yang dilakukan adalah enam tahapan proses inovasi. Adapun hasil yang didapatkan adalah mendapatkan inovasi berupa digitalisasi proses pembelajaran dan masukan dari hasil survei di pameran atas inovasi yang telah dilakukan sehingga Griya Kreatif Private dapat terus bertahan hidup dengan meningkatkan keunggulan bersaingnya.
This research argues that the meaning embedded in consumption symbols, such as commercial brands, can serve to represent and institutionalize the values and beliefs of a culture. Relying on a combined emic-etic approach, the authors conducted 4 studies to examine how symbolic and expressive attributes associated with commercial brands are structured and how this structure varies across 3 cultures. Studies 1 and 2 revealed a set of "brand personality" dimensions common to both Japan and the United States (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, and Sophistication), as well as culture-specific Japanese (Peacefulness) and American (Ruggedness) dimensions. Studied 3 and 4, which extended this set of findings to Spain, yielded brand personality dimensions common to both Spain and the United States (Sincerity, Excitement, and Sophistication), plus nonshared Spanish (Passion) and American (Competence and Ruggedness) dimensions. The meaning of these brand personality dimensions is discussed in the context of cross-cultural research on values and affect, globalization issues, and cultural frame shifting.
This article explores the role that color can play in building brand meaning with two experiments. Without prior conditioning, we demonstrate how an appropriately chosen color for a brand name (logo) can bring inherent and immediate value to a brand. Experiment 1 explores the notion of congruity, showing that it is more appropriate for functional products to be presented in functional colors, and sensorysocial products in sensory-social colors. Experiment 2 examines the effect of red and blue on brands of products that can be classified as both functional and sensory-social, and the ability of color to enhance a brand's desired image. When people know how brands are attempting to position themselves, people consider colors congruent with those positions to be more appropriate.
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although consumers often encounter ads for familiar brands, previous advertising interference studies have used ads for low-familiarity brands. The authors focus on brand familiarity's role in increasing ad memorability and moderating competitive interference. They conducted a factorial experiment varying the familiarity of brands featured in test and competing ads. With differences in ad executions, prior exposure, processing objectives, and exposure time experimentally controlled, subjects displayed substantially better recall of new product information for familiar brands. Their findings suggest that established brands have important advantages in advertising: Consumers should be more likely to recall ad information, and their memory should be less affected by exposure to competitors' ads. The authors conclude with implications for the marketing of new and mature brands.
Consumers use brand names and product features to predict the performance of products. Various learning models offer hypotheses about the source of these predictive associations. Spreading-activation models hypothesize that cues acquire predictive value as a consequence of being present during the acquisition of product performance information. Least mean squares connectionist models hypothesize that any one cue acquires predictive value only to the extent that it can predict differences in performance that are not already predicted by other available cues. Five studies in the context of portfolio-branding strategies provide evidence supporting a least mean squares connectionist model. As predicted by this model, results show that subbranding and ingredient-branding strategies can protect brands from dilution in some situations but can promote dilution in other situations.
This article develops empirically based guidelines to help managers select typefaces that affect strategically valued impressions. The authors discuss the potential trade-offs among the impressions created by typeface (e.g., pleasing, engaging, reassuring, prominent). The selection of typeface can be simplified with the use of six underlying design dimensions: elaborate, harmony, natural, flourish, weight, and compressed.
Music theory distinguishes between two types of meanings that music can impart: (1) embodied meaning, which is purely hedonic, context independent, and based on the degree of stimulation the musical sound affords, and (2) referential meaning, which is context dependent and reflects networks of semantic-laden, external world concepts. Two studies investigate which (if either) of these background music meanings influence perceptions of an advertised product and when. Findings suggest that people who engage in nonintensive processing are insensitive to either type of meaning. However, more intensive processors base their perceptions on the music's referential meaning when ad message processing requires few resources, but they use the music's embodied meaning when such processing is relatively resource demanding.
Purpose
Seeks to provide empirical support for the “brand personality effect”, that is, the direct influence that brand personality will have on a variety of consumer‐driven outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach
Tests a series of hypotheses using experimental research design with 192 subjects.
Findings
Support is found for all proposed hypotheses. These findings indicate that brand personality will have a positive influence on product evaluations and that subjects exposed to a brand's personality will have a significantly greater number of brand associations; significantly greater proportion of brand associations; significantly greater unique brand associations; significantly greater proportion of congruent brand associations; and significantly greater proportion of strong brand associations.
Practical implications
This paper conceptually establishes brand personality and empirically demonstrates the brand personality effect on consumer‐based outcomes. This finding strengthens the brand personality literature and establishes a baseline study for future empirical research.
Originality/value
Brand personality has received levels of research from academics and practitioners alike, but this research presents the first empirical test of the direct effect of brand personality and how it drives consumer behavior.
"Neuropsychiatric patients… nursing assistants… and students… were presented with eight stimulus colors and a list of eleven moods and asked to pick a color to go with each of the moods… . For nine… mood-tones,… significant differences (were found)… socioeconomic differences appeared to be more important… than… either mental health… or… geographical… (differences)… . Certain colors were found to have about the same affective meaning for all groups. In other instances there were sharp group differences in the extent to which they associated a given color with a certain mood-tone." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Typically, the research on the connotations of colors has presented isolated color samples to the participants, and/or restricted their responses to a limited set of alternatives (e.g., basic emotions). In the present study, the participants were asked to imagine their own examples of the target colors, thereby allowing the participants to select their own salient examples, including the context. In addition, a qualitative method, the semi-structured interview, was employed, giving them freedom to choose their own terms of description, and also identify issues which they themselves regarded as relevant. To a large extent, the results were consistent with previous research about the emotional significance and arousing effects of different colors. But this alternative approach also threw light upon more subtle connotations of colors, the multiple meanings of a single color, and also the participants' reasons for these connotations, ranging from individual experiences to cultural conventions and stereotypes. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 33, 406–410, 2008
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization.
215 *Gerald J. Gorn is Professor of Marketing and Senior Wei-Lun Fellow (e-mail: mkgorn@ust.hk), and Jaideep Sengupta is Associate Professor of Marketing (e-mail: mkjaisen@ust.hk), School of Business and Manage-ment, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Amitava Chat-topadhyay is L'Oreal Chaired Professor of Marketing Innovation and Cre-ativity, INSEAD (The authors investigate the link between the color of a Web page's background screen while the page is downloading and the perceived quickness of the download. They draw on research that supports links between color and feelings of relaxation and between feelings of relax-ation and time perception. The authors predict that the background screen color influences how quickly a page is perceived to download and that feelings of relaxation mediate this influence. In a series of experi-ments, they manipulate the hue, value, and chroma dimensions of the color to induce more or less relaxed feeling states. The findings suggest that for each dimension, colors that induce more relaxed feeling states lead to greater perceived quickness. The authors provide triangulating evidence with an alternative manipulation: the number of times subjects wait for a download. As does color, this also leads to variation in levels of relaxation and perceived quickness. A final experiment reveals that color not only affects perceived download quickness but also has conse-quences for users' evaluations of the Web site and their likelihood of recommending it to others.
This study experimentally examines some situational influences on the formation and consequences of two brand image/personality beliefs, pertaining to fun and sophistication (classiness). It experimentally tests McCracken's (1986) meaning transfer mechanisms and establishes that non-verbalized personality associations of celebrity endorsers on these dimensions do indeed reinforce equivalent consumer beliefs about a brand's fun and classiness benefits, but only if a social consumption context is evoked, and only if the brand image beliefs are appropriate to the consumer schema for the product category involved. Moreover, under these facilitating conditions, such ad-created brand image beliefs have an impact only on brand purchase intentions, and not on brand attitudes. Results have implications for the growing literature on different types of brand imagery associations, as well as for future research on the processing of nonverbal stimuli, the measurement of non-functional brand beliefs, and consumer inference processes.
This paper describes research examining the similarities and differences in the effects of color across cultures. Consistent with the literature, Study 1a suggested that cultural differences in hue choice do emerge when there are clear, salient social norms prescribing appropriate color usage, which differ across cultures. However, in the absence of such norms, hue choices reflected people's general hue preferences, which were similar across the two cultures examined. Study 1b examined hue preferences in a wide variety of cultures, and further documented both their similarity and that blue was the most preferred hue. Study 1c provided support for a link between the feelings (e.g., relaxation, excitement) that the hue elicits and preferences, with the preference for blue being linked to the feelings of relaxation that it evokes across cultures. Study 2 showed that actual color choices made in a variety of marketing situations, by managers in ad agencies from Hong Kong and Canada, reflected consumer preference for blue hues. Overall, the conceptual framework and the findings suggest that most aspects of color preference are likely to be culturally universal and applicable across cultural groups and marketing settings. Managerial implications are discussed regarding standardizing versus adapting color usage across cultures.
In designing print ads, one of the decisions the advertiser must make is which color(s) to use as executional cues in the ad. Typically, color decisions are based on intuition and anecdotal evidence. To provide guidelines for these decisions, this research proposes and tests a conceptual framework linking the hue, chroma, and value of the color(s) in an ad to consumers' feelings and attitudes. In an experimental study, the three dimensions of color used in an ad are manipulated using a between-subjects design. The results support the hypotheses that ads containing colors with a higher level of value lead to greater liking for the ad, and this effect is mediated by the greater feelings of relaxation elicited by the higher value color. Feelings play an equally important role in the effect of chroma. Consistent with the hypotheses, higher levels of chroma elicit greater feelings of excitement, which in turn increase ad likeability. A follow-up study found that although managers often select higher value and higher chroma colors, in a large number of cases they do not. The findings of both studies are integrated in our discussion of the importance of value and chroma in increasing the range of options available to a manager faced with the selection of colors in an ad.
This research examines how consumers update their brand personality impressions and brand attitudes after interacting with
one of the brand's employees. Drawing on stereotyping theory, the author develops a framework that proposes that the impact
of an employee's behavior depends on how the employee is categorized. When the employee is considered primarily as an exemplar
of the brand's workforce, his or her behavior is generalized more strongly to the brand. When, however, the employee is judged
as a relatively unique individual (i.e., when the employee is subtyped), the behavior is not transferred to the brand to the
full extent. The results of three studies provide converging evidence and show that the degree to which consumers subtype
an employee is determined by the amount of information they possess about the employee, the extent to which they depend on
the employee, and their motivation to form an accurate impression. The findings have direct implications for marketers interested
in understanding how employees affect the brands they represent.
A substantial literature stream indicates there are benefits to having a favorable brand personality, such as enhanced brand
attitudes and purchase intentions and higher levels of consumer trust and loyalty. Contemporary advertisements and promotional
activities by a host of firms demonstrate a managerial belief in the value of establishing a brand personality that mirrors
that of branding scholars. Yet extant research has yet to fully evaluate the perceived appeal of brand personality to consumers.
This issue is important to managers because it is precisely this level of appeal that influences target consumers’ purchase
decisions and helps to sustain the endurance of a brand’s perceived personality between promotional cycles. This article conceptualizes,
develops, and validates measures for assessing a consumer’s perception of brand personality appeal (BPA). Three dimensions
of BPA (favorability, originality, clarity) emerge and are empirically demonstrated to directly and positively impact consumer
purchase intentions.
KeywordsBrand personality–Scale development–Brand management–Brand extension–Purchase intentions
Several experiments and reanalyses of archival data were performed in which sets of common emotions were mapped onto visual and auditory perceptual stimuli of varying degrees of complexity. Subjects showed reliability across several different experimental paradigms and diverse stimulus sets. Furthermore, the results were reducible to a two-dimensional emotion space of valence and activity, after the work of Osgood, Succi, and Tannenbaum (1957). The perceptual locus of an aesthetic stimulus in this two-dimensional space is hypothesized to provide a first approximation to how the synesthetic qualities of a percept provide a basis for emotional responses to such stimuli. More generally, this direct mapping of percept onto emotion provides an interesting conundrum for theories of emotion research.
The management of buyers’ perceptions of waiting time by service businesses may be critical to customer satisfaction. Although
reducing actual waiting time is important, what managers view as a short time to wait may feel too long to customers. Relevant
literature from architecture, environmental psychology, psychology, physiology, operations management, sociology, and marketing
is integrated to build a conceptual model of how the service environment may influence affect and, in turn, waiting time perception.
Based on this model, propositions about how specific service environment elements (e.g., lighting, color, temperature) may
influence affect and time perception are presented. Finally, a research agenda and implications for service facility design
are proposed.
Although consumers often encounter ads for familiar brands, previous advertising interference studies have used ads for low-familiarity brands. The authors focus on brand familiarity's role in increasing ad memorability and moderating competitive interference. They conducted a factorial experiment varying the familiarity of brands featured in test and competing ads. With differences in ad executions, prior exposure, processing objectives, and exposure time experimentally controlled, subjects displayed substantially better recall of new product information for familiar brands. Their findings suggest that established brands have important advantages in advertising: Consumers should be more likely to recall ad information, and their memory should be less affected by exposure to competitors’ ads. The authors conclude with implications for the marketing of new and mature brands.
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the ''Big Five'' dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality, Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature. In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness). Tc, measure the five brand personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are discussed.
Ann M. Olazábal, Anita Cava, and René Sacasas, EditorsUniversity of Miami School of Business AdministrationEditors’ Note: This is the last print issue of JAMS in which the “Marketing & the Law” section will be published. Future editions of this section will appear as a regular JAMS online supplement via SpringerLink at http://www.springerlink.com/content/120573/. For submissions, please contact the new managing editor, Dr. Patricia Abril, at pabril@miami.edu.DOI: 10.1007/s11747-009-0159-8Defending Single Color Trademarks: A Lesson from the Australian CourtsWoolworths Limited v. British Petroleum Plc (2006) FCAFC 132Byron W. Keating and Tim R. ColtmanIntroductionUnder what circumstances can a single color be registered as a trademark? Australia’s courts considered this issue for the first time in Woolworths Ltd. v. BP Plc (“Woolworths”). The case provides valuable insight into some of the challenges associated with the registration of single color trademarks in Australia and beyond. ...
The author describes the construction of a scale to measure self-concepts, person concepts, and product concepts. Multivariate analysis and multidimensional scaling procedures are employed to develop a 15-item semantic differential scale. Measures of test-retest reliability are reported. Validity of the scale is assessed by the multitrait-multimethod matrix approach.
Although masculinity and femininity are personality traits relevant to brands, their measurement and contribution to branding theory and practice have not been examined. This article describes the development and validation of a two-dimensional scale measuring masculine and feminine brand personality that is discriminant with regard to existing brand personality dimensions and scales measuring masculinity and femininity as human personality traits. This scale is applied to show that (1) spokespeople in advertising shape masculine and feminine brand personality perceptions; (2) brand personality-self-concept congruence in terms of masculine and feminine brand personality and consumers' sex role identity positively influences affective, attitudinal, and behavioral brand-related consumer responses; and (3) masculine and feminine brand personality lends itself to the creation of brand fit in a brand extension context, which in turn leads to more positive brand extension evaluations and increased purchase intentions with regard to the extension.
How do consumers react to various color, lighting, and price point combinations? The results described in this article depict varying consumer reactions with the three-way congruence between a store's environmental cues, consumers' cognitive categories representing known store types, and salient situational shopping motivations. For fashion-oriented stores, blue interiors are associated with more favorable evaluations, marginally greater excitement, higher store patronage intentions, and higher purchase intentions than are orange interiors. However, the results change substantially when the effect of lighting in combination with color is considered. The use of soft lights with an orange interior generally nullifies the ill effects of orange and produces the highest level of perceived price fairness while controlling for price. Additionally, the results suggest that the effects of environmental and price cues are mediated by consumers' cognitive and affective associations.
Marketing concepts such as corporate identity, image, and branding are important strategies for nonprofit organizations. In
particular, brand personality has been advocated by practitioners but has not been empirically investigated in the nonprofit
context. According to social exchange theory and trust, the authors argue that nonprofit stakeholders perceive nonprofit organizations
at an abstract level because of the organizations’ intangibility and social ideals. This study develops and refines a parsimonious
measure of brand personality specifically for the nonprofit context. The authors conduct a series of six multimethod studies
of nonprofit stakeholders to validate the role of brand personality in nonprofit organizations. The results yield four dimensions
of brand personality for nonprofits: integrity, nurturance, sophistication, and ruggedness. Thus, current and potential donors
ascribe personality traits to nonprofit organizations and differentiate between nonprofits on the basis of the organizations’
personality. Finally, nonprofit brand personality may influence potential donors’ likelihood to contribute.
Color is an integral part of products, services, packaging, logos, and other collateral and can be an effective means of creating and sustaining brand and corporate images in customers' minds. Through an eight-country study, the authors explore consumers' preferences for different colors and color combinations. The results show cross-cultural patterns of both similarity and dissimilarity in color preferences and color meaning associations. When subjects are asked to match colors for a product logo, some color combinations suggest a consistency in meaning, whereas other combinations suggest colors whose meanings are complementary. The authors discuss implications for managing color to create and sustain brand and corporate images across international markets.
The authors develop guidelines to assist managers in selecting or modifying logos to achieve their corporate image goals An empirical analysis of 195 logos, calibrated on 13 design characteristics, identified logos that meet high-recognition low-investment, and high-image communication objectives. High-recognition logos (accurate recognition created by high investment) should be very natural, very harmonious, and moderately elaborate. Low-investment logos (false sense of knowing and positive affect) should be less natural and very harmonious. High image logos (professional look and strong positive image) must be moderately elaborate and natural. The authors illustrate the guidelines with real logos.
This study examined color-emotion associations and the reasons for emotional reactions given to colors. Ten fully saturated chromatic colors were chosen from the Munsell color system: red, yellow, green, blue, purple, yellow-red, green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue, and red- purple. Apart from these ten hue groups, three achromatic colors (white, black and gray) were also used. The sample consisted of 98 volunteered college students at a public institution in the southeast region of the US. Results revealed that the principle hues comprised the highest number of positive emotional responses, followed by the intermediate hues and the achromatic colors. Color symbolism seems to be apparent in how individuals associate colors with things, objects or physical space. Red-purple, for instance, was associated with the color of red wine, plum, bridesmaid dress, or the color of a bedroom. Overall, a color-related emotion was highly dependent on personal preference and one's past experience with that particular color.
The degree to which colors are associated with mood-tones was studied by presenting 94 Ss with eight stimulus colors and a list of eleven moods, the word selections of which had been unanimously agreed upon by four judges. It was found that certain colors were chosen to "go with" each mood-tone significantly more frequently than the remaining colors. No significant sex differences in color-mood associations were found. Factors possibly contributing to color-mood associations are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
On hearing 10 brief musical selections for a second time, 243
S's each selected adjectives representative of the mood of each selection. After a third hearing, each
S indicated for each selection whether, during it; he saw colors, thought colors, felt colors, or what color he thought was most appropriate (forced). The colors given for each type of experience were basically similar. Where the mood of the selection was unambiguous, the color reports showed "a concentration in a region of the spectrum which seems related to the mood of the selection." Subjects who disagreed on the mood of a selection tended to report different colors for it. Another group of subjects was asked to associate color names with the groups of mood names (without music). The results here were very similar to those obtained when music was used. When the mood names were given a circular arrangement, the related colors formed a color-circle, in spectral order. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
(
The following abstract of this reprinted article originally appeared in PA, Vol 67:9071). Conducted 2 studies that investigated whether there was a systematic relationship between color and emotional response using 69 Ss (mostly undergraduates). In Exp I, Ss reacted to 3 colors—an intense yellow, a pastel blue-violet, and a cool green with a blue cast—shown in sequence. Ss in the 2nd study were shown a light blue-green, a dark mustard yellow, and a scarlet-vermillion. All Ss indicated their reactions by completing the Profile of Mood States. Results indicate that Ss responded with significant differences in patterns of emotions that depended on the color placed before them. For example, the blue-violet color was equated with sadness and fatigue, while the cool green hue aroused anger and a sense of confusion. Results are consistent with previous research that suggest that warm colors provoke active feelings, and cool colors are sedate. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research on synesthesia has consistently found an association between colors and emotions. In order to try to determine whether the basis for this phenomenon is culture specific or universal, a test to determine color and emotion associations was administered to a sample of Tzeltal-speaking adults from highland Chiapas and U.S. college undergraduates. The results of the color-emotion test indicate that within the limits of translation equivalence color chips and emotion terms show very similar patterns of association in both cultures. These results seem to indicate that the phenomenon of synesthesia is mediated by the universal factors uncovered by Osgood's semantic differential test. The results also indicate that saturation is a major factor in color-emotion synesthesia.
This article develops empirically based guidelines to assist managers in selecting or modifying package designs for achieving desired consumer responses. Seven studies identify the key types of package designs, including the factors that differentiate those package designs, and determine how these holistic designs are related to consumer brand impressions. The selection of package designs can be simplified with the use of five holistic types: massive, contrasting, natural, delicate, and nondescript designs. Sincere brands should have natural package designs, exciting brands should have contrasting designs, competent brands should have delicate designs, sophisticated brands should have natural or delicate designs, and rugged brands should have contrasting or massive designs. The authors discuss the potential trade-offs among the impressions created by holistic design types and illustrate their findings with numerous real packages.
The concept of the transformational effects of advertising is described and refined to provide a definition possibly more useful in empirically studying the construct. Methodological difficulties in testing and using the concept are discussed before proposing projective techniques as an approach which might overcome some of the problems. Finally, a study is reported that illustrates how projective techniques may be used to study transformational advertising.
Branding has emerged as a top management priority in the last decade due to the growing realization that brands are one of the most valuable intangible assets that firms have. Driven in part by this intense industry interest, academic researchers have explored a number of different brand-related topics in recent years, generating scores of papers, articles, research reports, and books. This paper identifies some of the influential work in the branding area, highlighting what has been learned from an academic perspective on important topics such as brand positioning, brand integration, brand-equity measurement, brand growth, and brand management. The paper also outlines some gaps that exist in the research of branding and brand equity and formulates a series of related research questions. Choice modeling implications of the branding concept and the challenges of incorporating main and interaction effects of branding as well as the impact of competition are discussed.
The theory of psychological reversals asserts that there are two levels of preferred felt arousal, one high and one low. Only one of them is preferred at a given time, although discrete switches (reversals) occur from time to time, so that each level is preferred at different times. In order to document such changes in preferred levels of arousal, 75 subjects were asked to make color preference choices at regular intervals during their working day, some for as many as 8 days. The assumption was that different colors are arousing or relaxing, and that color choice indicates arousal preference. The typical patterns of color choices that occurred clearly displayed the expected reversal effect over time and were considerably more consistent with reversal theory than with optimal arousal theory. In a second study, 41 new subjects were asked to respond to a simple mood adjective checklist each time they made their color preference choices. The results strongly supported the association between arousal preference and color preference and also supported the reversal theory thesis that low arousal preference is associated with seriousness and planning orientation (all these characterizing the telic state), and that high arousal preference is associated with playfulness and spontaneity (all these characterizing the paratelic state). Finally, both studies showed that there is a systematic tendency for long-wavelength colors to induce feelings of high arousal and for short-wavelength colors to induce feelings of low arousal.
Prior research has typically grouped color effects into a single class of effects and has ignored situational aspects of consumer responses to color. In the present study, color effects are shown to exhibit different patterns depending on the type of response examined. Further, these effects are described as a function of color wavelength. Evaluative effects are most positive at the short wavelength (blue) end of the visible spectrum, while the activation response engendered by color exhibits a U-shaped pattern across wavelengths. Results of the study support the existence of these two distinct dimensions, and potential applications of the findings are discussed.
This article addresses the meaning of the term brand means by presenting a method of historical analysis and construct definition
based on information in theOxford English Dictionary. The method’s use is demonstrated in an analysis of the original meanings that underlie the term’s usage both as a single
word and in compounds such as brand competition, brand personality, brand reputation, and so forth. Literal (denotative) definitions
and metaphoric (connotative) associations are examined to explain the use of brand to refer to a physical entity and/or a
mental representation. The method is also theoretically grounded in the disciplines of philology (the history of words), poetics,
rhetoric, and the philosophy of science. The historical-analysis method is applied to the meanings of brand, starting with
its original usage about 1,500 years ago and culminating with the definitions used by authors in this special issue.
We explore superstitious beliefs as a basis of product performance expectations and their impact on initial purchase likelihood
and subsequent satisfaction. In doing so, we demonstrate instances when superstition-driven expectations cause consumers to
make purchase decisions that run counter to economic rationality. In the first set of studies we find that Taiwanese consumers
are relatively more likely to purchase a product with positive superstitious associations based on its “lucky” color, and
are more likely to purchase and are willing to pay more money for a product with a smaller but “lucky” number of units contained
in the package (e.g., eight tennis balls compared to ten). In contrast, consumers who do not hold such superstitious beliefs
adhere to the more rational choice paradigm. Next, we show that the differences in purchase likelihood are driven by superstition-based
performance expectations. We further generalize these findings to product satisfaction, and find support for expectation disconfirmation
sensitivity as a moderator of the effect.