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Journal of Sustainable Tourism
Vol. 18, No. 2, March 2010, 191–206
Backpacker tourism: sustainable and purposeful? Investigating the
overlap between backpacker tourism and volunteer tourism
motivations
Natalie Ooi and Jennifer H. Laing∗
Tourism Research Unit, Monash University, PO Box 1071, Narre Warren, 3805, Australia
(Received 7 May 2009; final version received 6 October 2009)
Alternative tourism, particularly backpacker and volunteer tourism, has developed sig-
nificantly in recent times. This rapid development has contributed to criticism of potential
negative effects, notably of the environmental, cultural, economic and social impacts
associated with backpacker tourism. Volunteer tourism, by contrast, has been seen in
positive terms as more sustainable, combining altruistic motivations with the travel con-
cept. This paper explores backpacker interest in volunteer tourism and identifies overlaps
in motivations between the two forms of tourism; 249 self-administered questionnaires
were collected from backpackers within backpacker hostels in central Melbourne, Aus-
tralia. The findings of this study suggest that a motivational overlap exists between
backpacker and volunteer tourists, indicating potential for the creation of volunteer
tourism products catering specifically for the backpacker market. This may encourage
more sustainable tourism experiences within the burgeoning backpacker market, thus
addressing some of the negative criticism of the latter. This paper also discusses the
implications of these findings for the marketing and development of volunteer tourism
products for both the backpacker and volunteer tourism markets.
Keywords: backpacker tourism; volunteer tourism; motivation; alternative tourism;
impact; overlap
Introduction
Tourists are increasingly searching for forms of travel that provide “alternative” experiences
to the mainstream. Two examples of this phenomenon are backpacker and volunteer tourism.
As it rises in popularity, backpacking is beginning to attract some dissatisfaction with its
growing resemblance to mass travel, whereas volunteer tourism, in contrast, can be viewed
as an increasingly sustainable form of travel. The ideals of volunteer tourism are based on
making a positive contribution to the social, natural and economic environment in which
it is situated, where both the volunteer and the host community gain from the experience.
Examination of a potential motivational overlap between these two forms of tourism may
therefore help to quell some of the criticism of backpacking and provide a new market
niche for further volunteer tourism development.
Growing concern with the sustainability of backpacker tourism appears to centre on
both its impact on local communities and its increasingly commercial edge. Many argue
that there is a blurring of boundaries between backpacker and mass tourism (Welk, 2004;
Westerhausen, 2002; Zurick, 1995), as backpackers, searching for greater authenticity,
*Corresponding author. Email: jennifer.laing@buseco.monash.edu.au
ISSN 0966-9582 print / ISSN 1747-7646 online
C
2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09669580903395030
http://www.informaworld.com
192 N. Ooi and J.H. Laing
push further into the periphery and access remote places, thus paradoxically contributing
to their commercialisation (Zurick, 1995). As a result, the once “off the beaten track” often
becomes the path most trodden. The elitist self-assessment of the backpacker as “anti-
tourist” is therefore considered by Spreitzhofer (1998, p. 982) to be unrealistic, given that
their “influence on Third World societies proves to be often more lasting and shaping than
organised, spatially selective package tourism”.
Nevertheless, the significant economic contribution of the backpacker market is
difficult to deny, especially for marginal communities in less developed countries that
possess minimal skills and resources (Cooper, O’Mahoney & Erfurt, 2004; Kain & King,
2004; Oppermann & Chon, 1997; Scheyvens, 2002). As a tourism alternative for small
host communities, especially those without high-quality amenities, backpacker tourism
can contribute significantly to a local region, with spending largely concentrated on
locally produced goods and services and accommodation facilities run by local families
(Scheyvens, 2002). The social, political and environmental contribution of the backpacker
market to host communities is also important. Although smaller-scale tourism may not
result in greater employment, the type of job opportunities provided by backpacker tourism,
including the support of locally owned restaurants and accommodation facilities, arguably
leads to greater self-fulfilment and self-determination for small communities, that are
otherwise dependent on remotely owned tourism (Scheyvens, 2002). Backpackers may also
consume fewer resources through their desire to spend less and thus have a lighter footprint
on the environment than their more consumptive mass tourist counterparts (Scheyvens,
2002). The potential for backpacker tourism to have a positive impact on a host environment
cannot therefore be ignored, particularly where it is closely aligned with the volunteer
tourism experience.
Consensus on the nature of volunteer tourism has yet to be achieved, partly due to
the diversity that exists not only in the people it attracts but also within the concept
itself (Broad, 2003; Callanan & Thomas, 2005; Coghlan, 2006; Gray & Campbell, 2007;
Stoddart & Rogerson, 2004). Encompassing components of travel, leisure and volunteer
work (Brown, 2005), volunteer tourism is generally viewed as involving the payment by
tourists to participate in organised special-interest projects, focused upon assisting the local
natural, social and cultural environments (Broad, 2003). Wearing (1997) describes volunteer
tourism as a mixture between alternative tourism and organisational volunteering, creating
a form of ecotourism involving altruistically motivated travel that is more sustainable
and ideologically divergent than traditional forms of tourism, including backpacking. This
“travelling to make a difference” has become popular in recent years and is argued to be a
new and leading edge in alternative tourism (Brown & Mor rison, 2003). With the ideological
essence of volunteer tourism focusing around contributions to host communities in the
form of environmental, economic and sociocultural benefits, its importance in setting a
“moral agenda” and a “practical route map” (Macbeth, 1994, p. 42) for sustainable tourism
cannot go ignored. Emphasising the development of a reciprocal relationship between
participants and the host community, volunteer tourism has been shown not only to improve
environmental aspects of host communities but also to provide a range of personal and social
benefits to the participant, which include social networking and increased interest in social
and environmental justice (McGehee, 2002; McGehee & Santos, 2005). Volunteer tourism
also provides unique opportunities for intense cross-cultural interactions that may lead to
an increased awareness of global issues and inequalities, as well as the desire to assist in
the correction of common misconceptions and stereotypes, and provide an inspiration to
further correct these upon returning home (Lepp, 2008). These positive benefits highlight
the potential for volunteer tourism to be an increasingly sustainable social agent of change
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 193
through its active examination of the environmental, cultural and social issues facing a host
environment.
Nevertheless, several criticisms of organised volunteer tourism programmes can be
noted, largely relating to their power as a social force within the host community. Raymond
and Hall (2008, p. 531) note that there is a danger that such organisations may inadvertently
“reinforce power inequalities” and thus represent “a form of neo-colonialism or imperial-
ism” with respect to developing nations. As globalised travellers provide external assistance
for the localised “others”, the relationship founded is often one of relativity, with the po-
tential for romanticisation of the “other” stereotype (Matthews, 2008). This supports the
view of Simpson (2004) that volunteer tourism programmes may promote the homogenised
notion of “the other” through simplistic descriptions and limited interactions with the Third
World. This notion is then adopted by programme participants, thus highlighting the in-
equalities between the developed and developing worlds. It is important to note however
that as volunteer tourism continues to increase in popularity, many organisations actively
address the facilitation of cross-cultural exchange to minimise such stereotypes and simpli-
fication of “the other” through methods such as employment of the local host community
and the provision of opportunities for integration between volunteers and locals (Lepp,
2008). Therefore, despite its critics, volunteer tourism appears to demonstrate the potential
for increased tourism sustainability, with its growing popularity illustrating a shift towards
more responsible forms of travel (Raymond & Hall, 2008).
Little, however, is known about any potential overlap between the motivational charac-
teristics of the backpacker and volunteer tourism markets (Simpson, 2004). With modern
backpackers increasingly identified in the literature as engaging in volunteering and other
alternative tourism projects (Matthews, 2008; Soderman & Snead, 2008), this change in
ideology among even a small segment of the burgeoning backpacker market may have im-
portant ramifications for the tourism industry. By encouraging volunteer tourism activities
to enhance the backpacker experience, backpacker tourism may no longer represent a one-
way process of consumption but instead becomes a two-way process of knowledge-sharing
and production (Matthews, 2008). As backpackers tend to be seen as the “trend-setters of
postmodern tourism” (Cohen, 2003, p. 101), creating new modes of travel and influencing
the behaviour of mass tourists, there appears to be merit in examining areas of convergence
between backpacker and volunteer tourism experiences, including common motivations
and demographic backgrounds of participants.
This paper therefore explores backpacker interest in engaging in volunteer tourism
experiences and identifies overlaps between motivations to backpack and motivations to
take part in volunteer tourism, using data collected during a survey of backpackers in
Melbourne, Australia. The first part of the paper examines the literature on motivations
to take part in backpacker and volunteer tourism experiences. This is then followed by a
methodology section, an examination of results and an analysis of their implications for the
marketing of these experiences and for sustainable tourism development.
Backpacker and volunteer tourism motivations
Backpacker tourism motivations
The term “backpacker” has been widely used throughout academic research, despite the
lack of consensus existing among researchers on its actual meaning. At one end of the spec-
trum, it has been defined by Tourism Research Australia (2006, p. 1) as simply “a person
that spends one or more nights in either backpacker or hostel accommodation”. More
194 N. Ooi and J.H. Laing
complex and inclusive definitions have also been developed, such as the social criteria
for backpackers by Pearce (1990), which defines backpackers as predominantly young
travellers on extended holidays with a preference for budget accommodation, a flexible
and informal travel itinerary and an emphasis on meeting people and participating in a
range of activities. However, the temptation to refer to backpacking as a homogeneous
phenomenon, a temptation noted by Cohen (2003), fails to recognise the inherent diver-
sity among backpackers, which extends not only to demographic and travel characteristics
but also to backpacker motivations. This paper therefore adopts the Tourism Research
Australia (2006) definition, in addition to self-identification by respondents of their back-
packer status, thus acknowledging the diverse and varied nature of what it means to be a
“backpacker”.
Motivations to backpack are diverse and multi-faceted, emphasising the hybrid nature of
tourism motivation generally (Pearce, 1993). Nevertheless, a dominant theme in backpacker
motivational literature is the idea of travel as a form of “escape” (Pearce, 1990). Supporting
the statement by Iso-Ahola (1982) that people are motivated in their leisure to escape both
the personal and interpersonal worlds, backpackers seek to break away from such things
as the dullness and monotony of everyday life, jobs, career decisions and/or relationship
responsibilities (Jarvis, 1994; Riley, 1988). The stresses of everyday life may also induce
young men and women to take time out through travel, motivated by ideals of freedom,
independence, adventure and seeking new and different experiences (Cohen, 2003; Elsrud,
1998; O’Reilly, 2006; Vogt, 1976). For many individuals, given societal expectations to
return to a role of responsible adulthood upon their return home, the backpacking experience
is seen as a “once in a lifetime opportunity” to experience and explore foreign countries
and cultures (Jarvis, 1994; O’Reilly, 2006).
The motivation to travel and encounter the “unknown” is often also perceived as a
vehicle leading to self-discovery. This quest for personal growth and understanding (Vogt,
1976) occurs as backpackers expose themselves to new and challenging situations through
interaction with foreign cultures and people. At times playing a similar role to a “rite
of passage” (Cohen, 2003, 2004; Jarvis, 1994; Maoz, 2007; Vogt, 1976; Westerhausen,
2002), backpacking allows young individuals to prove themselves by resolving their
own problems and making independent decisions, with successful resolution indicative
of their new-found competence (Cohen, 2004). As they “exit” their normal lives (Co-
hen, 2003), the creation of a new form of identity often occurs, allowing backpackers
to redefine themselves according to personal experiences, as opposed to societal con-
straints (Maoz, 2007). Thus, not only is backpacking perceived as a way of furthering
self-knowledge and understanding, but it can also be a conduit for the creation of a new
identity.
The desire to socialise and meet up with other travellers has also often been cited as
a key motivation for backpacking (Cohen, 2003; Jarvis, 1994; Loker-Murphy & Pearce,
1995; Murphy, 2001; Riley, 1988; Vogt, 1976). This is an integral part of the backpacking
experience (Murphy, 2001), and it is also argued by Cohen (2003) to be even more important
than relations with local people. Also, although not readily admitted by many backpackers,
the desire to travel for status enhancement and improved social standings among family and
peers appears to be a common motivator for backpacker travel (Cohen, 2004; Loker-Murphy,
1996; O’Reilly, 2006; Riley, 1988). As observed by Loker-Murphy (1996), backpackers
desire increased social status from visiting publicised destinations, providing them with
cultural capital to be flaunted among other backpackers or upon their return home (Dann,
1977). As stated by Steinbeck (1962, p. 145): “one [travels] not so much to see but to tell
afterwards”.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 195
Volunteer tourism motivations
Wearing (2001, p. 1) defines volunteer tourists as “those individuals who, for various
reasons, volunteer in an organised way to undertake holidays that might involve aiding
or alleviating the material poverty of some groups in society, the restoration of certain
environments or research into aspects of society or environment”. This definition is widely
accepted in the academic literature as encompassing the ideological essence of volunteer
tourism (Raymond & Hall, 2008). Motivations to participate in volunteer tourism, as
with backpacking, appear to be numerous and multi-faceted. Altruistic motives are often
regarded as central to the concept of volunteer tourism. This desire to undertake a holiday
with a difference (Coghlan, 2006) and give back to the community (Brown, 2005) is a key
recurring theme within volunteer tourism literature. However, as stated in the literature,
tourists’ seemingly selfless contributions to local communities and environments may in
fact be self-serving attempts to boost their own image (Gray & Campbell, 2007; Uriely,
Reichel & Ron, 2003; Wearing, 2001). This tying together of two seemingly mutually
exclusive motivations, ego-enhancement and altruism, labelled altruistic individualism
(Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2002), not only highlights the role of altruism as a motivating
factor but also the central importance of ego-enhancement motivations to volunteer tourism
participation.
The power of volunteer tourism to facilitate personal growth and self-awareness, as
with backpacking, has also been well documented as a key motivating factor for par-
ticipation. Challenging and expanding themselves through interactions within the volun-
teer tourism experience, individuals are able to explore and develop the “self ” through
their altruistic efforts (Lepp, 2008; Matthews, 2008; Wearing, 2001). By assisting oth-
ers, many participants’ perception of “life” and “the world” is altered (McGehee &
Santos, 2005), with the individual becoming more “broad-minded, content and relaxed,
and less selfish and psychocentric” (Broad, 2003, p. 68). In addition, the importance
of participating in volunteer tourism to further develop skills and experience has also
been highlighted in the literature. This form of volunteering to help oneself, through
fieldwork, research experience and the enhancement of curriculum vitae, may motivate
participation in volunteer tourism (Broad, 2003; Broad & Jenkins, 2008; Callanan &
Thomas, 2005; Campbell & Smith, 2006; Clifton & Benson, 2006; Galley & Clifton,
2004).
Similar to the backpacking example, a genuine interest in making friends has been found
to be integral to the volunteer tourism experience (Wearing & Neil, 2000). Numerous studies
have identified the importance of adding meaning to the volunteer experience through social
processes like working with people from different countries (Wearing, 2001), interacting
with people of common interests and values (Brown, 2005; Raymond & Hall, 2008) and
meeting local people and experiencing the local culture (Broad, 2003). As summed up by
Iso-Ahola (1982, p. 261) and as is applicable to the volunteer tourism example, “Social
interaction in and of itself is enjoyable and can therefore be the main intrinsic reward of
leisure participation”.
The search for nature, and for cultural experiences, also appears to be highly influential
motivations for volunteer tourists. High expectations for close interaction with the natural
environment and the importance of working towards environmental enhancement through
active and intense involvement for volunteer tourists are seen to be vital elements of the
volunteer tourism experience (Wearing & Neil, 2000; Weiler & Richins, 1995). Through the
provision of valuable opportunities to immerse themselves in local culture and environment
(Brown, 2005; Brown & Morrison, 2003), volunteer tourists may be able to learn directly
from local people and experience their culture (Broad, 2003). Greater understanding and
196 N. Ooi and J.H. Laing
appreciation for the local people and environment can also assist in the creation of the
desired “authentic” experience (Brown, 2005).
With the backpacker and volunteer tourism literature indicating similar motivational
influences for participation, the potential for future incorporation of volunteer tourism
in the backpacking experience has been identified. This paper therefore seeks to assess
backpacker interest in volunteer tourism and explore this potential for alignment between
both market segments, based upon shared motivations.
Methodology
Two hundred and forty-nine self-administered questionnaires were collected from back-
packers located in and around Melbourne’s central business district (CBD) during the June–
July period of 2008. Ten hostels were selected for participation according to size, location
and popularity, as determined by popular booking agents such as www.hostelbookers.com
and www.hostelworld.com, with seven hostels agreeing to participate. Large, popular hos-
tels distributed both across the CBD and on its periphery were selected with a view to
gaining the broadest possible snapshot of the Melbourne backpacker population. A mini-
mum sample of 20 backpacker respondents was taken from each of the hostels to ensure that
any potential differences between backpackers from the various hostels were minimised.
All respondents were self-identified to be backpackers. This was verified through direct
questioning by a researcher, to ensure that only backpackers and not other hostel guests
took part in this study.
The questionnaire consisted of three sections addressing the following: (1) backpacker
demographics and travel characteristics, (2) backpacker motivations and (3) volunteer
tourism motivations. A copy of the questionnaire can be found on the online version of this
paper. A Likert scale was used to elicit information from 31 items, each addressing different
identified backpacker and volunteer tourism motivations on the following five-point scale:
1=“strongly disagree”, 2 =“disagree”, 3 =“neither agree nor disagree”, 4 =“agree”
and 5 =“strongly agree”. These motivational items were identified and selected through
careful analysis of existing academic literature specific to backpacker and volunteer tourism
motivations. Completion of the entire questionnaire was optional, with those backpackers
not interested in volunteer tourism participation required to skip over the relevant section.
Interest to participate in volunteer tourism was identified through the use of a yes/no
screening question, with volunteer tourism described as “an activity where people pay to
volunteer on projects. The main purpose of the trip is not necessarily to volunteer, however
some time is spent volunteering at a destination”. An example of a volunteer tourism
project was also provided. Of the total 249 respondents, 142 (57%) completed the entire
questionnaire, with the remaining 107 completing only the sections relating directly to
backpacking and backpacker motivations.
Results
Demographic and travel characteristics of the backpacker sample indicate a relatively even
gender split, with 53% of the respondents females and the remaining 47% males. All
respondents were aged between 18 and 35 years, with 71.5% between 18 and 24 years.
While 21 different nationalities were identified in this study, the majority of backpacker
respondents (53.8%) were of British or Irish nationality. Education levels were found to
vary between secondary school completion and the attainment of a university bachelor’s
degree or higher qualification. Median backpacker trip length was found to be 40 weeks,
with 33.2% of backpackers planning on travelling for 52 weeks (one year). The majority
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 197
of respondents (60.8%) stated that this current backpacking trip was the first that they had
undertaken.
Backpacker interest in volunteer tourism was determined to exist, with the majority
(57%) of respondents stating that they were motivated to participate in volunteer tourism.
Backpacker respondents can therefore be grouped into two separate categories: Group 1
respondents (those respondents motivated only to backpack) and Group 2 respondents
(those respondents motivated to participate in both backpacking and volunteer tourism).
Key motivations for backpacker participation in volunteer tourism (Group 2 respondents)
are shown in Table 1.
Motivations to backpack were also identified in Table 2 to provide a basis of comparison
with the identified backpacker motivations to participate in volunteer tourism.
Table 1. Mean and standard deviation scores: backpacker motivations for volunteer tourism
participation.
Rank
order Volunteer tourism motivational variable N* Mean SD
1 Experience something different and new 142 4.58 0.54
2 Desire to travel 142 4.50 0.80
3 Learn more about other cultures 142 4.49 0.60
4 Interact with the local people 141 4.28 0.75
5 Once in a lifetime opportunity 142 4.27 0.89
6 Authentic experience 142 4.22 0.77
7 Accomplish something 142 4.21 0.82
8 Make a difference 142 4.20 0.67
9 It is a meaningful thing to do 142 4.17 0.72
10 Want to be challenged 142 4.16 0.86
11 Learn valuable life skills 142 4.14 0.85
12 Assist communities in developing countries 142 4.13 0.78
13 Work with communities in developing countries 141 4.10 0.81
14 Enjoy the natural environment 140 4.05 0.80
15 Build new friendships 142 4.04 0.89
16 Learn more about myself 142 4.01 0.98
17 Contribute to the places I visit 142 4.01 0.88
18 Interact with the natural wildlife 141 4.01 0.89
19 Travel with a purpose 142 3.99 0.93
20 Give back to the less privileged 142 3.98 0.83
21 Immerse myself in the local culture 140 3.96 0.80
22 Learn about the natural environment 140 3.96 0.84
23 Socialise with other volunteer tourists 142 3.89 0.83
24 Increase self development 142 3.85 0.84
25 Assist the natural environment 142 3.80 0.96
26 Re-evaluate personal values 142 3.69 1.09
27 Interest in a particular volunteer tourism area 141 3.44 1.87
28 Gain valuable experience for my CV 142 3.35 1.09
29 Enhance my self image 142 3.15 1.08
30 Increased social recognition from others 142 3.01 1.06
31 Recommended by others 141 2.78 1.02
1=“strongly disagree”, 2 =“disagree”, 3 =“neither agree nor disagree”, 4 =“agree” and 5 =“strongly
agree”.
*Note that the Nvalues in the table are sometime less than the total number of backpackers motivated only
to backpack (N=142) due to missing values.
198 N. Ooi and J.H. Laing
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation scores: backpacker motivational differences.
Respondent group 1 Respondent group 2
Backpacker motivational variable Mean SD Mean SD
Fun and enjoyment 4.57 0.65 4.54 0.62
Increase self development 4.20 0.84 4.28 0.81
Recommended by others 3.43 1.07 3.38 1.06
Learn more about other cultures∗4.06 0.83 4.34 0.75
Once in a lifetime opportunity 4.44 0.83 4.50 0.85
Experience something different and new 4.53 0.65 4.70 0.51
Authentic experience∗4.10 0.80 4.34 0.73
Desire to travel∗4.24 0.88 4.58 0.75
Experience the unknown∗4.05 0.81 4.46 0.78
Learn more about myself∗3.85 1.03 4.21 0.96
Explore other cultures∗4.10 0.79 4.41 0.67
Broaden knowledge of the places I visit∗4.09 0.78 4.33 0.72
Learn valuable life skills∗4.03 0.89 4.29 0.81
Rite of passage 2.99 0.97 3.22 1.08
Re-evaluate my personal values∗3.04 1.16 3.60 1.01
Experience freedom and independence∗3.85 0.94 4.18 0.97
Experience adventure∗4.23 0.79 4.47 0.79
Enhance my self image 2.96 1.12 3.23 1.10
Feel a sense of belonging 2.75 1.11 3.03 1.10
Immerse myself in the local culture 3.67 0.94 3.88 0.84
Create a new identity∗2.39 1.18 2.73 1.19
Interact with the local people∗3.95 0.76 4.17 0.68
Experience excitement 4.25 0.77 4.34 0.71
Socialise with other backpackers 4.24 0.78 4.33 0.78
Put off making future decisions 2.75 1.24 2.99 1.39
Gain valuable life experience 4.20 0.78 4.23 0.84
Increased social recognition from others 2.82 1.05 2.96 1.14
Build new friendships∗3.95 0.93 4.22 0.78
Escape everyday life 3.25 1.16 3.54 1.25
Want to be challenged∗3.79 0.79 4.15 0.92
Want to relax 3.95 0.96 3.73 1.07
1=“strongly disagree”, 2 =“disagree”, 3 =“neither agree nor disagree”, 4 =“agree” and 5 =“strongly
agree”.
∗p<0.05.
A one-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to
identify a statistically significant difference between respondents of Groups 1 and 2 on the
combined 31 dependent backpacker motivational variables: F(31, 201) =2.00, p=0.00;
Wilks’ lambda =0.77; partial eta squared =0.24. Although the ranking of motivations
appeared to be almost identical, 15 individual motivational variables were found to be
statistically significant. Table 2 presents the ranking and ratings of backpacker motivations
for both respondent groups.
In comparing the motivations to backpack between respondents of Groups 1 and 2,
Group 2 respondents scored significantly higher mean values regarding motivations to
backpack for all statistically significant motivational variables. Therefore, a statistically
significant difference does exist among backpackers regarding their motivations towards
backpacking. This indicates the existence of a separate subcategory of backpackers, who
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 199
Table 3. Mean and standard deviation scores and paired samples t-test: comparing overlapping
backpacker and volunteer tourism motivations.
Backpacking Volunteer Tourism
Motivational variable Mean SD Mean SD t-test Eta squared value
Increased self development 4.27 0.81 3.85 0.84 5.45** 0.17
Recommended by others 3.39 1.05 2.78 1.02 5.43** 0.17
Learn more about other
cultures
4.34 0.75 4.49 0.59 −2.34* 0.04
Once in a lifetime
opportunity
4.50 0.84 4.27 0.89 3.00** 0.06
Experience something
different and new
4.70 0.51 4.58 0.54 2.07* 0.03
Authentic experience 4.34 0.74 4.22 0.77 1.86 0.02
Desire to travel 4.58 0.74 4.50 0.80 1.53 0.02
Learn more about myself 4.20 0.97 4.01 0.98 2.78** 0.05
Learn valuable life skills 4.57 3.44 4.14 0.85 1.49 0.02
Re-evaluate my personal
values
3.58 1.02 3.69 1.09 −1.22 0.01
Enhance my self-image 3.23 1.11 3.15 1.08 .92 0.01
Immerse myself in the local
culture
3.91 0.82 3.98 0.79 −.84 0.01
Interact with the local people 4.16 0.70 4.28 0.75 −1.88 0.02
Socialise with other
backpacker/volunteer
tourists
4.32 0.80 3.89 0.83 6.15** 0.21
Increased social recognition
from others
2.92 1.14 3.01 1.06 −1.10 0.01
Want to be challenged 4.15 0.91 4.16 0.86 −.20 0.00
1=“strongly disagree”, 2 =“disagree”, 3 =“neither agree nor disagree”, 4 =“agree” and 5 =“strongly
agree”.
∗p≤0.05.
∗∗ p≤0.01.
not only are motivated to participate in volunteer tourism but also demonstrate differences
in motivational influence towards backpacking itself.
Results of a paired samples t-test showed that although there are 16 overlapping motiva-
tions between the two forms of alternative tourism, a significant statistical difference exists
between Group 2 responses towards 7 of these motivations to backpack and to participate
in volunteer tourism (Table 3).
The cultural motivational variable, “learn more about other cultures”, rated as
significantly more important for volunteer tourism participation by Group 2 respon-
dents. All other significant overlapping motivational variables rated higher in con-
nection to backpacking than volunteer tourism participation among the Group 2
respondents.
Spearman’s rank correlation (rho) was used to examine the ranking of responses from
Group 2 respondents regarding (1) their motivations to backpack and (2) their motivations
to participate in volunteer tourism. A strong, positive correlation between the rank orders
of backpacker and volunteer tourism motivations was found (rho =0.84, n=31, p<
0.00), indicating that backpacker respondents ranked the factors in a similar way for both
backpacker and volunteer tourism participation.
200 N. Ooi and J.H. Laing
Discussion
Demographic characteristics identified by this paper highlight key similarities among the
backpacker and volunteer tourism markets. Both appear to be young, relatively well edu-
cated and predominantly of Western origin. There also appear to be similarities in some of
the motivations underpinning both forms of tourism.
In comparing the motivations to backpack between those backpackers motivated only
to backpack (Group 1) and those motivated to participate in both backpacking and vol-
unteer tourism (Group 2), Group 2 reported higher scores for all statistically significant
motivations, especially those motivations that can be related to volunteer tourism, based
on the literature. These include a desire for strong cultural experiences that allow for
opportunities to interact with the local people and community and the ability to broaden
knowledge and learn about different cultures, people and lifestyles. As highlighted by
Matthews (2008, p. 115), it is this overlap in motivations that helps to “foster the discourse
of mutual benefit”, which may assist in increasing backpacker sustainability through the
reinstatement of a sense of equality between locals and travellers. It was also found that
increased personal growth and development, with the opportunity to learn more about
oneself through increased awareness and broadening of the mind, as well as re-evaluating
not only personal values but the way in which one perceives “life” and the “world”, were
rated as significantly more influential than other motivational factors. This grappling with
the notions of “self” and the “other” and whatever lies between can be argued as assisting
in the development of an increasingly worldly viewpoint and greater holistic sense of self
(Matthews, 2008).
Study findings indicate that motivation to participate in volunteer tourism does exist
overall among the majority of backpacker respondents. For those respondents motivated
to participate in volunteer tourism (Group 2), the emphasis of a desire to “experience
something different and new” and a “desire to travel”, underpinning both backpacking
and volunteer tourism participation, supports the view that backpackers’ perceptions of
volunteer tourism as a way of creating different and exciting experiences are both akin to and
yet different from the backpacking experience. With backpacking described by Desforges
(cited in Teo & Leong, 2006, p. 113), as the collection of places, individual experiences and
knowledge through the framing of the Third World, participation in volunteer tourism can be
seen as a novel way for backpackers to increase “cultural capital” among others in the form
of travel (Dann, 1977; Teo & Leong, 2006). In addition, participation in volunteer tourism
can be a way for backpackers to receive new and beneficial experiences in exchange for one’s
efforts, a form of “reciprocal altruism” (Matthews, 2008; Soderman & Snead, 2008). Thus,
the ability to satisfy the above desires in an activity that has the potential to provide similar,
but not necessarily the same, motivational fulfilment as backpacking, is acknowledged by
the findings in this study.
Group 2 respondents also refer to the idea of a “once in a lifetime opportunity” as
a motivational influence. As with backpacking, they appear to view volunteer tourism as
a one-off activity to be done in supposed conjunction with their backpacking adventure.
Findings of a desire to “learn more about other cultures” and “interact with the local people”
in volunteer tourism are consistent with the existing literature, indicating that backpackers,
like volunteer tourists, place great emphasis on increased cultural knowledge and interaction
with the local community, as identified by Broad (2003), Brown and Morrison (2003)
and Brown (2005). This again highlights the motivating role of “reciprocal altruism”
where backpackers desire first-hand interaction and accumulation of local knowledge and
experience through volunteer tourism, thus potentially increasing their awareness of social
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 201
injustices and inequalities (Lepp, 2008). Findings therefore suggest an overlap among
backpacker motivations to backpack and backpacker motivations to participate in volunteer
tourism, with backpackers exhibiting motivations for participation in volunteer tourism that
are consistent with the literature.
Although a motivational overlap appears to exist with respect to backpacker and volun-
teer tourism, some statistical differences can be noted. Of the 16 overlapping motivational
factors (see Table 3), 7 are noted to be statistically different. The cultural motivational
variable, “learn more about other cultures”, rated as significantly more important for vol-
unteer tourism participation. This supports the existing literature, in that volunteer tourism
is seen as an excellent vehicle for interacting with, and learning from, local people at a
non-touristic, grassroots level (Broad, 2003).
In regards to the other six significant differences in motivational influences (see Table 3),
personal development influences rate as being of greater importance for backpacking than
for volunteer tourism participation. This is consistent with the existing literature that back-
packing is a life-changing “once in a lifetime experience” that allows for the creation of new
and different experiences while increasing self-development and facilitating the meeting of
new people (Cohen, 2003; O’Reilly, 2006; Riley, 1988; Vogt, 1976). Backpackers therefore
appear to view backpacking as a great opportunity for personal development through the
accumulation of a variety of experiences, while volunteer tourism is seen to be a powerful
social agent for learning and knowledge-sharing of cultural differences and similarities.
The findings of this paper indicate that interest in volunteer tourism among backpackers
appears to exist, and motivations to participate in backpacking appear to overlap with
many of the motivations to participate in volunteer tourism. Differences, however, can
still be noted between backpacker and volunteer tourism motivations, as well as within
the diverse motivations to backpack among respondents of Groups 1 and 2. This suggests
the existence of a large subcategory of backpackers (Group 2 respondents) who not only
are motivated to participate in volunteer tourism but also differ from their backpacking
counterparts regarding their motivations to backpack. This apparent propensity among
this subcategory for backpacker participation in volunteer tourism raises questions as to
whether closer alignment with the volunteer tourism segment may add increasing purpose
and sustainability to the backpacker experience.
Backpacker tourism – sustainable and purposeful?
The identification of backpacker interest in volunteer tourism in this paper highlights the
potential for development in a new direction for backpacker tourism. Displaying similar
demographic and motivational characteristics to volunteer tourism participants, and with
some backpackers exhibiting similar motivational influences as young volunteer tourists,
the incorporation of volunteer tourism into the backpacking experience may help to shape
backpacking in an increasingly beneficial and sustainable way.
As criticism of backpacker tourism often highlights the power of backpackers to
influence travel patterns (Cohen, 2003) and create tourist destinations in previously
peripheral locations in an unsustainable way (Zurick, 1995), calls for more accountability
and for increased sustainability of backpacking are becoming more widespread. Inclusion
of volunteer tourism within the backpacker experience may facilitate sustainability through
the process of assisting the local communities and people upon whom backpacker tourism
strongly relies while providing authentic and meaningful experiences for the individual
backpacker. Sustainability goals, covering environmental, economic and sociocultural di-
mensions, might therefore be achieved through a variety of means, including the following:
202 N. Ooi and J.H. Laing
(1) finding ways to increase the financial benefits accruing to participating host communi-
ties, (2) helping to restore and protect natural environments and wildlife via conservation
efforts and (3) sharing knowledge and experience accumulation that not only addresses
the motivational needs of backpacker participants but potentially leads to increased social
awareness and activism, both within the host environment and upon their return home,
based on a deeper understanding of cultural richness/diversity and issues of social inequity.
Findings highlighted in this paper suggest that backpacker tourism is ideally suited and
positioned to embrace sustainable development and volunteer tourism opportunities due to
motivational and demographic overlaps. Backpacker alignment with volunteer tourism may
therefore facilitate the promotion of volunteer tourism on a broader platform, encouraging
altruistic travel experiences among a more diverse tourism audience. As stated by Wearing
(1997, p. 62), volunteer tourism demonstrates the potential to be a positive mechanism
for change, especially within developing countries, by providing an alternative tourist
experience that is able to “effectively meet some of the concerns raised by destination
communities about the impact of tourism”. With backpackers often paving the way for
conventional tourists (Welk, 2004), future alignment and interaction between the backpacker
and volunteer tourism markets may prove beneficial for the tourism industry as a whole.
This paper acknowledges several limitations that may have an effect on the outcomes
of the research. Despite the large sample size of respondents used, representation of the
entire backpacker market is not assumed, given the potential for non-response bias. The
issues of seasonality, geographic location and time frame must also be considered for their
impact on the backpacker sample collected. Furthermore, this study only explores those
backpacker and volunteer tourism motivations that have been identified in the existing
academic literature. As past research has not yet been undertaken exclusively in regard to
backpacker motivations to participate in volunteer tourism, key motivations for participation
may exist that have not been previously recognised and are therefore not explored in this
research. The possibility for sampling bias through the application of non-probability
sampling techniques must also be considered, as well as the potential for response error
from respondents. Nonetheless, this paper represents a useful starting point for future
research examining overlaps between motivations for backpacking and volunteer tourism.
Conclusion
The development of the alternative tourism market has significantly increased in recent
times, in particular regarding the volunteer and backpacker markets. While global growth
in backpacker and volunteer tourism is hard to quantify, due to the lack of maintainence
of statistics by many countries (O’Reilly, 2006; Wearing, 2001), we have some guidance,
for example, from Australian International arrivals data, which reveal that the number of
international backpackers to Australia has risen almost 98% (from approximately 248,000
to over 488,000) during the period 1996 to 2005 (Peel & Steen, 2007). Growth in the
international volunteer tourism market, while similarly difficult to verify, is said to be
“substantial and increasing” (Campbell & Smith, 2006, p. 84). Accompanying this recent
growth, much research to date has focused upon the separate motivations for both volun-
teer and backpacker tourist experiences, without considering the potential similarities and
overlap of motivations that may exist between these two forms of alternative tourism. This
paper attempts to bridge this gap by exploring the existence of backpacker motivations to
participate in volunteer tourism. This research identifies the presence of motivation among
backpackers to participate in volunteer tourism, as well as overlapping similarities in moti-
vations for backpacker and volunteer tourism participation. It therefore makes a theoretical
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 203
contribution by expanding our understanding of tourist motivations. Findings suggest that
there is an inclination for backpackers to be volunteer tourism participants and point the
way towards a new and increasingly sustainable market niche.
This paper suggests a number of practical implications for the marketing and develop-
ment of the volunteer tourism product that could address the motivational overlap between
backpacker and volunteer tourists. Increased attention towards the market segmentation of
Group 2 backpacker respondents could help to improve marketing effectiveness, with this
subcategory appearing to differ from their Group 1 backpacker counterparts, primarily re-
garding their motivations. New backpacking activities and products could be developed by
backpacking organisations to specifically address distinct motivating factors as “learning
about other cultures” and “interacting with the local people”. Furthermore, greater access
or provision of volunteer tourism activities, or even activities that more closely address the
cultural and local interaction motivations identified in this paper, may provide greater op-
tions for this subcategory of backpackers. Backpacker hostels could assist local community
groups and organisations through the creation of a variety of short- and long-term volunteer
programmes to cater to the interests of this subcategory of backpackers while also provid-
ing the labour and human assistance often required by these community groups. Low-cost
networks such as World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms (WWOOF), an international
movement dedicated to the promotion and sharing of sustainable living, could benefit from
increased backpacker participation, which in turn assists local farmers and communities
around the world. By tailoring volunteer products and developments specifically to the key
motivations for both backpacker and volunteer tourism participation, volunteer tourism
can be a value-adding activity for those seeking new, exciting and different backpacking
experiences.
Volunteer tourism organisations can also encourage participation in the backpacker
market through the creation of programmes specifically tailored to the demographics, travel
characteristics and motivations of backpackers, as distinct from the more recognised youth
volunteer tourism market. This study suggests that backpacker respondents interested in
volunteer tourism view volunteering as primarily a one-off opportunity. Incorporating the
volunteer tourism experience into the backpacking experience may be a conduit to capturing
more of this market, given that they are seeking experiences that are culturally stimulating,
exciting and novel. By designing volunteering programmes especially for backpackers,
through aligning backpacker and volunteer tourism motivations, viable volunteering options
could be provided while allowing volunteer tourism organisations to target a new market
niche that has previously not been identified in the academic literature.
Increased and targeted advertising and promotion of volunteer tourism opportunities
from both backpacker and volunteer tourism organisations could also further enhance par-
ticipation by backpackers in volunteer tourism projects. By creating promotional material
that specifically addresses the backpacker market, effective market positioning within the
backpacking and volunteer tourism sectors can be achieved, while meeting the expectations
and desires of volunteers. This would assist both backpacker tourism organisations seeking
to extend their product offerings and volunteer tourism organisations seeking to enlarge
their market share by increasing backpacker knowledge on product offerings. Increased
promotion and advertising could take place in backpacker magazines, travel guides and
particularly hostels, being the most common setting in which social situations involving
backpackers occur and thus playing an important role in stimulating word-of-mouth pro-
motion (Murphy, 2001). Providing special deals and discounts for backpackers may also
attract participation through appeals to their budget-conscious nature, as identified in past
research (Loker-Murphy, 1996; Richards & Wilson, 2004; Riley, 1988).
204 N. Ooi and J.H. Laing
Further development of the backpacker product to incorporate volunteer tourism
opportunities, and the volunteer tourism product to address backpacker demographic,
travel characteristics and motivations, may therefore result in a closer alignment
between the tourism markets and opportunities for affiliation between organisations.
As stated by Westerhausen (2002), if managed properly, destinations can provide
a dependable and sustainable income base, whereby destruction by mass tourism
is prevented through the creation of alternative forms of tourism. By specifically
catering to this identified subcategory of backpackers interested in volunteer tourism,
the benefits of both backpacker and volunteer tourism can arguably be harnessed
(Westerhausen, 2002), thus addressing concerns regarding the sustainability of backpacker
tourism.
While this paper explores backpacker motivations and their interests and motivations
to participate in volunteer tourism, further research is required to provide a greater depth of
understanding of backpacker motivations, with respect to both backpacker and volunteer
tourism participation. Increased knowledge of past experience in volunteer tourism and
the degree of backpacker interest in volunteer tourism participation may assist in further
understanding the level of active interest and implications of marketing volunteer tourism
to a backpacker audience. A closer examination of the role of altruistic motivations in
influencing volunteer tourism participation among backpackers, with ranking and rating of
mean scores from this study indicating their importance, is also recommended. Qualitative
research may help to provide a deeper understanding of the more important motivations
and the overlap in motivations identified in this study. A larger sample from a greater
geographic region, and data gathered over a longer period of time, would allow for a
more accurate representation of the backpacker market, thus allowing generalisations to
be made. In particular, future research could include analysis of backpacker motivations
and volunteer interests in developing countries, where many volunteer tourism projects
currently exist and thus have become strongly related to concepts of sustainable devel-
opment (Raymond & Hall, 2008). In addition, research using only the key motivational
factors highlighted in this paper, through the application of a grouping statistical tech-
nique such as factor analysis, may assist our understanding of the central motivations
for participation in backpacker and volunteer tourism. This may shed more light on the
overlapping nature of backpacker and volunteer tourism and guide their future develop-
ment, in an era of increasing awareness of the importance of responsible and sustainable
tourism.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Brian Cooper for his valuable assistance with and comments on this
paper, as well as helpful reviewer feedback.
Notes on contributors
Natalie Ooi completed a Bachelor of Business & Commerce (Honours) degree in the Faculty of
Business & Economics, Monash University in 2008 and was awarded the University Medal for
Undergraduate Academic Excellence.
Dr Jennifer Laing is a Lecturer in Tourism at the Tourism Research Unit, Monash University. Her
research interests include tourism partnerships, links between wine and heritage tourism and health
and wellness tourism. She has degrees in law and business management and a PhD on motivations
behind frontier travel experiences and their implications for tourism marketing.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 205
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