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Social Policy for Sport Events: Leveraging (Relationships with) Teams from other Nations for Community Benefit
Abstract
Recent work on sport events has argued that host governments should do more to leverage events in order to obtain and spread the benefits. This study uses ethnographic methods to compare two cities' implementation of a programme designed to leverage the presence of visiting teams training for the 2006 Commonwealth Games. Whereas one city formulated and implemented a detailed strategic plan to obtain benefits from its relationship with its adopted visiting team (Papua New Guinea), the other made no effort to benefit from adopting a visiting team (Wales). The city that leveraged its visiting team obtained new relationships, cultural insights, and improved organisational networks, whereas the city that did not leverage obtained no comparable benefits. The difference was due to the disparity in strategic vision by the two city governments and the vague mandate of the state programme which had caused each city to adopt its chosen team. Future work should explore factors that foster and that inhibit effective leverage before and during sport events.
... The challenge herein is that there have not been readily identifiable entities where these responsibilities should rest (Chalip, 2017) despite the numerous stakeholders involved in an event. Recent research on sport event impacts has highlighted the need to probe and explore more critically the interorganizational collaboration through which impacts and outcomes might be delivered (Bell & Gallimore, 2015;Christie & Gibb, 2015;Kellett et al., 2008;O'Brien, 2007;Werner et al., 2016). Existing studies within this line of work have focused predominantly on subsets of regional/local collaborations (e.g., Bell & Gallimore, 2015;Chen & Misener, 2019;Misener et al., 2020;Sant et al., 2013). ...
... Prior research on legacy and leverage of MSEs have produced valuable insights into the conceptualization and construction of event legacies (Bloyce & Lovette, 2012;Bretherton et al., 2016;Sant et al., 2013), impacts of legacy (Feng & Hong, 2013;Frawley & Cush, 2011;Smith & Fox, 2007) and/or leveraging initiatives (Chen & Henry, 2016;Kellett et al., 2008), determinants of effectiveness of legacy programs (Samuel & Stubbs, 2012), and governance of legacy delivery and leveraging efforts (Bell & Gallimore, 2015;Leopkey & Parent, 2012, 2017Misener et al., 2020;Sharp & Finkel, 2018). However, these studies have not examined what organizational arrangements contribute to successful leveraging efforts or the delivery of desired legacies. ...
... The focus of this study was to address this gap by providing a long-term process view (from bidding phase to postevent evolution) of the multilevel, multisector, collaborative organizational forms and strategies in achieving a social leverage and legacy from MSE. By doing so, this study extends prior literature on event legacies, leveraging, and multisector collaborative organizational forms (Chen & Misener, 2019;Christie & Gibb, 2015;Kellett et al., 2008;Misener et al., 2020). ...
This study explored the long-term organizational forms that are responsible for leverage and legacy delivery of major-sport events. Comparative cases from the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games and the 2015 Toronto Pan Am/Parapan American Games were used to examine what mechanisms previous host cities have used. The findings from this study demonstrated that important organizational mechanisms contributing to strategic leveraging efforts included frequent collaboration from earliest point; distinction from the OC; the use of binding policy to maintain partnerships; clearly defined roles, responsibilities and guidelines of conduct; and consistent, sustainable leadership. The collaborative nature of these organizational forms provided opportunities for organizations to increase their leveraging capacity. A conceptual framework for leveraging sustainable outcomes within the complex and multi-layered nature of collaboration is also developed as a starting point for organizers looking to deliver lasting impacts from an event, as well as for scholars examining event legacy and/or leveraging strategies.
... The formation of cross-sector partnerships is essential to drawing upon the expertise, knowledge, and resources of numerous agencies (Babiak & Thibault, 2009) and achieving wider benefits from sport events (Chalip, 2017). Given the increased frequency of collaborative action in event-leveraging initiatives, extant research has provided insight into the formation, collaborative dynamics, and effectiveness of leveragingrelated partnerships in pre-and during-games stages (Kellett et al., 2008;Misener et al., 2020). ...
... Latter work began to consider leveraging activities, strategies, and mechanisms for long-term social values (e.g. Kellett et al., 2008). Motives included increasing sport participation in host communities (Taks et al., 2013), contributing to local capacity building and inclusive social change (Schulenkorf & Edwards, 2012), and enhancing intergroup relations and interaction (Schulenkorf et al., 2011). ...
... Economic and social leverage of sport events is a collective activity, often calling for the engagement of multiple organizations and/or individuals (Girginov et al., 2017). A key organizational apparatus for event leverage is the development of partnerships and alliances among stakeholders to coordinate actions, strategies, and resources to achieve desired outcomes (Kellett et al., 2008). The cultivation of local partnerships, alliances, and/or task forces appears to provide 'the most effective impetus for leverage' (Chalip, 2017, p. 414). ...
Research question
Prior research has produced insight into the formation and collaborative dynamics of event leveraging-related partnerships in the pre- and during- Games stages. However, less is known about the evolution of these partnerships in the post-event era. This study aims to examine a post-games iteration of a cross-sector leveraging partnership group: the Provincial Parasport Collective (PPC). Specifically, this study focuses on investigating (1) factors contributing to post-event collaboration; (2) strategies, structures, and leadership mechanisms for the collaboration process; (3) and challenges PPC partners encountered in the post-event era.
Research methods
Core data include (1) organizational archival documents related to PPC's practices, strategies, and structures from 2016 to 2020, and (2) eight first-hand interviews with key representatives of the PPC.
Results and findings
Results show that the PPC's ongoing collaboration was shaped by a combination of institutional field, local community, and organizational levels of conditions. In the collaboration process, the Collective first focused on enhancing mutual understanding among partners, building a collective vision and principles for working together, and engaging in formal planning. In the years following, the Collective devoted effort to formalizing collaborative structures and leadership mechanisms, adding leadership and managerial support, and optimizing communication mechanisms. Despite its progress, the PPC also encountered challenges during the collaboration process, including group size, lack of cross-pillar communication, and changing momentum over time.
Implications
We expect that the findings of this study will shed light on cross-sector partnership sustainability and provide practical suggestions about the tactics for supporting ongoing strategic alliances.
... Smith, 2009). Kellett et al. (2008) have argued 'that there is clearly a need for greater attention to the social value of events ' (p. 117). ...
... The term 'social value' is often used in the context of sports event research (Kellett et al., 2008;Misener & Schulenkorf, 2016) without defining it precisely. On an individual level, social value can be defined as 'the perceived utility acquired from an alternative's association with one or more specific social groups' (Sheth et al., 1991, p. 161). ...
... Following this perspective, we define social value as follows: the social value of a sports event is determined by the tangible and intangible benefits of the sports event generated for the society as well as by the associated costs to be borne by the society. Thus, the social value approach goes beyond the mere measurement of social outcomes and pursues a holistic approach that includes the generation, implementation and critical analysis of influencing factors at the operational and strategic levels (Kellett et al., 2008). ...
Research question
The number of co-hosted sports events has significantly increased in recent years. In view of society’s changing expectations for more sustainability, greater consideration of social concerns and an increasingly critical analysis of sports events, this research paper explores the social value of co-hosted sports events.
Research methods
A mixed-method design was employed. For exploratory study one, 23 semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with senior managers involved in seven different co-hosted sports events. To test findings from study one, 561 spectators of the Men’s Handball World Championship in Denmark and Germany were surveyed. Structural equation modelling was used to test the hypotheses derived from study one.
Results and findings
Co-hosted sports events provide great opportunities for generating different kinds of social value. However, the event organisers are not fully aware of this potential and have no strategy in place to take advantage of it. One of the preconditions for leveraging a co-hosted sports event for (social) value is that people perceive the event as one event. This significantly increases the perceived event benefits as well as consumer support for the event.
Implications
This study extends the knowledge of the management of co-hosted sports events and identifies specific features for delivering (social) value through co-hosted sports events. It is strongly recommended that event organisers develop and implement a social leveraging plan and pay attention to a common and uniform presentation of the event. Policymakers should reconsider the promotion of and subsidies for co-hosted sports events.
... As part of this shift to use events as feats of social engineering, scholars have recently begun to focus on strategically identifying and capitalizing on the leverageable assets of events as a means to foster lasting social and economic benefi ts (Chalip, 2006;Kellett et al., 2008). This perspective shifts focus away from evaluating event outcomes such as social and economic impact, and will allow cities to focus on what they can do to strategically position themselves within the context of more socially responsible, sustainable legacy planning for events. ...
... Leveraging of sport events has been studied from diff erent perspectives: (i) business economics (Chalip and Leyns, 2002); (ii) destination branding (Brown et al., 2002); (iii) social development (Smith, 2009); (iv) cultural benefi ts (Kellett et al., 2008); and (v) volunteer development (Downward and Ralston, 2006). These studies demonstrate the value of a strategic leveraging approach. ...
... However, some such as Gibson et al. (2002) have used scales of physic income to investigate levels of social capital. Others have attempted to qualitatively investigate the development of social capital (see Kellett et al., 2008). However, there remains a signifi cant gap in the sport and social capital literature addressing the concept empirically. ...
This book was conceived to fill a gap in the study of events and festivity with a research-oriented events management text. The book focuses on exposing underpinning theoretical frameworks and draws upon international case studies to help explain various event phenomena. It intentionally considers events from a research perspective, generating insights into the principal methodological approaches employed to produce empirical data while drawing attention to the future research needs of the field of event management. The book begins with an exploration of the social issues, impacts and developments in events research; it then moves on to analysing economic and management aspects surrounding research into the events industry, addresses issues of technology and tools and concludes with more political and policy-oriented chapters to highlight research into the main debates in the public sector and sphere. The book has 15 chapters and a subject index.
... One of the first studies to consider a partnership approach for event leveraging was Kellett, Hede, and Chalip's (2008) examination of communities that "hosted" teams during the 2006 Commonwealth Games. In this case, the authors profiled two regions that adopted teams coming from away to foster positive social outcomes around participation and celebration in the local community. ...
... Much of the existing literature surrounding event leveraging has focused on able-bodied sport events (Chen & Misener, 2019;Karadakis et al., 2010;Kellett et al., 2008;O'Brien & Chalip, 2007). There is a scarcity of research focusing on leveraging events for persons with disabilities (parasport event ;Misener, McPherson, McGillivray, & Legg, 2018), although other research has shown that hosting parasport events can potentially offer leveraging opportunities to implement social and economic change (Misener, 2015;. ...
... Although a growing number of sport management scholars have acknowledged collaborative partnership as an important mechanism and strategy for enhancing an event-leveraging approach (Bell & Gallimore, 2015;Chen & Misener, 2019;Kellett et al., 2008;Misener, 2015;Taks et al., 2015), much less is known about the process dimensions with respect to the specific formation and collaborative dynamics of a cross-sector partnership built to leverage a sport event. Our focus in this research is to address this gap and seek to understand what contextual factors influence the formation of a parasport event-leveraging partnership and how cross-sector partners strengthen engagement, motivation, and joint capacity in leveraging a large-scale sport event. ...
The strategic formation of partnerships for leveraging sport events to achieve social impact is becoming a critical component of large-scale sport events. The authors know less about the process dimensions related to the formation and collaborative dynamics of a sport event–leveraging partnership. To address this gap, the authors focus on examining the formation and collaborative dynamics alongside the challenges of the cross-sector partnership, the Ontario Parasport Legacy Group (OPLG), which emerged as an important leveraging strategy for the Toronto 2015 Pan/Parapan American Games. The authors found that the formation of the OPLG was shaped through broader environmental elements—including resource conditions, window of collaborative opportunity, and cultural influence—and essential drivers of strategic leadership and consequential incentives. Furthermore, the authors’ analysis shows that the development of the OPLG and its effectiveness in partnership delivery were determined through key domains of collaborative dynamics (i.e., engagement, motivation, and joint capacity).
... The existing literature has highlighted the need for coordinated approaches to leveraging to maximize gross benefits and contribute to the overall festival feel of the focus event (Cashman, 2006;Cashman & Horne, 2013;Chalip, 2006Chalip, , 2017Chalip et al., 2003;Chalip & Leyns, 2002;Kellett et al., 2008;O'Brien, 2005O'Brien, , 2007O'Brien & Gardiner, 2006;Veal, Toohey, & Frawley, 2012). Chalip and Leyns (2002) argued that stakeholders should be coordinated to provide the best possibilities for securing legacies and encouraging the equitable distribution of benefits from large-scale in sport stadia to prompt ancillary industry development (Crompton, 2014). ...
... Chalip and others (Chalip, 2006(Chalip, , 2017Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003;Chalip & Leyns, 2002;Chalip et al., 2004;Gardiner & Chalip, 2006;Kellett, Hede, & Chalip, 2008;O'Brien, 2005O'Brien, , 2007O'Brien & Chalip, 2007) have been at the forefront Delivered by Ingenta IP: 5.10.31.210 On: Mon, 08 Feb 2021 22:12:20 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. ...
... O'Brien (2005) extended this notion of coordination, highlighting the importance of stakeholders being encouraged not only to act, but to act in a timely manner. Similarly, researchers have found that where resources, such as financial and human resources, are not dedicated to event leverage initiatives, potential positive outcomes are often inhibited (O'Brien, 2006;Kellett et al., 2008). O'Brien's (2005) investigation into business leveraging of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, found that "potentially significant business opportunities went unrealized due to insufficient resource allocation" (p. ...
Bids for large-scale sporting events and the accompanying political rhetoric typically include promises of economic development and gains for host business communities over the short and long-term. Although conceptual models for economic leverage of large-scale sport events have been developed, our knowledge of the practical experiences of private enterprise converting opportunities presented by large-scale sport events is limited. In this article, the authors address this gap through a case study of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games. The article investigates the opportunities and challenges perceived by private enterprises across the host city and explores the implementation of existing strategies to leverage benefits for business. While participants identify the general benefits of hosting the event, they struggle to conceptualise benefits in relation to their own business settings. This suggests a disconnect between the legacy rhetoric of large-scale sporting events and the conversion of these opportunities into outcomes by private enterprises in the host city. Against this background, the article outlines a range of practical implications for private enterprise and key areas for future research.
... The leveraging theory has its antecedents in the discipline of strategic management. Event leveraging is a strategic approach to optimising potential short-and long-term benefits from an event (Chalip 2004(Chalip , 2014(Chalip , 2017O'Brien and Chalip 2008;Kellett et al. 2008). Benefits may include economic and business (Chalip and Leyns 2006;O'Brien 2006); social and community (O'Brien and Chalip 2008;Kellett et al. 2008); sport participation (Misener 2015); and or tourism benefits (Weed et al. 2015). ...
... Event leveraging is a strategic approach to optimising potential short-and long-term benefits from an event (Chalip 2004(Chalip , 2014(Chalip , 2017O'Brien and Chalip 2008;Kellett et al. 2008). Benefits may include economic and business (Chalip and Leyns 2006;O'Brien 2006); social and community (O'Brien and Chalip 2008;Kellett et al. 2008); sport participation (Misener 2015); and or tourism benefits (Weed et al. 2015). Knott et al. (2016 further cite benefits of nation building. ...
The chapter analyses the state of MICE tourism and available MICE investment opportunities in southern Africa. It examined challenges confronting southern Africa in its resolve to diversify the mono-cultural regional economy. The analysis was framed within the contingency management perspective. An interpretive qualitative methodology was used to collect data from 60 self administered questionnaires and five in depth interviews. MICE stakeholders were chosen through a simple random selection process. Results suggested that MICE tourism in southern Africa is at its formative stage albeit with potential for further growth. Southern Africa has competitive MICE amenities and emerging as a MICE investment destination laden with immense potential. Southern Africa MICE tourism’s future growth trajectory will depend on the adopted MICE management responsive strategy to the challenges affecting the region. The region could leverage on the Approved Destination Status (ADS) dispensation as a way of diversifying its MICE tourism market. Southern African countries can also re-configure their MICE product offerings and review tourism juristic bodies’ funding model to strengthen and position the region on the global MICE stage.
... For example, a twinning scheme associated with the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games paired the city of Port Phillip with the team from Papua New Guinea. This allowed the municipality to use the presence of the visiting team to gain new cultural insights, relationships and organisational networks (Kellett et al., 2008). Similarly, when the Australian region of Hunter Valley hosted a pre-Olympic training camp, the region used it as a chance for local stakeholders to create relationships with 'Olympic sponsors, national sport delegations, media stakeholders, international businesspeople, and dignitaries' (O'Brien & Gardiner, 2006, p. 39). ...
... The ability to successfully leverage these networking opportunities is highly dependent on the vision, planning and coordination of the hosts (Bramwell, 1997;Chalip & Leyns, 2002;O'Brien & Chalip, 2008). In the aforementioned twinning scheme, another city was paired with the Welsh team, but the vague mandate of the programme and the lack of strategic vision from the host community mitigated the potential benefits (Kellett et al., 2008). Truno (1995) claimed that for the Barcelona sports community, the Olympic Games were a chance to improve its management methods, citing the development of a public-private facility management scheme as an example of this. ...
Research Question
With more transition or developing economies hosting major sports events (MSE), it is increasingly relevant to research how they can impact sport organisations’ capacity in such environments. Using the Gaborone 2014 African Youth Games (AYG) as its research setting, the goal of this paper is to investigate how hosting a MSE can impact the perceived organisational capacity of sporting organisations within the context of a developing or transition economy.
Research Method
Data were gathered through 13 semi-structured interviews. Results are deductively coded and presented according to Hall et al.’s (2003) conceptualisation of organisational capacity.
Results and Findings
Results show that individuals perceived positive capacity outcomes related to skill development, international relationships and, in some instances, material resources. Conversely, adverse outcomes included lack of opportunities to apply new skills, strained relationships, and unmet financial expectations. Moreover, the findings reveal that the AYG generated similar capacity outcomes as other MSEs, but that the relative impact of those outcomes may differ.
Implications
The findings re-emphasise the need for hosts to engage in strategic management to maximise positive capacity outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to investigate the impact of MSEs on sport organisations using multiple methods and settings.
... Gursoy & Kendall, 2006;Kim, Gursoy, & Lee, 2006;Prayag et al., 2013;Waitt, 2003). However, organising of mega-events relies largely upon tax revenue derived from residents and businesses in regions or peripheral communities that are not per se hosting the event (Kellett, Hede, & Chalip, 2008). Subsequently, there is a growing sense that the impacts of event must also be understood from the non-host community's perspective in order to assess the extent of benefit flow or spillover (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002). ...
... Given the scope and size of certain mega-events such as the Olympic Games, their impacts are likely to spillover to regional or distant communities (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002;Liu et al., 2014). A growing body of literature (e.g., Beesley & Chalip, 2011;Kellett et al., 2008;Ritchie, Shipway, & Chien, 2010) has shifted focus towards understanding the perceptions and attitudes of non-host communities that are not hosting the event, but their residents and businesses are often required to support the development of event related facilities, services and infrastructure and to shoulder the post-event debt through tax payment. Some researchers have demonstrated that depending on the city's proximity to the event, residents' perceptions and support behaviors may vary (Ritchie et al., 2009;Ritchie & Inkari, 2006). ...
... Accordingly, social value has become increasingly investigated within sport (event) management research (e.g., Mahadevan & Ren, 2019;Walzel & Eickhoff, 2021). Initial sport management studies largely conceptualized what constitutes social value as social impacts, often applying the term social value to align with the term economic value (e.g., Heere et al., 2013;Kellett et al., 2008). Over time, although several scholars have continued to use social value synonymously with social impacts (e.g., Cook et al., 2023;Grohs et al., 2020;Jedlicka et al., 2022;Kim et al., 2017;Misener & Schulenkorf, 2016;Mulcahy & Luck, 2020), social value is understood as the exchange between social and economic mechanisms Girginov & Preuß, 2021). ...
Social value is the difference between monetized social impacts and related economic investments. Stimulating positive social value is a leading concern and focus for sport event stakeholders. However, insights on this socioeconomic phenomenon have concentrated on social or economic mechanisms, not both, and are siloed to host city residents, largely overlooking nonhost city residents central to events. Thus, we integrated social and economic mechanisms to examine host city and nonhost city residents’ mega sport event social value. Data from 1,880 Canadians revealed varying social values (Vancouver and Provincial = negative; Venue-City = neutral; National = positive). Applying a reverse contingent valuation method, findings confirmed the need to integrate (monetized) social and economic mechanisms to calculate social value. Testing an augmented social exchange theory model, findings highlight residents’ perceptual ambivalence to social impacts and the importance of income to estimate social value. Stakeholders should effectively leverage events for social impacts and reconsider event public funding allocation policies.
... The sport industry is acknowledged as a significant economic driver, comprising various organizations that offer diverse socioeconomic advantages such as job prospects (Barry et al., 2016), social cohesion (Kristiansen et al., 2015), tax income (Matthew 2017), a feeling of belongingness in the community (Kerwin et al., 2015), and community spirit (Kellett et al., 2008). Unlike other industries, actors in the sport industry generate significant tangible and intangible benefits for their communities (Humphreys & Ruseski, 2010). ...
The heightened occurrence and escalation of both natural and human-induced hazards, such as hurricanes, floods, and industrial accidents, have had adverse impacts on community health, well-being, and sustainability. Enhancing community resilience to the hazards is one of the top priorities for researchers and policymakers. The sport industry is a potential economic driver, generating significant tangible and intangible community benefits in region-based resilience development. Despite the community benefits of the sport industry at the community level, there has been limited research that visualized the community-level effects of sport industry on community resilience. This study aims to investigate how the sport industry impacts community resilience in a spatially heterogeneous manner. To achieve the purpose, a geographically weighted regression (GWR) was utilized for conducting spatial regression analysis on a dataset related to community resilience at the county level. The analysis also examined the clustering of 16 distinct sport industries within 67 counties in Florida. The findings of the study suggest that the concentration of 10 sport industries exhibited either a positive or negative correlation with community resilience. Furthermore, these relationships were spatially heterogeneous. Such findings can help sport researchers and community sport policymakers establish localized community sport development policies within regional sport industry sectors.
... While early research centered on strategies to enhance tourism-related economic outcomes (Chalip, 2004;Gardiner & Chalip, 2006;O'Brien & Chalip, 2007a), scholarly attention soon shifted towards leveraging events for social outcomes (Chalip, 2006;Kellett et al., 2008;O'Brien & Chalip, 2007a;Smith, 2010;Ziakas, 2010) and triple-bottom line outcomes (O'Brien & Chalip, 2007b). More recently, the leveraging paradigm has been applied to enhancing sport participation. ...
Sport events must be strategically leveraged if desired participation outcomes are to be achieved. However, uncertainties remain over which event stakeholder/s should lead this process. In addition, there is a lack of theoretical explanation to support the findings from extant studies in this area. This study analyses how stakeholder salience influences event leverage for sport participation, focusing on a case study of an Australian state sport organisation (SSO) and two major sport events. Data were collected through 15 semi-structured interviews with the SSO’s employees and content analysis of over 60 organisational documents, websites, and media reports. Findings revealed that strategies for leverage were ineffective due to demands enforced by the national sport organisation, a highly salient stakeholder. This research provides new insight on the utility of sport governing bodies leading event leveraging strategies, highlighting the significance of stakeholder salience and strategic control systems in achieving desired outcomes.
... Deuxièmement, l'interaction -si elle existe -produit-elle nécessairement un impact social vertueux ? Certains auteurs ont bien montré le potentiel vertueux et les opportunités (Kellett, Hede & Chalip, 2008 ;Ruhanen & Whitford, 2011 ;Heere et al., 2016) (Attali, 2004, p. 71). La discrimination positive comporterait par essence une forme de différenciation qui peut aller à l'encontre de l'objectif final, pouvant même constituer à terme un danger pour la mixité (Bodin, Robène & Héas, 2008). ...
La mixité sociale apparaît comme une thématique récurrente du débat public et le sport n’échappe pas à l’utilisation soutenue de ce terme. Toutefois, si le recours à la notion de mixité dans l’événementiel sportif est usuel, on reste en droit de se questionner sur sa mise en œuvre et ses effets. Cet article analyse plusieurs événements sportifs récurrents, publics et associatifs, qui se sont tenus entre 2013 et 2016 à Paris, au prisme du rapport qu’ils entretiennent avec la notion de mixité sociale. Le corpus de données qualitatif est construit à partir d’entretiens, d’analyse documentaire et d’observations in situ. Que ce soit par le concept ou par la rhétorique argumentative, les événements y ont systématiquement recours, mais les effets demeurent incertains. Il apparaît que la recherche de la mixité comme support d’événement sportif récurrent revêt surtout la forme d’une injonction au regard de la prégnance de ce principe dans l’action publique, d’où sa fonction légitimatrice et ses effets postulés.
... As the host cities of training camps need a strategic plan to benefit from hosting training camps (Kellett et al., 2008), it is imperative to examine PI, which encompasses the personal and intangible benefits of hosting training camps (Oja et al., 2018). Therefore, this study examines the validity and reliability of a scale to measure PI in the context of the 2019RWC official camps. ...
This study aimed to verify the validity and reliability of the scale measuring the psychic income of hosting sport training camps associated with mega sporting events, specifically in the context of the 2019 Rugby World Cup. Data were collected through an online survey, with a total of 188 valid samples (35.6%). Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted with 5 factors and 22 items. The factors were (1) community pride, (2) community attachment, (3) event excitement, (4) infrastructure improvement, and (5) community excitement. A final 18-item-model was used to measure the validity and goodness-of-fit of the scale measuring psychic income. This study demonstrated the scale’s versatility to be translated from measuring psychic income associated with mega sporting events to measuring psychic income in the context of hosting training camps. The indicated scale may help verify the effect of hosting training camps academically and practically.
... Le principe du Smaller is beautiful s'impose aujourd'hui comme une alternative crédible, les très grands évènements étant d'un coût trop élevé par rapport aux retombées positives de long terme sur les territoires concernés. Dans ce contexte et à la suite de Ritchie (1984), qui a été le premier à chercher à identifier la diversité des impacts des évènements sportifs, de nombreuses recherches se sont intéressées aux impacts sociaux et locaux réels de ces manifestations pour les territoires qui les accueillent en dépassant la seule approche économique (Gursoy & Kendall, 2006 ;Kellett et al., 2008 ;Charrier et al., 2020) et en accordant une place essentielle à la notion d'héritage (Viersac & Attali, 2021). Un nombre croissant de travaux prennent aussi pour objet les « non méga-évènements sportifs » (Taks, 2013;Taks et al., 2014 ;Taks et al., 2015 ;Djaballah et al., 2015). ...
Depuis 1970, les Jeux d’hiver de l’Arctique (JHA) rassemblent des jeunes du monde circumpolaire. Rencontre sportive et culturelle, ils valorisent le partage et l’échange entre jeunes de même que les pratiques culturelles et sportives autochtones (jeux Dene, sports arctiques). Ils entendent ainsi participer à bâtir une communauté arctique. Cet article propose une réflexion sur cet évènement et montre que ce type de rencontre, au-delà de son aspect sportif, peut constituer un levier de développement social, culturel, éducatif pour un territoire. Partant, ce texte consiste en une interrogation du mouvement sportif contemporain. En questionnant la valeur publique des JHA, il discute du paradigme sur lesquels les évènements sportifs internationaux sont aujourd’hui construits.
... Therefore, rather than the traditional "build it and the benefits will come" approach, the purpose of event leverage is to be proactive in planning, to create different types of specific event benefits for the host community, and to take strategic steps to make those events sustainable. Like legacy, leverage also presents different types (Byers et al., 2019) such as social leverage (Kellett et al., 2008), image leverage (Grix, 2012), or non-mega and mid-sized event leverage (Taks et al., 2015;Taks et al., 2014). ...
Researchers recognise the importance of the legacies and impacts generated by sport events, both in the host city and globally. In turn, there are many actors who participate in them, both directly and indirectly, and who are affected, both positively and negatively, by them. This research aims to identify and compile the existing scientific literature on the legacy, heritage, and related concepts, such as impact and/or leverage, of sport events. To this end, a systematic literature review was carried out, focusing the search on Web of Science, Scopus, Pub Med, and Sport Discus, where 35 articles were finally collected, in which the sum of 44 sport events were studied. It was identified that the most studied types of events were the Olympic Games and World Championships. In relation to the types of legacies, sport stands out, while in the types of impacts, sport and economic impacts stand out. It can be deduced from this research that, although there is a great deal of interest in the subject, there is still a need to go deeper into the concepts to reach a consensus on them, thus being able to achieve more solid results.
... The resultant model would offer a unique perspective to the innovation process in this context given the limited lifecycle of these entities (cf. Kellett et al., 2008) Additionally, scholars could also utilize this conceptual model to examine challenges sport event organizers experience throughout the different stages of the innovation process and how such obstacles can be overcome, aiding successful adoption and implementation of innovative practices and significantly enhancing our understanding of the innovation phenomenon within the sport event context. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to conceptualize sport event innovation and propose a fruitful future research agenda for scholars.
Design/methodology/approach
Following Gilson and Goldberg's (2015) criterion of a good conceptual paper, the authors (a) provide a review of the central tenets of innovation and sport innovation literature and link them together within a new definition of sport event innovation, (b) expand the field by suggesting several theoretical perspectives for studying this area and (c) visually represent the links between each aspect of our conceptualization in a figure. Based on our definition, the authors also highlight illustrative examples of sport event innovation.
Findings
This paper provides an initial working definition of sport event innovation and offers avenues of sport event innovation research underpinned by various research perspectives (i.e. process of innovation, institutional theory, stakeholder theory, interorganizational relationships and knowledge-based view) likely to prove useful for the advancement of scholarship in sport event management. Additionally, a general recognition of the potential practical implication related to this paper is discussed.
Originality/value
This conceptual paper bridges the knowledge gap between sport event and innovation research by merging the independent literature and conceptualizing sport event innovation. In doing so, the authors provide an advantageous starting point for future research on innovation in the sport event context with a view towards advancing both theory and practice in this area.
... local. En ce sens, ils peuvent permettre aux questions sportives de remonter dans l'agenda politique alors qu'elles ne sont que très rarement érigées au rang de priorité (Kellett, Hede & Chalip, 2008). Cette dynamique n'est donc pas sans effet sur les stratégies des différents acteurs de la gouvernance du sportnotamment les fédérations et les collectivitésdont les relations se trouvent d'autant plus disposées à osciller entre coopération et conflit. ...
Dans le contexte de réforme de la gouvernance du sport en France, l’analyse de l’articulation entre les politiques sportives fédérales et locales nécessite d’identifier les thématiques, niveaux d’échelles, déterminants et enjeux des relations entre les fédérations sportives et les collectivités territoriales. Il s’agit donc de « plonger au cœur » d’un phénomène social appréhendé comme l’une des composantes de la gouvernance multiscalaire du sport. Cette étude s’appuie, dans cette optique, sur une méthodologie principalement inductive (analyse documentaire, entretiens semi-directifs, observations immergées, etc.) ainsi que sur les apports théoriques de la sociologie de l’action publique.La première partie porte sur le « chantier » de la réforme de gouvernance du sport, engagé en France depuis 2018. Elle analyse le rôle joué par les groupes qui représentent les intérêts sportifs fédéraux et territoriaux dans cette séquence de la politique sportive nationale, envisagée comme un « terrain de jeu » fertile pour l’analyse. Une seconde partie s’intéresse aux ressources, représentations et intérêts de ces organisations en interrogeant les moteurs de leur convergence et/ou de leur confrontation. Ces résultats sont, enfin, affinés par une étude de cas portant sur la politique sportive de la communauté d’agglomération de Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines. En les replaçant dans leur contexte historique, politique et organisationnel, il s’agit d’analyser les partenariats engagés par cette collectivité avec les fédérations françaises de cyclisme (autour de la programmation du Vélodrome National et de l’accueil des Jeux Olympiques et Paralympiques) et de golf (autour de l’organisation de la Ryder Cup).
... Chalip, 2006Chalip, , 2014Taks et al., 2015Taks et al., , 2018. However, there is little consensus as to how (and in what ways) events should be leveraged to facilitate a demonstration effect (Kellett et al., 2008;Potwarka et al., 2017;Weed et al., 2015). Recent literature has begun to address this gap through assessing leveraging initiatives from the perspectives of organizations/managers (e.g. ...
Purpose
To explore experiences of youth and their parents who responded to a leveraging initiative tied to a sport event. We examined participants’ motivations, experiences engaging with the initiative, and continued involvement with a new sport.
Research methods
Five parent–child pairs (n = 10) who participated in the event leveraging initiative (of a total of 35) agreed to participate in semi-structured interviews about their experiences with trying a new sport opportunity.
Results and Findings
The initiative seemed relatively effective at encouraging youth to try a new sport but was lacking in terms of fostering continued participation in the sport. Drawing from the transtheoretical model of behavior change, our study revealed that to facilitate continued participation after initial engagement with a leveraging initiative; strategies, support, and resources should be dedicated to the program from the outset.
... 10 Event leveraging could be implemented in terms of value or project commitments. For example, during Melbourne CWG 2006, social policy objectives such as diversity, accessibility, inclusive employment opportunities, and community cohesion were taken at the initial stages of planning as value commitments (Kellett et al., 2008). Social, spatial, and economic inequities could be central to the implementation plan from the bid stage. ...
This chapter examines the impact of mega-events on social citizenship using the lens of critical urbanism. Mega-events are situated within neoliberal regimes of citizenship that are consumerist and entrepreneurial. These regimes exclude communities based on their purchasing power, and robs them of their political subjectivities and social citizenship. The excluded citizens have confronted the legacy of mega-events with questions of social impact through aggregate spending, value-added employment creation, social housing, use of public infrastructure and social services, and power of cultural self-determination. This chapter explores the possibilities of urban regeneration open to active social citizenship through mega-events. The main conclusion is that active social citizenship has to leverage mega-events by means of participatory planning, monitoring and evaluation, research and knowledge production, community mobilization, and demand for direct urban policy, in order to facilitate urban development.
... These ideas align with the arguments presented in this study that CSR, CRM and SM as incorporated in Figure 1 can be used to leverage sport events to reinforce brand images. While studies by Kellett et al. (2008) and Ziakas and Costa (2011) support the social leverage model, Taks et al. (2013) argue that social leveraging still requires a considerable degree of work to achieve the desired means, thus validating the importance of the current study. Chalip (2008:324) Although the general model for social leveraging applies in the case of the current study, the ideas presented by O' Brien and have been identified as either, CRM, CSR or SM as they complement these socially inclined marketing strategies. ...
The aim of this paper is to explore the development a sustainable events risk management framework for the South African (SA) events industry. This conceptual paper has its foundation in current applicable secondary data sources, identified through a systematic review of academic literature. The systematic literature review investigates event risk management and related themes. The documentation of core events literature by custodian events scholars are used to benchmark identified themes emanating from the systematic literature review to inform the development of a sustainable events risk management framework (SERMF). Results highlighted the insufficient integration of sustainable development in the reviewed literature. By applying the principles of sustainable development in an events risk framework, events managers and organisers are capacitated to comply with the South African events law requirements and ensure that risks are mitigated in a manner that can be practically applied. The development of a SERMF may be significant by adding value to the private, governmental and academic sectors in terms of practical application and theoretical contribution.
... An emerging body of work argues that long-term event outcomes depend on the ex ante strategies of event organizers and stakeholders that are implemented prior or during an event to obtain desired outcomes (Green, 2001;Chalip and Leyns, 2002;Chalip, 2006;O'Brien and Gardiner, 2006;O'Brien, 2006O'Brien, , 2007O'Brien and Chalip, 2007;Kellett et al., 2008;Kidd, 2008;Schulenkorf, 2008a). This phenomenon of strategically using the event to plan for the maximization of tourism, business, social, environmental or other types of event benefits is referred to as event leveraging. ...
... O'Brien and Chalip, 2007). Several benefits from sporting events can be identified, such as economic or business (Chalip and Leyns, 2002;O'Brien, 2006), social or community (Kellett et al., 2008;Schulenkorf and Schlenker, 2017), sport participation (Misener, 2015;Taks et al., 2018;Weed et al., 2015) and tourism (Kelly and Fairley, 2018;O'Brien, 2006). Leveraging these benefits for sustainable community development is a central concern of this strategy. ...
Purpose
This study extends the event leverage model and applies the community development theory to explore how event managers can leverage recurring, non-mega sporting events for sustainable socio-economic development.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conduct a survey comprising 6 semi-structured interviews by targeting recurring participatory events in Japan with an average 37.7 years of history.
Findings
The model highlights the strategic objectives (community needs) for socio-economic community development by attracting tourists during both event and event-free periods. Social development comprises three factors: social capital, sport participation and health promotion. Economic development comprises two factors: event revenue and tourism revenue. To achieve strategic objectives, the uniqueness of the event, good relationships with the media and locals, a platform to enjoy the local culture and sport event infrastructure are identified as means (community assets). Furthermore, locals and media are added to the model as key stakeholders, an additional category of the event leverage model.
Practical implications
Event managers need to make efforts to identify local resources and should optimize the event to attract participants and tourists for socio-economic development. In particular, local experience, local products, local culture and good relationship with locals could be key resources to produce sustainable benefits for the local city. The proposed model adding locals and media as key stakeholders could be useful for other similar contexts/future events aimed at socio-economic benefits for community development.
Originality/value
The proposed model extends the theoretical explanations in the literature on leveraging strategies through events to the perspective of the community development theory. Specifically, this study sheds light on community needs and assets for community development in the context of recurring non-mega sporting events.
... This is unsurprising, given the many inter-sectoral and intra-sectoral networks comprised of for-profit, non-profit, and public sport organisations. Examples include federated networks of sport organisations at national, regional and local levels (Shilbury et al., 2016), professional sport leagues (Dickson et al., 2005), community sport networks (Cousens et al., 2012), sport event networks (Kellett et al., 2008;Naraine et al., 2016;Wäsche, 2020), sport tourism networks (Dickson, 2010;Wäsche & Woll, 2013), elite sport networks Lucidarme et al., 2018), buyer-supplier networks (Gerke et al., 2015), sponsorship networks (Wagner et al., 2017), innovation networks (Gerke, 2016), and entrepreneurial/ start-up networks (Wäsche, Gerke, et al., 2017). ...
Research question
This study contributes to our understanding of how network structures influence cluster governance and consequently cluster outcomes. We investigate the relational structure of cross-sectoral sport clusters and how these influence network governance.
Research methods
We employed a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative research data and social network analysis (SNA). Forty-nine interviews were conducted with employees from the surfing clusters in Aquitaine (France) and Torquay (Australia). The interview transcripts were subjected to two rounds of coding prior to SNA on an aggregated actor level.
Results and findings
Findings from both show the core is comprised of five actor types, while five other actor types are peripheral. The French case is a Network Administrative Organisation-governed Network while the Australian case is a Leading Group-governed Network.
Implications
This article contributes to knowledge on network governance, more specifically on network governance in sport clusters. We extend existing theory on network governance by suggesting a fourth, intermediate mode of network governance, the leading group-governed network. Furthermore, our research provides insights for sport clusters, an under-researched context in interorganisational sport networks.
... Based on this finding, organizing committees of sport events and governing bodies should consider how they can support local sport participation by partnering with schools. Partnerships are important because despite organizing committees' responsibility for maximizing the impacts of events (International Olympic Committee, 2015;Kellett et al., 2008), they are often dissolved shortly after the event and unable to oversee long-term plans for legacies . Moreover, sport governing bodies tend to be influenced by governmental policies and budgets for sport promotion (Grix, 2009). ...
Research question
Schools are recognized as a stakeholder in sport events; however, how their involvement can contribute to the leveraging processes remains unclear. This study explores the role of local schools in leveraging sport events for lifelong sport participation.
Research methods
The National Sports Festival of Japan was examined using a multiple case study approach. Six host cities were purposively selected, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with policy-makers and sport governing body representatives of these cities (N = 11).
Results and findings
Nine categories related to schools’ involvement in the event leveraging process were identified. These nine categories were further classified into four themes: (1) need for actions by or through schools, (2) presence of central actors, (3) intermediate outcomes for future promotional activities, and (4) supplemental conditions to amplify effects. Moreover, these themes and categories formed a framework illustrating a positive sustainable circular system that bolsters the event's impacts on sport participation in the host city.
Implications
Our findings contribute to the literature on sport event leveraging and sport development by showing the key administrative role of schools in increasing sport participation through the leveraging of events. For event organizers, this study highlights the importance of developing a continuous partnership with schools to implement the long-term policy for sport event's impact.
... Hence, local sport businesses produce an activity-complex economy in association with community facilities and supporting infrastructure (Budd et al., 2017). Sport entities provide a range of spillover socioeconomic benefits, such as employment opportunities (Barry, Skinner, & Engelberg, 2016); improved infrastructure (Gratton, Shibli, & Coleman, 2005); a sense of community (Kerwin, Warner, Walker, & Stevens, 2015); community pride (Kellett, Hede, & Chalip, 2008); social integration (Kristiansen, Skirstad, Parent, & Waddington, 2015); public health benefits (Edwards & Rowe, 2019); and community commitment (MacIntosh, Arellano, & Forneris, 2016). Consequently, each community has unique social and physical resources that may determine the developmental levels of both its sport industries and community resilience. ...
How to enhance community resilience to natural disasters is a major question for researchers and policymakers. Although researchers agree that sport generates community benefits, few scholarly efforts in sport management have been invested in understanding the sport-resilience association. This paper attempted to address whether and how sport clusters-the clustering of sport industries-are associated with community resilience across locations. To achieve this, geographically weighted regression and visualization techniques were applied to macro-level data regarding community resilience and the clustering of 13 separate sport industries across 3,108 counties in the contiguous United States. The results indicate that, overall, the clustering of 8 sport industries was significantly associated with community resilience and demonstrates the existence of spatially heterogeneous associations in magnitudes and signs of community resilience in sport clusters. The findings of this paper have the potential to help community sport scholars and policymakers implement location-specific resilience policies through sport industry development.
... Because of their social and economic benefits, sports events occupy an important place in the policy agenda-setting of many host communities (O'Brien & Chalip, 2008). In this respect, sports events have been used concurrently to undertake community development projects (Kellett, Hede, & Chalip, 2008;Schulenkorf & Edwards, 2012), improve the well-being of community stakeholders (Kaplanidou, 2012), and foster social capital (Misener & Mason, 2009;Schulenkorf, Thomson, & Schlenker, 2011;Zhou & Kaplanidou, 2018). From a managerial perspective, sports events are also used to achieve strategic objectives such as enhancing destination image (Gibson, Xueqing Qi, & Zhang, 2008;Grix, 2012) and building host destination brands (Brown, Chalip, Jago, & Mules, 2004;Laurence Chalip & Costa, 2005). ...
To date, it remains very challenging for managers to combine different features of sports events into compelling product/service offerings that meet visitors' expectations. Yet, there is a scarcity of research that demonstrates how sport event managers can overcome this challenge, thereby leaving a gap in the sporting event literature. To fill part of this gap, this study used an in-depth bibliographic review to identify features commonly associated with product/service offerings at sports events and then used those features to create a new measuring instrument to examine different service offering scenarios. In this respect, seven key features were combined into 19 service offering scenarios. A total of 2229 responses were collected through structured questionnaires at six sports events in Taiwan. Then, this study used the collected responses to explore the associations amongst the 19 service offering scenarios, visitor satisfaction, and revisit intention using multiple regression equations. After examining the suitability of the models, the best fit models were then depicted with path analysis graphs for comparisons and contrasts. The findings of this study provide important insights on how sporting event mar-keters or destination managers can combine different product/service characteristics to build a set of product/ service offering scenarios and then test the product/service offering scenarios that best meet visitors' expectations and also increase visitors' satisfaction level and their intention to come back.
... This has shifted the justification for hosting mega-events towards trying to demonstrate positive benefits from other features of events such as urban planning [9], or less tangible features such as social impacts [10] and sport participation impacts [11] affecting local communities and residents after the event has taken place. Kellett, Hede, and Chalip emphasized "the need for greater attention to the social value of events and the relationship between events and their host community" [12] (p. 117). ...
Publicly funded sport events are partially justified based on positive social impacts. Past research generally measured social impact for a generic and global “other” with claims such as “Events create new friendships in the community”. These other-referenced (OR) social impacts are generally higher pre-event than post-event and are inflated for both methodological and theoretical reasons. In the pre-event period of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games, we empirically tested OR items compared to self-referenced (SR) items, such as “Because of the event, I create new friends in the community” and allowed projection bias to vary between scales. Results of the experiment between an OR-Social Impact Scale (OR-SIS) and a similar SR-SIS confirmed OR-measures to be significantly higher than SR-measures. While artificially inflated OR scores may be useful for event organizers and politicians to gain support for hosting, estimates based on circumscribed self (SR) are a methodologically appropriate measurement of social impact.
... The idea of event legacy, as defined by Preuss (2007), is distinct from the concept of event impact simply because legacy endures beyond the lifetime of the event. Securing sustainable change is therefore at the philosophical heart of the issue, and central to the legacy creation process (Kellett, Hede, & Chalip, 2008). Understanding and exploiting the mechanisms that practitioners use (deliberately or otherwise) to sustain development is therefore a key step in understanding the process of creating legacy, even if full, longterm evaluation of legacy success is challenging and potentially elusive (Andranovich & Burbank, 2011;Gratton, Shibli, & Coleman, 2005). ...
Rationale/Purpose: With international sport development programmes increasingly contributing to the legacy of major sports events, there is a need to understand how sustainable, long-term legacy impacts may be achieved. This paper focuses on the management of such programmes and the steps that might be taken to sustain them.
Methodology/Approach: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with senior event managers (n = 5) selected from several national (UK) and international sports governing bodies.
Findings: Equal partnership is highlighted as central to enhancing legacy programme sustainability, by explicitly engaging stakeholders in the design and management process.
Practical implications: Recommendations are provided for delivering sustainable international sport development programmes which represents a useful resource for organisations active within this field.
Research contribution: The paper builds upon current sport management literature by proposing ‘best practice’ in relation to the assessment of delivery contexts, and how information gained through this process can shape sustainable sport development programme design.
The assessment of environmental and health impacts stemming from sports mega-events plays an important role in evaluating the overall cost–benefit of the events. This study utilizes microdata sourced from the China Household Income Project in conjunction with a time-varying difference-in-differences methodology. Through this approach, we estimated the impact of the 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games on both air quality and public health conditions within China. The results reveal the following: (1) The Games wield substantial and favorable effects on self-perceived health; (2) The primary avenue through which the Games improve self-perceived health is by mitigating air pollution levels in the cities associated with the Games; (3) The cost–benefit analysis unveils that hosting the Games has led to a reduction of 1103.12 million RMB in residents’ medical expenses, with the improved air quality accounting for 20.15% of the cost reduction.
This study examined the characteristics of host town municipalities that were able to host pre-games training camps during the COVID-19 pandemic from the perspectives of host town population, their collaboration with the private sector, prefectural support, and relationships with the participating countries. The aim was to clarify how non-host cities can effectively utilize opportunities for a sports mega-event such as pre-games training camps.
Based on the results of a questionnaire survey of all host town municipalities, data on pre-games training camps provided by the Cabinet Secretariat, and an interview survey of municipalities with distinctive initiatives, the implementation of pre-games training camps in host town municipalities was determined.
The results revealed that because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the location of the participating countries significantly impacted the status of the training camps in the host towns. The implementation rate of such training camps in each participating country was low in Asia and high in Europe and the Americas.
It appeared easier for host town municipalities with larger populations and access to public and private resources to host pre-games training camps. Prefectural support for host town municipalities with smaller populations made it easier for these municipalities to host the camps. This finding, supported by quantitative analysis, confirms the importance of stakeholder management in non-host city projects such as pre-games training camps that previous case studies have exemplified. It is crucial for prefectures to support non-host city projects through operations that can exploit their expertise and economies of scale.
Residents’ major sport event (MSE) social value is a central topic for event scholars and managers. Despite its popularity, reviews have focused on empirical findings of impact-based studies; not considering resident investments of these studies nor the theoretical underpinnings of this social phenomenon. Therefore, the present systematic review of theory considers investment and impact-based studies to addresses this gap. We screened 934 records, of which only three met all our inclusion criteria. Findings revealed four theoretical concepts to understand residents’ MSE social value: affinity with sport, income, event expectation, and transparency. The combination of these concepts offers a conceptual framework that guides scholars and practitioners to create social value more strategically for residents. Findings revealed the paucity of studies which examine residents’ MSE social impact in relation to their MSE investment and calls for future investigations on residents’ investments and impacts in relation to each other.
The main aim of this study is to assign value to intangible effects, including social impacts, which appear when organising sporting events of various scales in the city of Gdansk located in northern Poland. A survey was conducted to determine the city residents’ willingness-to-pay (WTP) using the contingent valuation method (CVM). The average WTP values, which ranged between PLN 6.04 and PLN 46.34, show that the scale of the sporting event may be important for the local community’s perception of such social impacts as well-being and urban regeneration. However, considering the costs of organising sporting events – including the preparation of sporting facilities – it turns out that it is easier to justify spending public funds for holding smaller events, among others, due to the possibility of organising such events in the same place more frequently.
The purpose of this article is twofold: first, to understand the reality of gender disparities in sport in South Sudan, which has not been fully understood; and second, to examine the effects of sporting event interventions, such as whether they can improve gender disparities in sport. In order to achieve the research objectives, quantitative household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted with Juba citizens before and after the national sporting event held in Juba in 2020. Regarding the reality of gender disparities in sport in Juba, contrary to expectations, we found that more than 75 per cent of men and more than half of women play sports in Juba. However, a breakdown by sport shows that the sports actually played and participation rates are highly skewed by gender; men for football and women for volleyball. Furthermore, it was found that the national sport event intervention increases the probability of playing sport and the number of days playing sport for women more than for men. These findings suggest that the more sport events can be held, the more gender disparities in sport can be improved in South Sudan. In South Sudan, where patriarchy persists, the results show that increasing women's participation in sport may not only reduce gender disparities, but may also entail a change in the traditional social norm to date that women should focus only on childcare and housework.
Mega-sporting events have long been perceived as an exciting way to gather people to attend the performance of top athletes and as a chance for stakeholders to benefit from various kinds of impacts. However, sport events are now facing increasing criticism. The goal of this study is to examine how organizing committees can benefit from the destination image to positively influence sport events’ image and intention to recommend. Based on a comprehensive analysis of the literature the following variable have been measured: destination image, event image, event recommendation, tourist satisfaction. During the UEFA Euro 2016 held in France, 725 questionnaires were collected. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test the construct validity, followed by a SEM to test the hypothesized relations. We found that destination image positively influences event image, and that event image positively influences event recommendation and tourist satisfaction. However, destination image did not have a significant influence on tourist satisfaction. This study points out the need for sport events’ right holders to pay attention to image factors in selecting the host territory since the latter can influence the perception of the event.
Event portfolios are a useful way for destination managers to holistically manage their community’s collection of events and, through strategic integration and common objectives, more effectively produce benefits. However, regular sport events such as those played by professional sport teams in a sport league have received little attention from event portfolio managers and researchers. Understanding the value and utility of sport team event assets can inform the successful integration of these events into event portfolios. This research used qualitative methods to examine how team asset components can contribute to achieving event portfolio objectives. The results have significance for event tourism researchers and practitioners and demonstrate that contributions are largely founded on the focal professional sport league structure, which provides constant content and regular communications with key target markets. Analysis of the findings led to the development of a model on the utility of including team events in an event portfolio.
This article focuses on the Arctic Winter Games (AWG) that, since
1970, have been bringing together young people from across the
circumpolar world. This sporting and cultural gathering prioritises
sharing and exchange between young people and promotes indigenous
cultural and sporting practices (Dene Games, Arctic
sports). As such, the Games’ purpose is to contribute to building
an Arctic community. Furthermore, via their educational objectives
and social aims, they assert their role as an actor in the
development of the territories. This article proposes an analysis of
the 2016 Games organised in Nuuk (Greenland). By employing an
ethnographic approach, combining work on the archives of the
AWG and interviews with participants and Games officials, we
show that beyond their sporting aspect, it would seem that these
events can constitute levers of social, cultural and educational
development for a territory from a sustainable and responsible
perspective. They thus disseminate a model that questions, even
destabilises, the contemporary sports movement, while suggesting
perspectives for its evolution. By examining the public value
of the AWG, we will discuss the paradigm on which international
sports events are built today.
This paper examines China’s planning and implementation of leveraging, using the Beijing 2022 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games, to achieve the winter sport participation legacy of 300 million people involved in winter sport. Drawing upon interviews and documentary data, the authors findings reveal that the planning of the leveraging programme, which was politically motivated, was a centralised and government-led bid to stimulate participation and consumption within China’s winter sport industry. The leveraging programme also served broader economic, social, and political state agendas. The main implementation pathway relied heavily on the existing structures for the provision of sport and education, and, due to a lack of state resources (or facilities), support was sought from the private sector. This study further suggests that state interference to steer the direction and development of leveraging might have served as a double-edged sword: On the one hand, it provided much government-led impetus for goal setting across sectors and departments, directing extensive cooperative efforts and resources towards leveraging. On the other hand, it might not have been the most sustainable approach for increasing participation, due to the overreliance on top-down implementation and short-term policy interventions.
The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the performance of sport tourism associations using BSC. The study population included 114 professors and students that all of them were choosing as samples. To collect data performance evaluation questionnaire of the BSC was used. Cronbach's alpha test was used to determine the reliability of the questionnaire that the reliability for the optimal situation was (α= 0/94) and for the current situation was (α=0/98), respectively. To analyze data, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used and using the software SPSS 21 was analyzed. The results showed that there were significant = 0/94) and for current situation was (α=0/98), respectively. To analyze data, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used and using the software SPSS 21 was analyzed. The results showed that priority between components of this research, and none of the components of the desirable and current situation have desirable conditions. Considering the results, it is recommended to the association it's utmost the satisfaction of its customers with long-term plans of the organization to force advertisers and attract other audiences used.
Research on event leveraging has revealed that certain constraints inhibit the realisation of desired benefits from event hosting. Using qualitative action research methods, this study examined the constraints to leveraging regular season professional sport team events for tourism. The leveraging potential of regular season professional sport team events has been largely ignored – both by researchers and practitioners. This presented an ideal opportunity to examine the pre-leveraging phase with a view to understanding leveraging constraints. The results identified five overarching constraints: lack of collaboration; priorities and resources; perceived benefit radius; perceived tourism potential; and, unclaimed responsibility. We propose a process model to better understand how leveraging constraints emerge and can be negotiated over time. This research is among the first to demonstrate the utility of team events for inclusion in regional event portfolios. It, therefore, builds on extant knowledge by presenting a more holistic conceptualisation of the inherent constraints to event leveraging, and further, provides a basis from which to successfully negotiate these constraints.
In South Sudan, most conflicts take the form of ethnic conflicts. This paper examines the social capital of athletes who participated in National Unity Day (NUD) – 9-day annual national sport events under the theme ‘Peace and Unity’. The paper looks at whether theathletes’ perceptions and behaviours have been changed through NUD and aims to deepen our understanding of the impact of social capital on social cohesion through sports. The paper shows that it isimportant to strengthen social capital such as ‘trust and cooperativenorms’ in relation to other ethnic groups and governments in order to improve awareness of conflict and provide a foundation of social cohesion. Another finding is that NUD became a place where the athletes came to recognise the importance of peace and unity embodied by the event, which allows athletes to interact with different tribes including those who have hostility towards.
This chapter advances the discourse on event leveraging by examining the strategic operations of all-inclusive events that make up event portfolios in order to determine their collective means for achieving leveraging objectives. This shifts the common focus of studying single event types towards a focus on a holistic approach to events within a set portfolio. Cape Town, a South African city with an existing event portfolio was used as a case study. A qualitative research design was adopted where secondary data from prime documentary sources including annual reports were used to supplement and support in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted with key industry stakeholders involved in sports and destination branding organisations. A thematic review of the results revealed the importance of a balanced event portfolio that promotes cohesion and synergy of events of all scopes and sizes for the realisation of wide-ranging leveraging benefits. The application of a conceptual model for event leveraging within the developing destination context revealed the inclusion of additional strategic objectives to what is generally advocated through event leveraging practice.
Fashion events have the particularity of adding recognition and value to host cities, which is reflected in a competitive advantage over competing destinations. However, the tourism of fashion events is not properly valued by the tourism industry, and therefore, this investigation aims to deepen scientific knowledge about this tourism segment. The general objective of this study is to understand the role of fashion events in the northern region of Portugal, in general, and in the city of Porto as tourism destinations. The selected instrument for data collection was the semi-structured interviews, which were conducted with three representatives of DMO’s. Respondents believe those fashion events held in the city of Porto would be more advantageous for the tourism sector if they were promoted on a wider scale; fashion events have the ability to add value to the city of Porto and are directly related to its image and the personality of the city and its active, cultured and cosmopolitan lifestyle; there is a general concern, by the organization of these events, for the valorisation of tourist resources and emblematic places of the city. Finally, respondents recognize that the participants of the fashion events, in addition to the innovation, presentation, organization and experience of the events, value Portugal, in general, and the city of Porto, in particular as tourism destinations and in this perspective, take advantage of the participation in the event to get to know the city. Most participants return in subsequent editions extend their stay and travel accompanied by family and/or friends.
In order to provide high-quality sport events and cultivate economic, social, and environmental benefits in the local community, regional sport commissions in the United States form partnerships with organizations across sectors. Building on Parent and Harvey’s (2009) partnership framework, this study seeks to reveal the components and processes of the collaboration between sport commissions and their partners in the delivery of sport events and subsequent outcomes. Using purposive and convenient sampling, data were collected from 12 in-depth interviews with leaders in sport commissions and partnering organizations based on their accessibility and familiarity with the research topic. The study identifies five main areas and multiple subcomponents of event-based partnerships, providing empirical evidence for Parent and Harvey’s (2009) partnership model. The findings advance this model by specifying the outcomes, challenges, and positive conditions for event-based partnerships and showing interactions between partnership components. More importantly, the findings contribute to a greater understanding of the partnership complexities and dynamics in the sport event-specific context and provide practical insights for sport commissions and other sport event organizers to strategically manage and maintain sport event-based partnerships.
This paper develops a framework for identifying and fostering social impact for ‘supplemental’ (cultural, sporting and other) events which run in tandem with major sporting events. The framework links the aims of supplemental events with a classification of event activities in terms of achieved social impact and potential social benefits. Data supporting the study were collected from over 150 interviews conducted with tourists and local attendees at two supplemental events (Fan Zone and Trophy Tour) held in Australia as part of the 2015 International Cricket Council Cricket World Cup. Short-term social impacts emerging from the findings included a shared sense of community resulting from the atmosphere and ambience of the events. Potential longer-term social benefits, such as healthier lifestyles, were also identified by both tourists and locals. The framework enhances the current understanding of strategies for fostering social impact and potential social benefits by providing an analytic tool to examine supplemental events and their effects on tourists and locals.
Purpose
In the study, an attempt was made to estimate the social benefits resulting from three non-mega sporting events organized in Ergo Arena located on the border of two cities in Poland. By attributing a value to intangible social benefits, the intangible effect was determined and compared to the expenditure incurred in the construction of Ergo Arena Hall.
Design/methodology/approach
In order to value social intangible effects of three non-mega sporting events the Contingent Valuation Method was applied. Each time, the Contingent Valuation Method study covered the area of the two cities: Gdańsk and Sopot and was conducted on a sample of 500 people – 250 per city. The mean values of Willingness-to-Pay were used in order to obtain aggregate values of intangible benefits. Finally, the aggregate results were compared to expenditure incurred in connection with the construction of Ergo Arena Hall.
Findings
It appeared that intangible effects were eagerly valued by the residents of Gdańsk and Sopot. The aggregated value of all three sporting events was estimated at PLN 8.8 million. The obtained results question the equal share of both cities in financing but confirm that under certain circumstances, hosting non-mega sporting events may justify the use of public funds. In the case of the two cities, the reasonable reason for the employment of public means is the size of Gdańsk compared to Sopot.
Originality/value
The paper fulfils the research gap which arises regarding Willingness-to-Pay in estimating the intangible social effects of non-mega sporting events and considering these effects in the net effect valuation. The findings have implications for policy makers since they show to what extent it may be justified to use public means in order to host non-mega sporting events.
The decision where to host major sports events is the result of a political process, involving local and national politicians as well as national and international sport governing bodies. Politicians and local/national sport governing bodies decide whether to apply for an event, while international sports governing bodies select the host cities (nations). Local and national residents play an important role in this process as their opinion will influence whether the political system supports the application and is willing to fund the event. Many event impacts have characteristics of public goods and externalities. This represents a potential welfare economic rationale for the public sector to fund them.
Empirical data from 117 polls of urban and national residents that either have hosted or applied for events reveal that three out of four residents supported hosting the event. Statistical analyses show the strongest support to be in low-income nations. This raises doubts whether such events should be regarded as luxury goods, which is a typical characteristic for sports goods. The major reason for this can be that people are aware that the events will influence the production of other goods and services in society. In particular people in nations where the public sector has had a financial deficit in the years before the poll were more sceptical than others. This pattern does not occur in heavily populated nations where event-related costs represent only a “drop in the ocean” on a macroeconomic level. The surveys also indicate that economic growth resulted in people voting more positively in favour of the events.
Two studies are presented that examine the role of attractiveness and expertise in the “match-up hypothesis.” Much “match-up hypothesis” research has focused on physical attractiveness. Study One examined physical attractiveness as a match-up factor and its impact on brand attitude, purchase intent and key brand beliefs. In a 2 × 2 experiment, endorser attractiveness and product type are manipulated. Results indicated a general “attractiveness effect” on brand attitude and purchase intent but not the match-up predicted in previous literature. Study Two considered expertise as the match-up dimension. The second experiment manipulated product and endorser type. A match-up effect was found as the athlete was most effective as an endorser for the energy bar in increasing brand attitude, but not purchase intent. The variable “fit,” or “belongingness,” was shown to play an important role in match-up effects.
National taskforces and inquiries are used extensively by governments wishing to review their involvement in sport. Underpinning these reviews are dominant ideas like "national unity," or "excellence." Ideas matter in public policy because they form the basis for framing political judgments and because their meanings are continually translated into future plans and actions (Hoppe, 1993. This study investigates the role of ideas in shaping and circumscribing the findings and recommendations emanating from a national taskforce in New Zealand. Information was gathered through interviews with Taskforce members, observations of public consultations, and analysis of submitted documents. Key ideas included notions of efficiency, competitiveness, and leadership. These ideas are discussed, focusing in particular on their contradictory/paradoxical nature and their role in (re)producing power relations. The paper concludes with future research questions and a call for more critical investigations into sport policy-making.
The 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan was the first football World Cup Finals ever to take place in Asia and be co-hosted by two countries. Drawing on data provided by the national and local organizing committees, football’s world governing institution, local and international media accounts and first-hand observations made before, during and after the event, the article discusses the contrast between discourses that forecast and described the actual impacts of the 2002 World Cup on its host societies. In particular three aspects are discussed: the specific regional political economy of the 2002 World Cup; the role of sports mega-events in identity construction and promotion; and how such events are both constituted by and constitutive of globalization. While a largely sceptical view of the economic impact informs our article, our conclusion explains the gap between forecast and actual impacts as indicative of the power struggle for determining the meaning of mega-events between different agents.
This article explores the use of computable general equilibrium (CGE) analysis in evaluating the economic impacts of special events. It is argued that CGE analysis is preferred to input-output (I-O) approaches for assessing other than local economic impacts. The article illustrates several differences between the alternative forms of analysis in event assessment. These include assessing the differential effects of events on the host region, other regions, and nationally and the ability to estimate interindustry effects. The article then shows how CGE models can be adapted to estimate the displacement effects of events, their fiscal impacts, intraregional effects, event subsidies, and multistate effects. The article also discusses how event impacts will vary depending on the extent of integration between regional and national resource markets and regional and national product and services markets and how labor markets are modeled.
Alliances are volatile key components of many corporations' competitive strategies. They offer fast and flexible means of achieving market access, scale economies, and competence development. However, strategic alliances can encounter difficulties that often lead to disappointing performance. The authors suggest that the way partners manage the collective learning process plays a central role in the success and failure of strategic alliances.
Present understanding of interorganizational learning primarily focuses on how the individual organization can be a “good partner” or try to win the internal “race to learn” among the partners. The interorganizational learning dilemma is that (1) being a good partner invites exploitation by partners attempting to maximize their individual appropriation of the joint learning, and (2) such opportunistic learning strategies undercut the collective knowledge development in the strategic alliance.
The authors develop a framework for understanding the dilemma through consideration of trade-offs between how collective learning is developed in alliances and how the joint learning outcomes are divided among the partners. They create a typology of five different learning strategies based on how receptive as well as how transparent an organization is in relation to its partners. The strategies are: collaboration (highly receptive and highly transparent); competition (highly receptive and nontransparent); compromise (moderately receptive and transparent); accommodation (nonreceptive and highly transparent); and avoidance (neither receptive nor transparent). Interorganizational learning outcomes are proposed to be the interactive results of the respective partners' type of adopted learning strategy.
By synthesizing strategic alliance, organizational learning, collective action, and game theories, the framework contributes to understanding the variety in alliance development, performance, and longevity. Interorganizational learning is likely to be hindered by lack of either motivation or ability to absorb and communicate knowledge between the partner organizations. The dynamics of power, opportunism, suspicion, and asymmetric learning strategies can constitute processual barriers to collective knowledge development. In contrast, prior related interaction between the partners, high learning stakes, trust, and long-term orientation are likely to empower the collective learning process.
Comparison of previous case studies and surveys of interorganizational learning provides partial empirical support for the proposed framework. The comparison also indicates several omissions in previous research, such as failure to consider either how receptive or how transparent the partners are, the interaction between their learning strategies, and their dynamic processes over time. Because these omissions are due partly to the methodological limitations of traditional case studies and crosssectional surveys, the authors suggest a bridging case survey design for a more comprehensive test of their interactive, dynamic, and situational framework.
We investigate whether firms learn to manage interfirm alliances as experience accumulates. We use contract-specific experience measures in a data set of over 2000 joint ventures and licensing agreements, and value creation measures derived from the abnormal stock returns surrounding alliance announcements. Learning effects are identified from the effects of unobserved heterogeneity in alliance capabilities. We find evidence of large learning effects in managing joint ventures, but no such evidence for licensing contracts. The effects of learning on value creation are strongest for research joint ventures, and weakest for marketing joint ventures. These results are consistent with the view that learning effects are more important in situations characterized by greater contractual ambiguity. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This paper investigates the relationship between intercorporate technology alliances and firm performance. It argues that alliances are access relationships, and therefore that the advantages which a focal firm derives from a portfolio of strategic coalitions depend upon the resource profiles of its alliance partners. In particular, large firms and those that possess leading‐edge technological resources are posited to be the most valuable associates. The paper also argues that alliances are both pathways for the exchange of resources and signals that convey social status and recognition. Particularly when one of the firms in an alliance is a young or small organization or, more generally, an organization of equivocal quality, alliances can act as endorsements: they build public confidence in the value of an organization's products and services and thereby facilitate the firm's efforts to attract customers and other corporate partners. The findings from models of sales growth and innovation rates in a large sample of semiconductor producers confirm that organizations with large and innovative alliance partners perform better than otherwise comparable firms that lack such partners. Consistent with the status‐transfer arguments, the findings also demonstrate that young and small firms benefit more from large and innovative strategic alliance partners than do old and large organizations. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We investigate whether firms learn to manage interfirm alliances as experience accumulates. We use contract‐specific experience measures in a data set of over 2000 joint ventures and licensing agreements, and value creation measures derived from the abnormal stock returns surrounding alliance announcements. Learning effects are identified from the effects of unobserved heterogeneity in alliance capabilities. We find evidence of large learning effects in managing joint ventures, but no such evidence for licensing contracts. The effects of learning on value creation are strongest for research joint ventures, and weakest for marketing joint ventures. These results are consistent with the view that learning effects are more important in situations characterized by greater contractual ambiguity. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The hosting of mega-events such as the Olympic Games provides a short period of intense excitement for residents and enhances the long-term awareness of the host destination in tourism markets. However, unless the event is carefully and strategically planned with destination and community development in mind, it can be difficult to justify the large investments required. This article focuses on two examples (the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics, and the Salt Lake City 2002 Games) in an attempt to demonstrate how “legacy planning” can help ensure that the hosting of a short-term mega-event such as the Olympics can contribute to the development and consolidation of facilities and programs that will benefit destination residents for many years.
As cities turn to sport as a vehicle for encouraging economic development, sport managers increasingly find themselves in the midst of debates over urban policy. The purpose of this study was to examine the decision-making process that brought the Volvo International Tennis Tournament to New Haven, Connecticut. Because New Haven has been the center of classic debates over community power, the Volvo tennis case offers an excellent opportunity to examine the use of the theories of urban politics in understanding how development decisions are made. The Volvo case suggests that a synthesis of Stone's regime theory and Peterson's economistic paradigm provides a useful model for identifying the key players in economic development.
In this book Anthony Moran traces the development of contemporary Australian society in the global age, focusing on four major themes: settler/indigenous relations; economics and culture since the 1980s and their impact on national identity; the effects of increasing diversity fostered by globalization; and the transformation of Australian social space wrought by globalization.
Many sports events, facilities, and franchises are subsidized either directly or indirectly by investments from public sector funds. The scarcity of tax dollars has led to growing public scrutiny of their allocation; in this environment there is likely to be an increased use of economic impact analysis to support public subsidy of these events. Many of these analyses report inaccurate results. In this paper, 11 major contributors to the inaccuracy are presented and discussed. They include the following: using sales instead of household income multipliers; misrepresenting employment multipliers; using incremental instead of normal multiplier coefficients; failing to accurately define the impacted-area; including local spectators; failing to exclude “time-switchers” and “casuals;” using “fudged” multiplier coefficients; claiming total instead of marginal economic benefits; confusing turnover and multiplier; omitting opportunity costs; and measuring only benefits while omitting costs.
Special events are widely recognized as having tourism impact and frequently form part of the tourism strategy of a country, or a destination region within a country. Governments in Australia and elsewhere have increasingly taken to funding such events as deliberate policies of tourism promotion and economic development. Australian examples are used to frame an approach to the economic evaluation of such policies. The analysis of economic impact of an event needs to identify clearly the region of interest, and the expenditure that is new to the region because of the event. A full evaluation should encompass social and promotional impacts. These are identifiable, but they are difficult to quantify.
Four studies are reported that examine the status and potentials for local businesses to leverage the Gold Coast Honda Indy. The leveraging efforts of local businesses are identified in Study 1. Most local business managers fail to recognize the event as a leveraging opportunity. Tactics used by businesses that do attempt to leverage the event are examined in Study 2. Businesses that leverage the event obtain benefits through the use of standard promotional and theming tactics. Experts' views about leveraging the event are obtained in Study 3. The experts conclude that some coordination of local businesses' leveraging efforts would be advantageous. The views of local business leaders are solicited in Study 4. The business leaders favor leveraging but prefer that the coordination come from an existing business organization or association, rather than through government or a new bureaucracy. The studies suggest that the potentials for leveraging are largely unrealized and that some degree of inertia would need to be overcome to realize those potentials. It is argued that event organizers have the most to gain by fostering and coordinating local business leveraging.
Despite the predominant policy focus on event economic impact, event organisers and host community residents are calling for attention to be paid to the social value of events. Anthropological work on events demonstrates that their celebratory nature engenders a liminoid space that can foster social value, particularly through a sense of communitas. In order to enable and amplify liminality and communitas, event organisers and host community planners should foster social interaction and prompt a feeling of celebration by enabling sociability among event visitors, creating event-related social events, facilitating informal social opportunities, producing ancillary events, and theming widely. The resulting narratives, symbols, meanings, and affect can then be leveraged to address social issues, build networks, and empower community action. These may be furthered when the arts are used to complement sport, and when commercial elements support social leverage. Future research should explore and examine the strategic and tactical bases for social leverage.
Business firms and non-profit organizations are increasingly collaborating. Such collaborations promise substantial mutual benefits as business firms realize the extent to which their profits depend on a healthy social environment and "social entrepreneurs" begin to appreciate how applying business principles can enable them to fulfill their social missions more effectively. Nevertheless, for the benefits of crosssector partnerships to be achieved, each partner must have a realistic understanding of both the challenges and potential pitfalls of their relationship.
Hockey equipment is designed in Sweden, financed from Canada, manufactured in Denmark, Japan, and the U.S., and distributed across North America and northern Europe. Nike has transformed itself from an Oregon distributor of Japanese shoes, and then an offshore manufacturer in Taiwan, the People's Republic of China, and Korea for shoes sold in the U.S., into a company with vast international sales and half a million workers earning under U.S.$1.50 a day.Phil Knight's mavins have sought to stem a backlash at home by encouraging U.S. runners to see themselves as consumers rather than citizens. The firm's desire to buy all conceivable social relations of use to it took a new turn at the 1999 Australian Open tennis competition, where college students were paid to occupy key seats in view of television cameras while dressed up as clones of Nike‐sponsored players and act out between points. It is hardly surprising then that the company's 1997 annual report boasts that “The ‘swooshification of the world’ should more appropriately be deemed the Sportsification of the world. ... We will mature in tandem with the inexorable penetration of sports into the global psyche.”
The Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda conference attracted not only Australian academics with an interest in the events field but also a number of international delegates with extensive research backgrounds in the area. Such a gathering represented a unique opportunity to explore a variety of issues associated with the conference's themes in an interactive group context. With this purpose in mind, the organizing committee invited a number of delegates (see above) to participate in a focus group overseen by a professional facilitator. A summary of key outcomes from this focus group is discussed under several headings: Research; Interactions between researchers and industry; Education; and the Future of an Australian conference for event researchers.
This article examines the numerous impacts of hallmark events on the destination area which has generated the event. These effects include not only the economic results but also the physical, socio-cultural, psychological, and political impacts such events have.
Cyclical demand in the leisure, recreation, and travel markets is a major factor contributing to low productivity and low returns on investment among the suppliers of goods and services to these markets. One strategic response to "the seasonality problem," which has had varying degrees of success in different regions, is termed the Hallmark Event. Such events, built around a major theme, serve to focus tourism and recreational planning on a particular period of the year. The present research provides both an in-depth, cross-sectional study of one such activity (The Quebec Winter Carnaval) as well as a longi tudinal analysis of the event's evolution over its 20-year history. Finally, the social and economic implications of the findings are discussed with a view to aiding persons interested in developing such events.
This article examines how community-based groups have dealt with the potential housing impacts of urban mega-events (also known as 'hallmark events') in the city. Three Canadian case studies are used- Expo '86 in Vancouver, the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics, and the rejected proposal for the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Toronto- to discuss a range of issues including the nature and impact of community action in forcing the organisers of mega-events to address the potential of event-related housing impacts. The research findings suggest that mega-eventrelated forced evictions should be viewed as an expected result of this form of urban restructuring as these events are used to bring new people, new facilities, and new money to cities ata rapid pace,and this goalis rarely evaluated in an open democratic manner. Further, the critical prerequisite for any effective community action to occur is the presence of an organised, strategic and resourceful coalition of community-based groups which have the capacity to analyse complex situations, act forcefully at a variety of levels, and use diverse strategies in order to take advantage of key 'openings' when seeking to achieve their goals.
Investment in sporting infrastructure in cities over the past 20 years was not primarily aimed at getting the local community involved in sport, but was instead aimed at attracting tourists, encouraging inward investment and changing the image of the city. The first example of this new strategy was seen in Sheffield with the investment of £147 million in sporting facilities to host the World Student Games of 1991. More recently, Manchester spent over £200 million on sporting venues in order to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games, with a further £470 million expenditure on other non-sport infrastructure investment in Sportcity in east Manchester. In the British context, most of the cities following this strategy of using sport for economic regeneration have been industrial cities, not normally known as major tourist destinations. The drivers of such policies were the need for a new image and new employment opportunities caused by the loss of their conventional industrial base. This article analyses the justification for such investments in sport in cities and assesses the evidence for the success of such strategies.
Sports generate significant and heterogeneous flows of travellers; however the management implications of consciously treating sport as a tourist attraction have not yet been comprehensively explored. This essay recognizes that many sports function as tourist attractions and, as such, may influence seasonal patterns of tourist demand. Leiper's tourism attraction systems approach offers a theoretical basis for conceptualizing sport as a tourist attraction [1]. This approach provides a framework for exploring the three key elements of a tourism attraction: the human element, nucleus and marker or informative element, as they apply to sport. These theoretical discussions on sport attractions and seasonality are then applied to the case of rugby union in New Zealand.
Short-term tourist events can have a major economic impact on a local community, while the societal impact can also be significant. In this study, it is argued that economic impact analysis can be a valuable tool for macromarketing analysis, providing important and detailed information on the redistribution that occurs across and within a local community.
The teaching of qualitative analysis in the social sciences is rarely undertaken in a structured way. This handbook is designed to remedy that and to present students and researchers with a systematic method for interpreting qualitative data', whether derived from interviews, field notes, or documentary materials. The special emphasis of the book is on how to develop theory through qualitative analysis. The reader is provided with the tools for doing qualitative analysis, such as codes, memos, memo sequences, theoretical sampling and comparative analysis, and diagrams, all of which are abundantly illustrated by actual examples drawn from the author's own varied qualitative research and research consultations, as well as from his research seminars. Many of the procedural discussions are concluded with rules of thumb that can usefully guide the researchers' analytic operations. The difficulties that beginners encounter when doing qualitative analysis and the kinds of persistent questions they raise are also discussed, as is the problem of how to integrate analyses. In addition, there is a chapter on the teaching of qualitative analysis and the giving of useful advice during research consultations, and there is a discussion of the preparation of material for publication. The book has been written not only for sociologists but for all researchers in the social sciences and in such fields as education, public health, nursing, and administration who employ qualitative methods in their work.
We investigate whether firms learn to manage interfirm alliances as experience accumulates. We use contract-specific experience measures in a data set of over 2000 joint ventures and licensing agreements, and value creation measures derived from the abnormal stock returns surrounding alliance announcements. Learning effects are identified from the effects of unobserved heterogeneity in alliance capabilities. We find evidence of large learning effects in managing joint ventures, but no such evidence for licensing contracts. The effects of learning on value creation are strongest for research joint ventures, and weakest for marketing joint ventures. These results are consistent with the view that learning effects are more important in situations characterized by greater contractual ambiguity. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This paper investigates the relationship between intercorporate technology alliances and firm performance. It argues that alliances are access relationships, and therefore that the advantages which a focal firm derives from a portfolio of strategic coalitions depend upon the resource profiles of its alliance partners. In particular, large firms and those that possess leading-edge technological resources are posited to be the most valuable associates. The paper also argues that alliances are both pathways for the exchange of resources and signals that convey social status and recognition. Particularly when one of the firms in an alliance is a young or small organization or, more generally, an organization of equivocal quality, alliances can act as endorsements: they build public confidence in the value of an organization's products and services and thereby facilitate the firm's efforts to attract customers and other corporate partners. The findings from models of sales growth and innovation rates in a large sample of semiconductor producers confirm that organizations with large and innovative alliance partners perform better than otherwise comparable firms that lack such partners. Consistent with the status-transfer arguments, the findings also demonstrate that young and small firms benefit more from large and innovative strategic alliance partners than do old and large organizations.
Contends that in addition to the role of leadership as a fundamental organizational competence, leadership may be defined in terms of vision and shared values. Vision is conceptualized in holistic terms. Defines vision as an imagined or perceived but consistent pattern of communal possibilities to which others can be drawn, and whose values they will wish to share. Explains visionary leadership and analyses implementation within the context of social architecture and trust. Describes Collins and Porras’ (1996) analysis of the visionary company. Concludes with a summary of Hickman’s (1992) analysis of the relationship between the visionary capacity of the leader, and the practical implementation approach of the manager, as the two opposite ends of a spectrum. Concludes that a basic holistic objective should be to blend strong visionary leadership with effective management into one integrated whole, in which the strengths of both combine synergistically to the advantage of the enterprise.
A center or region which hosts a major event attracting global attention is affected in many positive and negative ways. From a tourism perspective, perhaps the major benefits sought by organizers are increased awareness and an enhanced imageforthe host region in the international marketplace. It is assumed that this increased awareness and enhanced image will, over the long term, provide a strongercompetitiveposition and greater benefits from tourism. The present research reports thefindings of a five year study to monitor and assess the extent to which one mega-event, the 1988 Calgary Olympic Winter Games, did impact on the international levels of awareness and the image of the host city. Data were collected annually from 1986 through 1989 in some 20 centers in the United States and Europe. The results indicate that, in this particular case, the event dramatically increased levels of awareness and substantially modified the image of the city of Calgary. However, there is also strong evidence that cities considering the staging ofsuch a mega-event must anticipate a significant rate of awareness and image decay, and take steps to counter it, if they wish to remain visible and competitive in the international marketplace.
Sport events are being used with increasing frequency to build the brand of their host destinations. Events can take different roles relative to the destination brand: as co-branding partners with the destination brand, as extensions of the destination brand, or as features of the destination brand. Which role is appropriate depends on the nature of the event's brand. Since each role presents different opportunities, risks and requirements, events must be incorporated strategically into the destination's marketing plan. Strategic incorporation of sport events into destination branding requires that each event be cross-leveraged with others in the destination's event portfolio, as well as with the destination's other sport activities and attractions.
A wave of recent scholarship, embracing both rational choice and cultural approaches, highlights the importance of collective ideas in explaining politics. What this work has not adequately addressed, however, is why collective ideas sometimes radically change. Scholars typically attribute ideational change ad hoc to creative entrepreneurial agents or to exogenous shock. But these solutions fail to account for why some entrepreneurs and not others are successful in marketing their ideas or why similar shocks lead to change in one instance but continuity in another. Explaining these Variations is aided by conceptualizing ideational change as a two-stage process involving collapse and consolidation. Collapse involves societal actors reaching an agreement that the old orthodoxy is inadequate. Consolidation requires social coordination on a replacement set of ideas. Both steps involve collective ideation problems where actors may have difficulty coordinating a change in dominant ideas or have incentives to shirk facilitating efficient adaptation. The outcome of these two steps is in part endogenous to ideational structure :itself. Collective ideas generate expectations, which in particular ways interact with experienced events, either inhibiting change or allowing societies to transform their own dominant notions. The approach is illustrated with examples involving collectively held causal ideas in a variety of foreign policy domains.
This research studies two major sport event organizations and explores the specialized approaches used to retain personnel for the purpose of a major sport event. The analysis was based on data obtained from semistructured interviews with managers at the Australian Open Tennis Championships (AOTC) and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix (AFOGP). Analysis of the data revealed that due to the nature of these events, a customized retention process for various personnel categories during the different stages of an event cycle was appropriate. Of particular concern was the need for tailored retention strategies for full-time personnel in the first couple of months after an event, and for seasonal personnel in between events. Consequently, modifications to the generic retention management practices were suggested, in order to cater for the special demands of major sport events. Strategies were developed from these research findings that should improve the management of personnel retention at the AOTC and AFOGP. The strategies build upon the present body of literature in this field, and should have application in other major sport event organizations.
In recent years, there has been increased interest in the idea of promoting urban development and change through the hosting of major events. This approach offers host cities the possibility of "fast track" urban regeneration, a stimulus to economic growth, improved transport and cultural facilities, and enhanced global recognition and prestige. Many authors attribute the increased importance of event-led development to wider transformations in the global economy, such as post-Fordism and globalization. However, event-led development has a long history and can be recognized, for example, in the World Fairs of the nineteenth century. The Olympic Games, the world"s most prestigious sporting event, has been held for over one hundred years with significant consequences for the host cities. This paper reviews the effects of the Olympics on the urban environment of the various cities which have acted as hosts in the modern Olympic period (1896-1996). The material outlines the varied motivations for staging the Games and examines their outcomes in terms of urban development.
The hosting of mega-events such as the Olympic Games provides a short period of intense excitement for residents and enhances the long-term awareness of the host destination in tourism markets. However, unless the event is carefully and strategically planned with destination and community development in mind, it can be difficult to justify the large investments required. This article focuses on two examples (the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics, and the Salt Lake City 2002 Games) in an attempt to demonstrate how legacy planning can help ensure that the hosting of a short-term mega-event such as the Olympics can contribute to the development and consolidation of facilities and programs that will benefit destination residents for many years.
Canada is not a peripheral country by most standards. However, since the 1960s, Canadian cities have sought to change the somewhat provincial image they have historically had, and they have used mega-events such as Olympic Games, World Expositions and other 'second order' international sports events to try to reposition themselves on the world stage. This paper examines the place promotion agendas of the two Canadian cities that have hosted Olympic Games, and will also comment on the aspirations of Vancouver, which will host the Winter Olympics in 2010. The core of the paper will concentrate on different aspects of 're-imaging' the city: image building, signalling and identity transformation. Here I argue that an important but widely overlooked aspect of increasing the stature of a city involves changing the ways that citizens of that city think about themselves. The next section will examine whether the exposure and the opportunities for civic promotion afforded by a Games actually translate into economic growth. I will argue that the evidence for this is mixed at best. Finally, the paper argues that the public money spent on Olympics typically brings the greatest benefits to local and regional elites, despite popular rhetoric that such events are good for the 'community as a whole'.