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Effectiveness of Trichoderma, Gliocladium and Paecilomyces in postharvest fruit protection
Abstract
Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces variotii were tested in biocontrol trials against several postharvest pathogens and compared with conventional fungicides. Applied as spray treatments to the fruits, these fungi partially controlled Botrytis cinerea, in strawberry and kiwifruit, Fusarium oxysporum in potato and Alternaria citri in lemon.Trichoderma demonstrated significant control of artificially inoculated B. cinerea in strawberry but proved ineffective against latent infections. Several strains of Trichoderma were found to be pathogenic in kiwifruit and lemon. All three fungal species gave poor mycelial development at 0, 2, 5, and 10°C storage temperatures, resulting in unsuccessful fruit colonization. The overall data indicate some of the difficulties in developing biological control techniques using Trichoderma, Gliocladium and Paecilomyces.
... In numerous biocontrol trials, this method was found to be more effective than preharvest application in eradicating storage infections. When compared with preharvest application of fungal biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Paecilomyces variotii, and Gliocladium roseum, postharvest application of fungal biocontrol agents such as T. viride, T. harzianum, P. variotii, and Gliocladiu mroseum resulted in high levels of postharvest (Pratella and Mari, 1993). After harvest, administering potential antagonists often results in a large reduction in fungal deterioration. ...
... In many circumstances, this technique has proven to be more effective than applying microbial antagonists prior to harvest. Pratella and Mari (1993) described that postharvest applications of T. viride, G. roseum, P. variotii Bainier, and T. harzianum were proved to be more effective than preharvest applications in preventing Alternaria rot in lemons and Botrytis rot in strawberries. In controlling Aspergillus rot in lemons, after-harvest treatment of Pseudomonas variotii was more successful than benomyl dip therapy, and after-harvest application of T. harzianum was more effective than benomyl dip therapy in controlling Fusarium rot in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.). ...
... This species can reduce mycelial development of numerous phytopathogens under in vitro culture conditions. In particular, P. variotii can inhibit the fungi Aspergillus niger [20], Botrytis cinerea [21], Fusarium graminearum [22], F. moniliforme [23], F. oxysporum [24][25][26], F. solani [27], Macrophomina phaseolina [27,28], Magnaporthe oryzae [29], Pyricularia oryzae [30], Pythium aphanidermatum [31,32], P. spinosum [33], Saccharomyces cerevisiae [30], Sclerotium rolfsii [27,33], and Verticillium dahilae [25], and the bacteria Bacillus cereus [34], B. subtilis [20], Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus [22,35], Pseudomonas aeruginosa [30,34], Staphylococcus aureus [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35], Streptococcus iniae [35], Vibrio parahaemolyticus [22,34], and Xanthomonas campestris [24], among others. ...
... No inhibitory effect on phytopathogens through volatile metabolites was observed. A previous study showed in vitro inhibition of B. cinerea by approximately 43% due to P. variotii [21] which is lower than the inhibition effect exerted by the P. variotii isolate CDG33, and this study suggested a significant reduction in rotting of kiwifruit caused by Botrytis, which was more effective than the conventional fungicide vinclozolin. Similar in vitro antagonism values (44%) of Paecilomyces sp. were observed in a study conducted by Marín-Chacón et al. [81]. ...
The genus Paecilomyces is known for its potential application in the control of pests and diseases; however, its use in agriculture is limited to few species. Research interest in new formulations based on microorganisms for the control of pathogens is growing exponentially; therefore, it is necessary to study new isolates, which may help control diseases effectively, and to examine their compatibility with established agricultural control methods. We analysed in vitro and in vivo the antagonistic capacity of Paecilomyces variotii against seven phytopathogens with a high incidence in different crops, and we examined its compatibility with 24 commercial fungicides. P. variotii was applied in the following pathosystems: B. cinereal—melon, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum—pepper, R. solani—tomato, F. solani—zucchini, P. aphanidermatum—melon, M. melonis—melon, and P. xanthii—zucchini. The results showed strong control effects on M. melonis and P. xanthii, reducing the disease severity index by 78% and 76%, respectively. The reduction in disease severity in the other pathosystems ranged from 29% to 44%. However, application of metabolites alone did not cause any significant effect on mycelial growth of phytopathogens, apart from F. solani, in which up to 12% inhibition was observed in vitro when the extract was applied at a concentration of 15% in the medium. P. variotii was compatible with most of the tested fungicides, and of the 24 fungicides tested at the maximum authorised dose, 6 acted as fungicides, 4 as fungistatics, and the remaining showed inhibition rates ranging from 18.2% to 95.8%. These results indicate that P. variotii is a potential biological control agent to be used against several aerial and soil diseases, thus it should be integrated into modern pest management strategies.
... This is the first report of P. polonicum pathogenic on apple. Clonostachys rosea is a biocontrol agent for soil borne pathogens, but has been described as weak pathogen on fruit and causes potato dry rot (Theron and Holz 1991;Pratella and Mari 1993). This is the first report of C. rosea as pathogen on apple. ...
... This is the first report of C. rosea as pathogen on apple. Weak colonisation capability on apples has been reported for other fungi, used as biocontrol agents on other crops, possibly due to cold sensitivity of the pathogens, which could prevent losses though decay (Conway 1983;Pratella and Mari 1993). This should be tested in larger studies with virulence tests involving multiple isolates of the reported species that were associated with core rot in this study. ...
Core rot is a major contributor to postharvest losses in apples worldwide. Pathogens most commonly associated with the disease are Alternaria spp. and Penicillium spp. Although both genera show specific morphological characteristics, they can be difficult to identify to species level. In this study, Alternaria spp. (49) and Penicillium spp. isolates (97), associated with pre- and post-harvest apple core rot-symptoms and isolates from potential inoculum sources were identified using molecular methods. Initially, dry core rot causing Alternaria spp. were identified morphologically in an average of 70% of infected fruit pre-harvest and 32% postharvest. Furthermore, 78% of mouldy core rot causing pathogens were identified as Alternaria spp. preharvest and 40% postharvest. Wet core rot was associated with Penicillium spp. in 64% of cases preharvest and 36% postharvest. Species identity of a selection of samples was confirmed using the endopolygalacturonase (endo-PG) gene, the ITS region, and the anonymous genomic regions (OPA1–3, 2–1), which resulted in the identification of A. alternata, A. arborescens, A. dumosa, A. eureka and A. tenuissima. Penicillium species were identified through ITS sequencing and partial beta-tubulin polymerase chain reaction – random fragment length polymorphisms (PCR-RFLP) for the samples collected from wet core rot symptoms. Phylogenetic analyses separated the Alternaria spp. into five clades, including three separate clades for A. alternata, A. tenuissima and A. arborescens, respectively. This is the first report of A. eureka and P. polonicum as potential core rot pathogens. Phylogenetic analysis identified Penicillium ramulosum and P. expansum as the most commonly occurring species associated with WCR symptoms.
... causing wilt in tomato followed by T. harzianum. Pratella and Mari (1993) [14] . reported that when T. viride, T. harzianum, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces varioti applied as spray treatment to fruits, partially controlled Botrytis cinerea in strawberry and kiwi fruits, Fusarium oxysporum in potatoes and Alternaria citri in lemon. ...
... causing wilt in tomato followed by T. harzianum. Pratella and Mari (1993) [14] . reported that when T. viride, T. harzianum, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces varioti applied as spray treatment to fruits, partially controlled Botrytis cinerea in strawberry and kiwi fruits, Fusarium oxysporum in potatoes and Alternaria citri in lemon. ...
The present study on various antagonists and its culture filtrate was carried out to know their efficacy in managing the Rhizopus rot of tomato in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, all the six antagonists significantly helped in inhibiting the mycelial growth of R. oryzae over control. Lowest mycelium growth (22.75 mm) with highest mycelial growth inhibition was recorded in T. asperellum (74.72 %), while T. virens gave minimum mycelial growth inhibition (62.50 %) after 7 th days of incubation. In case of in vivo study, T. asperellum found significantly superior both in pre-(0.45 %) and post-inoculation (0.45 %) treatments over control (99.27 %) after 5 th day of inoculation. The culture filtrate of all the antagonists found effective in inhibiting the mycelial growth of R. oryzae over control. Complete mycelial growth inhibition was recorded in T. asperellum and T. viride on 5 th day after incubation in in vitro. While in vivo study, the culture filtrate of T. asperellum and T. viride found most effective both in pre-(0.45 & 0.45 %) and post-inoculation (0.45 & 0.45 %) treatments in managing Rhizopus rot severity on 5 th day after inoculation.
... Isolates: 6CE = 92%, JCAA = 51% effectiveness index Pratella et al., 1993 Apricot cv. 'Reale d'Imola ' ...
... Microbial cultures are applied either as postharvest sprays or as dips in an antagonist's solution. For example, postharvest application of Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces variotii resulted in better control of Alternaria rot in lemons than preharvest applications (Pratella and Mari, 1993). A significant reduction in storage decay was achieved by bringing several yeast species in direct contact with wounds in the peel of harvested fruits. ...
Crown rot is a complex postharvest disease which affects export bananas in all banana-producing countries. A wide range of organisms are involved in crown rot of bananas but Colletotrichum musae is frequently considered as the most commonly isolated fungus and the most pathogenic one. Usually invisible when the fruits are packed for transportation from tropical countries to distant destinations, disease symptoms occur during shipment, ripening, and storage. This disease, characterized by rot and necrosis, affects tissues joining the fingers with each other, called the crown. It may reach the pedicel and even the banana pulp when crown rot is severe. Losses from 10% to 86% have been recorded for treated and untreated bananas, respectively. In most banana-growing areas, crown rot is principally controlled by postharvest fungicide treatments, but alternative control methods are being sought because of: (1) the emergence of resistance to some commonly used fungicides; (2) environmental problems linked to dumping of fungicide mixtures used at packing stations; and (3) consumer aversion to chemical residues in food. Important variations of both the severity of the damage and the nature of the complex are observed, depending on various pre- and postharvest factors. More specifically, the preharvest factors influence the parasitic and the physiological component of the fruit quality potential at harvest. The physiological component is defined as the sensitivity of the fruits to crown rot, and the parasitic component reflects the capacity of the parasitic complex to induce a level of disease.In this chapter, we summarize the current knowledge on crown rot disease and associated control measures which must be considered throughout the production channel in order to be effective as an integrated control strategy. The pre- and postharvest factors that favor infection are also discussed.
... In the suppression of storage pathogens, this approach was more successful in several biocontrol studies than pre-harvest application. High levels of control of postharvest grey mold disease in strawberries and Alternaria rot in lemons were achieved by postharvest application of fungal biocontrol agents, such as Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Paecilomyces variotii, and Gliocladium roseum, compared to pre-harvest application (Pratella and Mari, 1993). More often, postharvest application of potential antagonists results in a considerable reduction of fungal spoilage. ...
Fungal diseases result in significant losses of fruits and vegetables during handling, transportation and
storage. At present, post-production fungal spoilage is predominantly controlled by using synthetic
fungicides. Under the global climate change scenario and with the need for sustainable agriculture,
biological control methods of fungal diseases, using antagonistic microorganisms, are emerging as
ecofriendly alternatives to the use of fungicides. The potential of microbial antagonists, isolated from a
diversity of natural habitats, for postharvest disease suppression has been investigated. Postharvest
biocontrol systems involve tripartite interaction between microbial antagonists, the pathogen and the
host, affected by environmental conditions. Several modes for fungistatic activities of microbial
antagonists have been suggested, including competition for nutrients and space, mycoparasitism,
secretion of antifungal antibiotics and volatile metabolites and induction of host resistance. Postharvest
application of microbial antagonists is more successful for efficient disease control in comparison to preharvest
application. Attempts have also been made to improve the overall efficacy of antagonists by
combining them with different physical and chemical substances and methods. Globally, many microbebased
biocontrol products have been developed and registered for commercial use. The present review
provides a brief overview on the use of microbial antagonists as postharvest biocontrol agents and
summarises information on their isolation, mechanisms of action, application methods, efficacy
enhancement, product formulation and commercialisation.
... Bacillus and Candida grew at pH 3-7, but they grew better at pH >5. Rhodotorula growth was not affected when pH ranged from 3 to 9. Figure 5.7 shows the environmental niches for B. cinerea (Fig. 5.7a) (Thomas et al. 1988;Broome 1995;Williamson et al. 1995;Eden et al. 1996;Latorre and Rioja 2002;Lahlali et al. 2007;Ciliberti et al. 2016), Trichoderma (Fig. 5.7b) (Elad and Kirshner 1993;Pratella and Mari 1993;Sutton and Peng 1993;O'Neill et al. 1996;Hjeljord et al. 2000Hjeljord et al. , 2001, and Candida (Fig. 5.7c) (Mercier and Wilson 1994;Mercier and Wilson 1995;Lima et al. 1997;Teixido et al. 1998;Nunes et al. 2002;Carbó et al. 2018a, b). Figure 5.7d, e indicate the combinations of temperature and RH conditions (environmental niches) at which the growth of the BCA (Trichoderma in Fig. 5.7d and Candida in Fig. 5.7e) is greater than, equal to, or less than that of B. cinerea. For Thin lines indicate the temperature range; thick lines indicate optimal temperatures; dashed lines indicate temperatures that are known not to support growth of the BCA; dotted lines indicate temperatures tested for the BCA without regard to B. cinerea. ...
The biocontrol of grey mould, caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea, has been intensively studied in the last decades, and biological control agents (BCAs) have been developed as active ingredients of several currently available products. However, the biocontrol of grey mould remains challenging, and farmer reliance on BCAs remains marginal. One likely reason is the inconsistent efficacy of BCAs under field conditions, which may be related to several factors, including the variability of the environmental conditions affecting both BCA fitness and B. cinerea development. A systematic literature review was conducted to retrieve and analyze the metadata on the influence of environmental conditions on BCA fitness and efficacy against B. cinerea. The review considered 54 papers (selected from a total of 347 papers) and 27 genera of BCAs. The review showed that only limited information is available about the effects of temperature, humidity, and pH on BCA fitness and efficacy. Metadata were used to define environmental niches for B. cinerea and for two BCAs, Trichoderma and Candida, which were used as case studies. The environmental niches, in turn, were used to study the temperature and humidity conditions under which the BCA prevails over B. cinerea, and to define the extent of environmental niche sharing between the BCA and the target pathogen. Possible uses of environmental niches for improving BCA efficacy are discussed.
... Gliocladium roseum is an unusual hyphomycete that produce onecelled conidia on two distinct types of conidiophores, one penicillately branched and the other verticillately branched [12]. Gliocladium roseum is used as a biocontrol agent against various pathogens in different crops and is reported to have remarkable efficiency, dependability, cost-effectiveness, and safety in plant disease management [13][14][15]. The present study aimed to analyse the antimicrobial ability of bio-synthesized silver nanoparticles from Gliocladium roseum and against selected bacterial and fungal organisms. ...
Objective: Antimicrobial efficacy of silver nanoparticles from Gliocladium roseum, culture filtrate (C. F.) and mycelial mat extract (M. E.) against selected pathogens. Methods: Culture filtrate (C. F.) and Mycelial mat extract (M. E.) of Gliocladium roseum were subjected to 10 Mm silver nitrate solution for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Formed silver nanoparticles were evaluated via UV-vis spectroscopy and the structural elucidation was done by FT-IR and TEM. Antimicrobial efficacy was tested against bacterial (Salmonella typhi and Klebsiella pneumonia) and fungal (Cladosporium cladosporioides and Alternaria alternata) pathogens. Different nanoparticle concentrations-50, 100, 150 and 200 µl were checked via disc diffusion method. Results: Gliocladium roseum (C. F. and M. E.) on interaction with silver nitrate solution effectively reduced metallic silver exhibiting a colour change from yellow to dark brown within 24 h due to the formation of silver nanoparticles. The UV-vis spectrum of C. F. and M. E. showed maximum absorption peaks at 350-400 nm and 400-450 nm respectively and FT-IR and TEM showed strong N-H bonding and spherical shaped silver nanoparticles with the size of 11-19 nm (C. F.) and 25-38 nm (M. E.). Antimicrobial analysis resulted in efficient inhibitory activity against Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumonia and also showed moderate inhibitory activity against Alternaria alternata and Cladosporium cladopsorioides. Conclusion: The synthesis of silver nanoparticles from fungus Gliocladium roseum is simple, cheap, safe and eco-friendly thus emphasising on large scale scientific application.
... In the suppression of storage pathogens, this approach was more successful in several biocontrol studies than pre-harvest application. High levels of control of postharvest grey mold disease in strawberries and Alternaria rot in lemons were achieved by postharvest application of fungal biocontrol agents, such as Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Paecilomyces variotii, and Gliocladium roseum, compared to pre-harvest application (Pratella and Mari, 1993). More often, postharvest application of potential antagonists results in a considerable reduction of fungal spoilage. ...
... This suggests that T. harzianum species may not be effective in controlling trunk damages which may probably due to infection by wood decay fungi such as Armillaria and Xylaria. This result supports the idea that most of Trichoderma species are more effective for controlling some pathogens, but may be largely inefficient against others (Pratella and Mari 1993). Furthermore, the bioactive agents of Trichoderma strains are living organisms and their activities depend heavily on several factors (Kaur et al. 2005;Li et al. 2005). ...
Trichoderma harzianum is an endophyte fungus of considerable interest because of its effectiveness as a biocontrol agent against various plant pathogenic fungi. In this study, T. harzianum was isolated from cork oak trees in three forests in northwest Tunisia. Initially, the fungal characterization was carried out based on macroscopic and microscopic features. Sequencing of the internal transcribed spacers 1 and 2 of the DNAr was carried out to confirm fungus identification at the species level. The aims of this work were to study the occurrence of T. harzianum, to understand its relationship with the host plant, and to quantitatively investigate its distribution on the different organs of cork oak trees across three sites (Babouch, Ain snoussi, Ain zana). T. harzianum frequency varied significantly (P<0.001) among the surveyed forests. The fungus was more common at Babouch forest and was rarely encountered at Ain zana. Correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between the dendrometric parameters, the phytosanitary status of the investigated trees and the abundance of T. harzianum. The results showed a significant and positive correlation between the fungus frequency and the tree height. A negative and significant correlation was noted between the trees' chlorosis index and fungus abundance. These findings may afford a contribution to the knowledge of T. harzianum in Tunisian forests and its relationship with cork oak trees which could help to develop control strategies using Trichoderma strains.
... In the suppression of storage pathogens, this approach was more successful in several biocontrol studies than pre-harvest application. High levels of control of postharvest grey mold disease in strawberries and Alternaria rot in lemons were achieved by postharvest application of fungal biocontrol agents, such as Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Paecilomyces variotii, and Gliocladium roseum, compared to pre-harvest application (Pratella and Mari, 1993). More often, postharvest application of potential antagonists results in a considerable reduction of fungal spoilage. ...
Fungal diseases result in significant losses of fruits and vegetables during handling, transportation and storage. At present, post-production fungal spoilage is predominantly controlled by using synthetic fungicides. Under the global climate change scenario and with the need for sustainable agriculture, biological control methods of fungal diseases, using antagonistic microorganisms, are emerging as ecofriendly alternatives to the use of fungicides. The potential of microbial antagonists, isolated from a diversity of natural habitats, for postharvest disease suppression has been investigated. Postharvest biocontrol systems involve tripartite interaction between microbial antagonists, the pathogen and the host, affected by environmental conditions. Several modes for fungistatic activities of microbial antagonists have been suggested, including competition for nutrients and space, mycoparasitism, secretion of antifungal antibiotics and volatile metabolites and induction of host resistance. Postharvest application of microbial antagonists is more successful for efficient disease control in comparison to pre-harvest application. Attempts have also been made to improve the overall efficacy of antagonists by combining them with different physical and chemical substances and methods. Globally, many microbe-based biocontrol products have been developed and registered for commercial use. The present review provides a brief overview on the use of microbial antagonists as postharvest biocontrol agents and summarises information on their isolation, mechanisms of action, application methods, efficacy enhancement, product formulation and commercialisation.
... Strong performance of G. roseum against B. cinerea in hosts as taxonomically diverse as strawberry, geranium, tomato, and black spruce suggests that the antagonist may effectively suppress the pathogen also in many crops in which biocontrol has yet to be investigated. G. roseum also justifies further evaluation against other pathogens (32,42,47), particularly in view of its broad ecological adaptation in plants and its wide-ranging mycoparasitic competence. Indeed, knowledge of the activity spectrum of the antagonist, at present fragmentary, is central to integration of the antagonist into disease management programs. ...
... The effectiveness of the yeast was increased when formulation substances (alginate, xanthan and cellulose) were added to the cell suspension (Helbig et al., 2002). Treatments with Trichoderma significantly controlled strawberry fruit artificially inoculated with B. cinerea but were ineffective against latent infections (Pratella and Mari, 1993). Lima et al. (1997) showed that Candida oleophila and Aureobasidium pullulans were effective antagonists of B. cinerea. ...
... In pre-inoculation Trichoderma viride was found significantly superior in reducing the Fusarium fruit rot severity ( The trend similar to that observed in pre-inoculation was noted in post-inoculation treatment. Trichoderma viride was found significantly superior in reducing the Fusarium rot severity (6.52 & 17.08 %) over control (27.67 & 59.82 %) at 4 th and 8 th day after inoculation (Table 2), the next best treatment in order of merit was Trichoderma harzianum ( The results of present investigations are in agreement with the results obtained by Pratella and Mari (1993). They reported that application of T. viride, T. harzianum, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces varioti as spray treatment, partially controlled Botrytis cinerea in strawberry and kiwi fruit, Fusarium oxysporum in potatoes and Alternaria citri in lemon. ...
Fruit rot disease caused by Fusarium pallidoroseum is one of the major post-harvest disease of citrus and is adversely affects the fruit quality and the market value. In present study various antagonists and culture filtrate of antagonists were screened to know their bio efficacy in controlling the Fusarium fruit rot of citrus. Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, T. virens, T. atroviridae, T. asperellum, and T. fasciculatumin significantly inhibit 100 % mycelial growth of F. pallidoroseum in vitro study, while in case of in vivo study lowest Fusarium rot severity was observed in fruits treated with Trichoderma viride both in pre- (15.30 %) and post-inoculation (17.08 %) methods at 8th day after inoculation. All the culture filtrate of antagonists found effective in inhibiting the mycelial
growth of over control in in vitro. Lowest mycelial growth (29.63 mm) and significantly highest per cent mycelial growth inhibition was recorded in culture filtrate of T. viride (65.28 %). It was also found significantly most effective in reducing the Fusarium rot severity both in pre- (9.23 %) and post-inoculation (13.16 %) methods after 8th day of inoculation.
... Microbial cultures are applied either as postharvest sprays or as dips in an antagonist's solution. For example, postharvest application of Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces variotii resulted in better control of Paecilomyces variotii Alternaria rot in lemons than preharvest applications (Pratella and Mari, 1993). A significant reduction in storage decay was achieved by bringing several yeast species in direct contact with wounds in the peel of harvested fruits. ...
Alternaria alternata causes black spot in many fruits and vegetables around the world. It is a latent fungus that develops during the cold storage of fruits, becoming visible during the marketing period thereby causing large postharvest losses. In order to control Alternaria alternata diseases, it is important to improve the current techniques to identify this species. Therefore, in this chapter, attempts to identify and differentiate this species by using morphology, physiology, toxic metabolic profile, genomic analyses and a combination of these approaches are described. In addition, postharvest control of A. alternata diseases in fruits and vegetables by using conventional methods as well as a number of novel strategies including biological control, heat treatment, natural compounds (chitosan, isothiocyanates, essential oils, elicitors of natural defense mechanism), among others, are included. Until now, there is still no reliable protocol to identify and control postharvest diseases caused by A. alternata.
... Investigations by many authors show that the postharvest application of microbial antagonists for controlling diseases in fruits and vegetables are more effective than the preharvest approach for citrus (Long et al, 2007), apples ( Morales et al., 2008;Zhang et al., 2009;Mikani et al. , 2008), peach (Mandal et al., 2007), banana (Lassois et al., 2008), mango (Kefialew and Ayalew, 2008), tomato (Zhao et al., 2008), and cabbage (Adeline and Sijam, 1999). In strawberries and lemons for example, Pratella and Mari (1993) found that postharvest application of Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces variotii Bainier resulted in a better control of Botrytis and Alternaria rots respectively than preharvest application(s). In a related development, postharvest applications of Pseudomonas variotii and Trichoderma harzianum were more effective in controlling Aspergillus and Fusarium rots in lemons and potatoes than their respective dips in iprodion and benomyl. ...
... A number of researchers have reported that antagonistic microorganisms failed to control previously established infections of fruit by post-harvest pathogens (Janisiewicz, 1988;Pratella and Mari, 1993;Roberts, 1994). Earlier research in this thesis (Chapter Three) demonstrated that yeast biocontrol agents were not effective in controlling already established infections of P. digitatum (Pers: Fr. ...
... Quiescent and latent infections may occur in fruits at various stages of development and decay is delayed until the fruits mature and ripen. Currently available antagonistic microorganisms can eradicate weak infections in arti"-cial wounds and protect them from subsequent infection (Smilanick et al., 1993) but they fail to control previously established infections (Janisiewicz, 1998;Pratella and Mari, 1993;Roberts, 1994). Latent infections have been reported in stone fruits (Northover and Cerkauskas, 1994;Wittig et al., 1997), apples (Biggs, 1995), avocados, mangoes, bananas, papayas, citrus fruits (Eckert and Ogawa, 1985), and grapes and strawberries (Snowdown, 1990). ...
During the storage of harvested commodities, environmental parameters are quite stable. For this and other reasons, it is generally believed that biological control by means of microbial antagonists may have a greater potential for success when applied postharvest. However, one of the major obstacles to the development of postharvest biocontrol agents is that they are unable to control previously established infections, such as latent and quiescent infections and incipient infections occurring through wounds resulting from harvesting operations. Field application of biocontrol agents may enable early colonisation of fruit surfaces, thus protecting from these infections. Moreover, preharvest applications can be an appropriate strategy for fruits and vegetables subject to damage in postharvest handling. To be successful in preharvest applications, putative biocontrol agents must be able to tolerate low-nutrient availability, UV radiation, high temperature and dry conditions. Some reports of postharvest biological control accomplished by preharvest applications, include apples, avocados, sweet cherries, grapes, and strawberries. This paper provides a brief overview on particular aspects of preharvest application of biocontrol agents to reduce postharvest decay. Research areas relevant for the development of this strategy are also indicated.
... Strong performance of G. roseum against B. cinerea in hosts as taxonomically diverse as strawberry, geranium, tomato, and black spruce suggests that the antagonist may effectively suppress the pathogen also in many crops in which biocontrol has yet to be investigated. G. roseum also justifies further evaluation against other pathogens (32,42,47), particularly in view of its broad ecological adaptation in plants and its wide-ranging mycoparasitic competence. Indeed, knowledge of the activity spectrum of the antagonist, at present fragmentary, is central to integration of the antagonist into disease management programs. ...
... Strong performance of G. roseum against B. cinerea in hosts as taxonomically diverse as strawberry, geranium, tomato, and black spruce suggests that the antagonist may effectively suppress the pathogen also in many crops in which biocontrol has yet to be investigated. G. roseum also justifies further evaluation against other pathogens (32,42,47), particularly in view of its broad ecological adaptation in plants and its wide-ranging mycoparasitic competence. Indeed, knowledge of the activity spectrum of the antagonist, at present fragmentary, is central to integration of the antagonist into disease management programs. ...
... Spraying with suspensions of T. harzianum, Trichoderma viride, Gliocladium roseum, and Paecilomyces variotii resulted in a partial control of Botrytis in strawberry fruits and of Alternaria in lemon fruits (Pratella and Mari 1993). ...
Postharvest diseases cause considerable losses to harvested fruits, vegetables, roots, and tubers during transportation from farmers’ field to market and in storage. Synthetic fungicides are the primary means to control postharvest diseases. However, microbial control has emerged as one of the most promising alternatives to chemical fungicides. Several microbial agents have been widely investigated for use on different postharvest pathogens. The efficacy of the microbial antagonist(s) can be enhanced if they are used with low doses of fungicides, salt additives, and plant products. At the international level, different microbial antagonists such as Candida sake, Candida oleophila, Cryptococcus laurentii, and Debaryomyces hansenii are being used. Biocontrol products such as Aspire, BioSave, and Shemer have also been developed and registered. Although the results of this technology are encouraging, the formulation and application methods are key issues for the efficacy and successful outcome of the commercial product.
... Quiescent and latent infections may occur in fruits at various stages of development and decay is delayed until the fruits mature and ripen. Currently available antagonistic microorganisms can eradicate weak infections in arti"-cial wounds and protect them from subsequent infection (Smilanick et al., 1993) but they fail to control previously established infections (Janisiewicz, 1998;Pratella and Mari, 1993;Roberts, 1994). Latent infections have been reported in stone fruits (Northover and Cerkauskas, 1994;Wittig et al., 1997), apples (Biggs, 1995), avocados, mangoes, bananas, papayas, citrus fruits (Eckert and Ogawa, 1985), and grapes and strawberries (Snowdown, 1990). ...
During the storage of harvested commodities, environmental parameters are quite stable. For this and other reasons, it is generally believed that biological control by means of microbial antagonists may have a greater potential for success when applied postharvest. However, one of the major obstacles to the development of postharvest biocontrol agents is that they are unable to control previously established infections, such as latent and quiescent infections and incipient infections occurring through wounds resulting from harvesting operations. Field application of biocontrol agents may enable early colonisation of fruit surfaces, thus protecting from these infections. Moreover, preharvest applications can be an appropriate strategy for fruits and vegetables subject to damage in postharvest handling. To be successful in preharvest applications, putative biocontrol agents must be able to tolerate low-nutrient availability, UV radiation, high temperature and dry conditions. Some reports of postharvest biological control accomplished by preharvest applications, include apples, avocados, sweet cherries, grapes, and strawberries. This paper provides a brief overview on particular aspects of preharvest application of biocontrol agents to reduce postharvest decay. Research areas relevant for the development of this strategy are also indicated.
... This approach has been more effective than preharvest application of microbial antagonists, and has several successes (Table 1). For example, postharvest application of Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride, Gliocladium roseum and Paecilomyces variotii Bainier resulted in better control of Botrytis rot in strawberries and Alternaria rot in lemons than preharvest application(s) (Pratella and Mari, 1993). In lemons, postharvest application of Pseudomonas variotii was more effective in controlling Aspergillus rot than iprodion treatment, and in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), postharvest application of Trichoderma harzianum controlled Fusarium rot effectively than benomyl dip treatment. ...
Postharvest diseases cause considerable losses to harvested fruits and vegetables during transportation and storage. Synthetic fungicides are primarily used to control postharvest decay loss. However, the recent trend is shifting toward safer and more eco-friendly alternatives for the control of postharvest decays. Of various biological approaches, the use of antagonistic microorganisms is becoming popular throughout the world. Several postharvest diseases can now be controlled by microbial antagonists. Although the mechanism(s) by which microbial antagonists suppress the postharvest diseases is still unknown, competition for nutrients and space is most widely accepted mechanism of their action. In addition, production of antibiotics, direct parasitism, and possibly induced resistance in the harvested commodity are other modes of their actions by which they suppress the activity of postharvest pathogens in fruits and vegetables. Microbial antagonists are applied either before or after harvest, but postharvest applications are more effective than preharvest applications. Mixed cultures of the microbial antagonists appear to provide better control of postharvest diseases over individual cultures or strains. Similarly, the efficacy of the microbial antagonist(s) can be enhanced if they are used with low doses of fungicides, salt additives, and physical treatments like hot water dips, irradiation with ultraviolet light etc. At the international level, different microbial antagonists like Debaryomyces hansenii Lodder & Krejer-van Rij, Cryptococcus laurentii Kufferath & Skinner, Bacillus subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn, and Trichoderma harzianum Rifai, are being used. Biocontrol products like Aspire, BioSave, and Shemer etc., have also been developed and registered. Although the results of this technology are encouraging, we need to continue to explore potential uses on the commercial scale in different corners of the world.
This study was conducted to test Clonostachys isolates in the biological control of wilt diseases caused by Verticillium dahliae on strawberry plants. As a result of the isolations made from strawberry plants, 32 Clonostachys isolates were obtained. Cultural, morphological and molecular characterization were used for the identification of these isolates. The isolates were identified as Clonostachys rosea f. rosea (18 isolates) and Clonostachys rosea f. catenulata (14 isolates). It was determined that the inhibition rates were not make a significant difference between the two species in the comparison of the pathogen with C. rosea f. rosea and C. rosea f. catenulata isolates, and the isolates of biocontrol agents had different percentage of effects in inhibiting the mycelial growth of the pathogen in in vitro condition. When the inhibition rates obtained as a result of the study were evaluated, it was determined that the most effective isolate was C. rosea f. rosea Gr13 (48.95%) and C. rosea f. rosea Gr4 (44.75%), respectively.
Eight isolates of Penicillium sp., one isolate of Gliocladium virens and one isolate of G. catenulatum, isolated from soil, were co cultured in vitro and in vivo with the tomato grey mold agent, Botrytis cinerea. Their antagonistic effect was evaluated based on two methods of confrontation (direct and at distance) and at two incubation temperature (20 and 25°C). The average diameter of pathogen colonies confronted or not with these different isolates was recorded after five days of incubation. The study showed that the in vitro pathogen growth was significantly affected by the antagonistic agent tested, the incubation temperature and the method of confrontation used. Interesting results were obtained for all isolates tested by reducing the growth of B. cinerea by 9 to 22% as compared to the control and this for both temperatures and for both confrontation methods combined. The isolates CH5 and MC3 of Penicillium sp. and Gv1 of G. virens limited the colony diameter of B. cinerea by 27 to 29% in direct confrontation, while at distance, this reduction did not exceed 21%. The study also showed that the antagonistic potential of the isolates tested varied depending on incubation temperatures used. The isolates CH5 (Penicillium sp.) and Gv1 (G. virens) were more effective at 25°C (percent of inhibition of 30% and 20%) than at 20°C (10% and 17%, respectively). The production of volatiles substances by the fungi tested was greater at 25°C than at 20°C that is a better reduction of the colony diameter of the pathogen recorded by confrontation at distance. In vivo, the isolates of Gc1 of G. catenulatum, Gv1 of G. virens and CH6 of Penicillium sp. were found to be the most effective in reducing the severity of grey mold on tomato fruits by 61, 60 and 46%, respectively. This study allowed the selection of isolates that can serve as potential biological control agents against this disease. Tests of their culture filtrates and the optimization of conditions permitting the production of the antifungal metabolites are ongoing. Résumé Huit isolats de Penicillium sp., un isolat de Gliocladium virens et un isolat de G. catenulatum, isolés à partir du sol, ont été confrontés in vitro et in vivo avec l'agent de pourriture grise de la tomate, Botrytis cinerea. Leur pouvoir antagoniste a été évalué en se basant sur deux méthodes de confrontation (directe et à distance) et sous deux températures d'incubation (20 et 25°C). Le diamètre moyen des colonies du pathogène confronté ou non avec ces différents isolats a été 42 HASSINE Marwa et al. / Tunis. J. Med. Plants Nat. Prod. 2013; 9(1): 41-51. enregistré après cinq jours d'incubation. L'étude a montré que la croissance in vitro du pathogène est significativement affectée par l'agent antagoniste testé ainsi que la température d'incubation et la méthode de confrontation utilisées. Des résultats intéressants ont été enregistrés pour tous les isolats testés en réduisant la croissance de B. cinerea de 9 à 22% comparativement au témoin et ce, pour les deux températures et les deux méthodes de confrontation confondues. Les isolats CH5 et MC3 de Penicillium sp. et Gv1 de G. virens ont limité le diamètre des colonies de B. cinerea de 27 à 29% en confrontation directe alors qu'à distance, cette réduction n'a pas dépassé les 21%. L'étude a également montré que le pouvoir antagoniste des isolats testés a varié selon les températures d'incubation utilisées. Les isolats CH5 (Penicillium sp.) et Gv1 (G. virens) ont été plus efficaces à 25°C (pourcentage d'inhibition de 30% et 28%) qu'à 20°C (10% et 17%, respectivement). La production des substances volatiles par les champignons testés a été plus importante à 25°C qu'à 20°C soit une réduction meilleure du diamètre des colonies du pathogène enregistrée par confrontation à distance. In vivo, les isolats Gc1 de G. catenulatum, Gv1 de G. virens et CH6 de Penicillium sp. se sont montrés les plus efficaces en réduisant la sévérité de la pourriture grise sur les fruits de tomate de 61, 60 et 46%, respectivement. Cette étude a permis la sélection d'isolats pouvant servir d'agents potentiels de lutte biologique contre cette maladie. Les tests de leurs filtrats de culture et l'optimisation des conditions de production des métabolites antifongiques sont en cours.
Eight isolates of Penicillium sp., one isolate of Gliocladium virens and one isolate of G. catenulatum, isolated from soil, were co cultured in vitro and in vivo with the tomato grey mold agent, Botrytis cinerea. Their antagonistic effect was evaluated based on two methods of confrontation (direct and at distance) and at two incubation temperature (20 and 25°C). The average diameter of pathogen colonies confronted or not with these different isolates was recorded after five days of incubation. The study showed that the in vitro pathogen growth was significantly affected by the antagonistic agent tested, the incubation temperature and the method of confrontation used. Interesting results were obtained for all isolates tested by reducing the growth of B. cinerea by 9 to 22% as compared to the control and this for both temperatures and for both confrontation methods combined. The isolates CH5 and MC3 of Penicillium sp. and Gv1 of G. virens limited the colony diameter of B. cinerea by 27 to 29% in direct confrontation, while at distance, this reduction did not exceed 21%. The study also showed that the antagonistic potential of the isolates tested varied depending on incubation temperatures used. The isolates CH5 (Penicillium sp.) and Gv1 (G. virens) were more effective at 25°C (percent of inhibition of 30% and 20%) than at 20°C (10% and 17%, respectively). The production of volatiles substances by the fungi tested was greater at 25°C than at 20°C that is a better reduction of the colony diameter of the pathogen recorded by confrontation at distance. In vivo, the isolates of Gc1 of G. catenulatum, Gv1 of G. virens and CH6 of Penicillium sp. were found to be the most effective in reducing the severity of grey mold on tomato fruits by 61, 60 and 46%, respectively. This study allowed the selection of isolates that can serve as potential biological control agents against this disease. Tests of their culture filtrates and the optimization of conditions permitting the production of the antifungal metabolites are ongoing. Résumé Huit isolats de Penicillium sp., un isolat de Gliocladium virens et un isolat de G. catenulatum, isolés à partir du sol, ont été confrontés in vitro et in vivo avec l'agent de pourriture grise de la tomate, Botrytis cinerea. Leur pouvoir antagoniste a été évalué en se basant sur deux méthodes de confrontation (directe et à distance) et sous deux températures d'incubation (20 et 25°C). Le diamètre moyen des colonies du pathogène confronté ou non avec ces différents isolats a été 42 HASSINE Marwa et al. / Tunis. J. Med. Plants Nat. Prod. 2013; 9(1): 41-51. enregistré après cinq jours d'incubation. L'étude a montré que la croissance in vitro du pathogène est significativement affectée par l'agent antagoniste testé ainsi que la température d'incubation et la méthode de confrontation utilisées. Des résultats intéressants ont été enregistrés pour tous les isolats testés en réduisant la croissance de B. cinerea de 9 à 22% comparativement au témoin et ce, pour les deux températures et les deux méthodes de confrontation confondues. Les isolats CH5 et MC3 de Penicillium sp. et Gv1 de G. virens ont limité le diamètre des colonies de B. cinerea de 27 à 29% en confrontation directe alors qu'à distance, cette réduction n'a pas dépassé les 21%. L'étude a également montré que le pouvoir antagoniste des isolats testés a varié selon les températures d'incubation utilisées. Les isolats CH5 (Penicillium sp.) et Gv1 (G. virens) ont été plus efficaces à 25°C (pourcentage d'inhibition de 30% et 28%) qu'à 20°C (10% et 17%, respectivement). La production des substances volatiles par les champignons testés a été plus importante à 25°C qu'à 20°C soit une réduction meilleure du diamètre des colonies du pathogène enregistrée par confrontation à distance. In vivo, les isolats Gc1 de G. catenulatum, Gv1 de G. virens et CH6 de Penicillium sp. se sont montrés les plus efficaces en réduisant la sévérité de la pourriture grise sur les fruits de tomate de 61, 60 et 46%, respectivement. Cette étude a permis la sélection d'isolats pouvant servir d'agents potentiels de lutte biologique contre cette maladie. Les tests de leurs filtrats de culture et l'optimisation des conditions de production des métabolites antifongiques sont en cours.
The potential of using antagonistic yeast Metschnikowia pulcherrimas alone or in combination with ultraviolet-C (UV-C) treatment for controlling Alternaria rot of winter jujube, and its effects on postharvest quality of fruit was investigated. The results showed that spore germination of Alternaria alternata was significantly inhibited by each of the 3 doses (1, 5, and 10 kJ m−2) in vitro. In vivo, UV-C treatment (5 kJ m−2) or antagonist yeast was capable of reducing the percentage of infected wounds and lesion diameter in artificially inoculated jujube fruits, however, in fruit treated with combination of UV-C treatment and M. pulcherrima, the percentage of infected wounds and lesion diameter was only 16.0% and 0.60 cm, respectively. The decay incidence on winter jujube fruits treated with the combination of UV-C treatment and M. pulcherrima was 23% after storage at 0 ± 1 °C for 45 d followed by 22 °C for 7 d. None of the treatments impaired quality parameters of jujube fruit. Thus, the combination of UV-C radiation and M. pulcherrima could be an alternative to synthetic fungicides for controlling postharvest Alternaria rot of winter jujube.
Isolates of Trichoderma species from hot arid regions, fungicides and their combinations were evaluated for the management of ber fruit rot at post-harvest stage. Out of 16 isolates of Trichoderma species, six isolates checked growth of mycelia of Alternaria alternata by more than 55%. A distinct variation in the inherent level of resistance in these six isolates was recorded against 13 common fungicides. None of the Trichoderma species grew in PDA amended with carbendazim even at a very low concentration. In contrast, 100 per cent radial growth was observed in Trichoderma citrinoviride isolate T.c-CIAH224 in the presence of copper oxychloride (250μgg−1) and mancozeb (100μgg−1) in PDA medium. Isolate T.v-CIAH240 was antagonistic against A. alternata and tolerant to most of the fungicides tested. This isolate was highly compatible with chlorothalonil, dinocap and wettable sulphur even at 1000μgg−1 and produced yellowish instead of normal green coloured conidia. Isolate of Trichoderma koningii –T.k-CIAH176, T. citrinoviride –T.c-CIAH224 and those of Trichoderma viride –T.v-CIAH181 and T.v-CIAH240 with inherent tolerance to some of the fungicides have shown better efficacy to suppress the fruit rot pathogen in dual cultures. However isolate T.v-CIAH240 was significantly superior in vitro in the suppression (71%) of the A. alternata through mycoparasitism and apparent secretion of secondary metabolites in the growth medium. Mycoparasitism and competition with the fruit rot pathogen were the mode of action in the majority of the isolates. The growth of A. alternata was completely inhibited in PDA amended with dinocap, propiconazole and tridemorph irrespective of the concentrations. In experiments in vivo, isolate T.v-CIAH240 was significantly effective (75% PEDC- Per cent Efficiency of Disease Control) against post-harvest infection by A. alternata followed by T.v-SBI48 (62 PEDC) and T.v-CIAH149 (44 PEDC). Among the individual fungicide treatments, dinocap and copper oxychloride (50μgg−1) resulted in 52 PEDC. However, dinocap caused a scorching effect and a foul smell in fruits. Fruit rot control efficacy was enhanced to >70% by T.v-CIAH240 with tridemefon, thiophanate methyl, mancozeb or alcidine at 50μgg−1 and to >80% with 100μgg−1 of thiophanate methyl, chlorothalonil, mancozeb and alcidine in ber fruits (cv. Gola). There was a non-significant latent infection caused by isolates T.k-CIAH176, T.c-CIAH224 (T. citrinoviride) and T.v-CIAH240. Such a latent infection was completely suppressed by low concentrations of fungicides when used in combination with T.v-CIAH240. The possible hypothesis involved in management of A. alternata in ber fruits at post-harvest stages using fungicides, Trichoderma species and their combinations is discussed.
Origins and economic importanceGeneral fruit anatomyFruit developmentFruit ripeningPost-harvest handlingSelective gaseous atmosphere storagePost-harvest diseaseGenetic transformationConclusion
Efficacy and mode of action were investigated fox Aureobasidium pullulans, a potential biocontrol agent for grey mould on strawberry fruit. Wound inoculation of detached green strawberry cv. Elsanta
fruit with Aureobasidium pullulans prevented grey mould rot on fruit inoculated 2 days later with Botrytis cinerea. Treatment of white, pink and red-ripe fruit did not, however, control grey mould. Treatment of wound sites on green fruit
with both live and heat-killed A. pullulans cells reduced B. cinerea infection compared to controls. Dip-inoculation of unwounded green strawberry fruit with A pullulans when still attached to the plant delayed the development of grey mould after harvest at the fully ripe stage. The (i) efficacy
of A. pullulans on green but not on ripening fruit, (ii) partial inhibitory effect of both live and heat-killed A. pullulans cells and (iii) absence of evidence for antibiotic production from in vitro competition tests suggest that control of grey mould on green fruit is at least partly due to a mechanism other than antagonism
and / or competition. Bioassays showed that skin tissue from green fruit treated with A. pullulans had greater antifungal activity than control tissue. Thus, enhanced natural disease resistance in green strawberry fruit
contributed to grey mould rot suppression by A. pullulans.
Additional keywords
Botrytis cinerea
–postharvest
Dissertação (Mestrado) -- Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia.
Comparaison des traitements chimiques (benomyl) et microbiologiques (Bacillus subtilis) du point de vue efficacite et couts, pour la lutte contre Monilia fructicola inoculee sur des fruits. Generalisation des problemes de lutte contre les agents phytopathogenes infectant les fruits et legumes apres recolte
Isolates from different species-groups of Trichoderma were tested for growth, production of non-volatile inhibitors, volatile inhibitors and hyphal interaction against Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr. and Mucor mucedo Fr. at 5, 10 and 20 °C. Most isolates tested were antagonistic against the test fungi. Inhibition of growth by non-volatile metabolites from Trichoderma species was most severe at the lowest temperature, whereas more isolates produced volatile inhibitors at higher temperatures. No effect of temperature was observed on the hyphal interaction. Contrary to a previous report it was shown that carbon dioxide did not account for the inhibition by the volatile component.
The pathogenicity of Gliocladium roseum, isolated in a previous study as the sole organism from potato tubers with typical Fusarium dry-rot lesions, was investigated. Although usually considered to be a saprophyte, G. roseum was pathogenic to potato tubers (cv. Up-to-date) after artificial inoculation. It caused raised dry-rot lesions from which it was consistently reisolated. This is the first report that dry rot of potato tubers is caused by G. roseum.
The effect of temperature on the growth and antagonistic properties of Trichoderma species against Botrytis cinerea and Mucor mucedo (strawberry fruit pathogens) was studied. Five strongly antagonistic isolates were further used in field experiments. The incidence of pre-harvest rots caused by B. cinerea and the rate of post-harvest spoilage were similarly reduced when strawberry flowers were sprayed either with the fungicide dichlofluanid or with spores of selected Trichoderma isolates. © 1977 Koninklijke Nederlandse Planteziektenkundige Vereniging.
The effects of the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and Paecilomyces lilacinus on populations of the black bug (Scotinophara coarctata) were studied. Adult black bugs were kept on rice plants in screen cages in the field. Cages were placed in four different plots in two different rice fields. Two different fungal materials were tested, suspensions of conidia and mass-produced dry mycelium. The numbers of bugs were significantly reduced in all fungal treatments compared to the control over a period up to 9 weeks, except in one of the plots where severe drought hampered control. In addition, numbers of nymphs were suppressed by the fungi in the well-irrigated plots. The overall performance of the different species of fungi and different materials was similar. Implementation of dry mycelium preparations of the fungi in integrated control programs for the black bug should be considered.
Trichoderma as a biocontrol agent against soil borne root pathogens Trichoderma -Application, mode of action, and potential as a biocontrol agent of soilborne plant pathogenic fungiEditor) Innovative Approaches to Plant Disease Control
- I Chet
- Y And Henis
Chet, I. and Henis, Y., 1985. Trichoderma as a biocontrol agent against soil borne root pathogens. Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Plant Pathology, Melbourne, Australia. Chet, I., 1987. Trichoderma -Application, mode of action, and potential as a biocontrol agent of soilborne plant pathogenic fungi. In Chet I. (Editor) Innovative Approaches to Plant Disease Control. J. Wiley, New York, Chichester. pp. 137-170.
Estudio del antagonismo entre Trichoderma ~'iride Tul. y las diferentes especies de hongos causantes de podrendumbres sobre fruta de pepita Communicaciones del III Congreso Nacional de Fitopa-tologia
- I J Palazon
- C F Palazon
Palazon, I.J. and Palazon, C.F., 1984. Estudio del antagonismo entre Trichoderma ~'iride Tul. y las diferentes especies de hongos causantes de podrendumbres sobre fruta de pepita. In L.G. Llobet (Editor), Communicaciones del III Congreso Nacional de Fitopa-tologia. 29 Oct.-2 Nov. 1984. Puerto de la Cruz. Tenerife -Islas Canarias. pp. 273-278.
Susceptibility of larvae of Rhodnius prolixus (Triatominae) to the entomopathogenic Hyphomycetes
- Romana
Romana, C.A. and Fargues, J., 1987. Susceptibility of larvae of Rhodnius prolixus (Tri-atominae) to the entomopathogenic Hyphomycetes. Entomophaga. 32: 167-180.
Trichoderma as a biocontrol agent against soil borne root pathogens
- Chet
Trichoderma — Application, mode of action, and potential as a biocontrol agent of soilborne plant pathogenic fungi
- Chet
Estudio del antagonismo entre Trichoderma viride Tul. y las diferentes especies de hongos causantes de podrendumbres sobre fruta de pepita
- Palazon
Use of Trichoderma spp. in biological control of necrotrophic pathogens
- Tronsmo
Citrus Diseases and their Control
- Fawcett
Biological control of grey mold disease on various crops
- Shimshom