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The Effectiveness of Communication Skills Training With Married Couples: Does the Issue Discussed Matter?
Abstract
This study experimentally examines the speaker-listener technique on marital satisfaction and communication behaviors when couples (N = 30) were instructed to either discuss an issue within or outside the marriage on marital satisfaction and communication behaviors. This study was based the Gottman et al. hypothesis that the speaker-listener technique would lead to improved marital satisfaction when the couple is discussing a third-party issue, but discussing an issue about each other would weaken the marital relationship. A series of analyses of covariance were conducted on these data, and no differences were found between the two groups on their self-reported marital satisfaction or communication skills behaviors, which were not support the Gottman et al. hypothesis. Possible interpretations of these data and areas for further investigation are suggested.
... Speci cally, most of the studies were from different corners of the world, including from Region of American two studies (17,20), Eastern Mediterranean Region seven studies (18,19,(22)(23)(24)26,27), Southeast Asian region (01 studies) (21). The included studies were published between January 1, 2010, December 31, 2020. ...
... Regarding the content and depth of the included studies, most of them were experimental studies with pretest-posttest and follow up with a waiting-list or no-treatment control group. Out of the 11 studies, 5 were Quasi-experimental studies, with Pretest Posttest and control group design (18,19,22,23,25), 4 were Qazi-experimental studies with pretest, post-test, control group and follow-up (20,24,26,27), 1 experimental study, with group A and Group B, compares two different interventions (17) and 1 ...
... Two studies (16.7%) (20,21), compared marital counseling and PREP group intervention and its effect in similar population on marital quality before (Pretests) and after (Posttest) intervention. Conversely, one study (8.5%) discussions on the emotionally charged issue within their marriage and outside their marriage (17). Outcome Marital con ict refers to an open or latent antagonism between marriage partners due to various reasons including, sexual disagreement, child-rearing differences, temperamental and, religious differences and disagreements over money management that could result in a lot of adverse conditions unless managed properly (1) was the primary outcome of the current study. ...
Background: Marital life is an important social institution that greatly influences the health and well-being of individuals and the entire society. Inherently, marriage is a complex phenomenon that the risks for marital instability are ubiquitous including social upheavals, stay home order due to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID 19). Several studies have been proposed different interventions to optimize the quality of marital life. However, problems related to marital conflict are getting worse and there are uncertainties about the effectiveness of the interventions. Thus, the current systematic review was aimed at examining the effectiveness of interventions in reducing a variety of aspects of marital conflict among the cohort of married couples.
Methods: Randomized controlled trial (RCT) and Qazi experimental studies describing the effectiveness of marital couple interventions published over the last 10 years were retrieved from six electronic databases using different search terms, Medical subject heading (MeSH) terms “Marital therapy”, “Couple therapy”, or “Marital couple therapy” included in this study. The risk of bias in individual studies assessed based on the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool. The effectiveness of the interventions was examined by comparing the intervention group with those who did not receive the intervention.
Results: A total of 14, 536 records are searched from 6 databases, and eleven of these studies are included in the final systematic review and meta-analysis. Overall, the included studies were identified to have a low risk of bias and a substantial level of heterogeneity (I2 =96%). The meta-analysis confirmed that marital couple’s interventions significantly improved marital conflict among distressed couples (Pooled effect size, -1.71, [-2.93, -0.49])
Conclusions: This finding indicated that marital couples’ interventions effectively reduce marital conflict among a cohort of married couples. Thus, marital counselors and educators are strongly suggested to compile and use the interventions outline in this study.
Funding: There is no source of funding, that, the authors have no competing interests to declare.
Systematic review registration: This study is registered as PROSPERO: CRD42020218280
... This communication pattern is significantly associated with dissatisfaction in the relationship, intimate partner violence [68,[73][74][75] and relationship dissolution [76,77]. Additionally, there is evidence that wives utilize the pattern of demand-withdraw interaction by presenting nagging, negative affect and criticism within conflict, while husbands avoid conflict or discussion. ...
... The instruments for data collection were the Demographic Questionnaire, Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (RDAS) [74] and Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ) [32]. In this study, the Persian version using the double-back translation method with appropriate psychometric procedures of RDAS [54] and CPQ [85] were conducted. ...
Amounting evidence indicates that insufficient knowledge of marital communication skills leads to destructive interactions and poor marital adjustments in couples, especially during stressful situations. Despite the high effectiveness of Gottman's psychoeducational intervention, there is a lack of study on the online Gottman's psychoeducation intervention (O-GPI) to improve marital communication and dyadic adjustments. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of O-GPI on the improvement of marital communication patterns among Iranian couples.
Method:
The study followed a single-blind parallel group in a randomized controlled trial using an experimental longitudinal design, comprising 72 heterosexual couples living in Shiraz, Iran, with a 1-7-year marital age and no severe marital problems. The experimental group received eight consecutive O-GPIs via the Zoom platform, while the control group received information related to parenting skills via email. The outcome measures were the three patterns of communication: (i) constructive communication; (ii) demand-withdraw communication; and (iii) mutual avoidance communication-the screening measure was the dyadic adjustment scale.
Results:
The findings indicated that O-GPI could improve couples' constructive communication significantly (45% for husbands and 40% wives) and decrease their total demand-withdrawal (51% for husbands and 65% wives) and mutual avoidance communication (60% for husbands and 62% wives).
Limitations:
Due to the homogenous nature of the sample, generalizations should be made with caution.
Conclusions:
This study demonstrates the feasibility and effectiveness of the online Gottman's psychoeducational intervention to improve couples' communication patterns.
... In response to these vicious cycles and patterns, Gottman (1999) found protective factors, including accepting influence, using softened start-ups, repair attempts, and stress-reducing conversations, help intimate relationships become more adaptive and allow couples to experience more relational improvements. These concepts have been studied and have been found to distinguish happy from unhappy couples Cornelius, Alessi, & Shorey, 2007;David, 2015;Davoodvandi, Navabi Nejad, & Farzad, 2018;Gottman & Gottman, 2015). ...
This study examined the effectiveness of couple therapy based on the Gottman method in decreasing emotional divorce and improving verbal-nonverbal communication skills among Iranian couples dealing with conflicts. The design of the study was quasi-experimental with pretest and posttest, and a wait list control group. The sample for the study consisted of 14 voluntary couples who sought therapy at a mental health clinic in Iran. Participants were assessed using the Emotional Divorce Scale and Primary Communication Inventory questionnaires. Analysis of covariance models were used. Results of the study showed that the Gottman method reduced emotional divorce and improved their verbal-nonverbal communication skills (P < .05).
... Miner (2004) religious disagreements among family members, causing family problems and thus reduce the satisfaction and ultimately increase knows divorce [28]. The study showed that religious couples who are more verbal communication with each other in their marital relationships are more successful [29]. ...
Background: One of the most important determinants of health and marital satisfaction, the family and religious adherence can be effective because religion includes guidelines for life and providing a system of beliefs and values make these features can affect family life.
Approach: This descriptive research - an analysis performed to assess the level of satisfaction of 47 questionnaires marital satisfaction questionnaire whose validity and reliability were evaluated and a couple of them asked to assess adherence to religion. The study population included 382 couples in Tehran that a cluster of 22 districts of Tehran were the selected. To analyze the data, ANOVA, Chi-square, and Pearson correlation coefficient using the software SPSS (version 22) became all tests were performed at the 5% level.
Results: The data showed that the average age is 34 for women and 38 years for men and the majority of couples are in appropriate level in religiosity (40.5 percent). The results showed a main direct relation among religiosity and marital satisfaction of men and women (p ≤ 0.001). The correlation among religiosity and marital satisfaction of women r = 0.271 and this factor in men r = 0.200 was obtained indicating a direct relationship was significant.
Conclusion: couples who were both committed to religion, their marital satisfaction score was more than couples without adherence to religion, and thus promoting religious beliefs and commitment can increase their marital satisfaction in couples.
... This finding was consistent with the previous findings (such as Markman et al. 1988, Markman et al. 1993, Burentt, 1994, Heavey et al., 1997, Stanley et al., 1999, Stanley et al., 2001, Schilling et al., 2003, Stanley et al., 2006and Lambert et al., 2009 In explaining this finding, Hawkins et al. (2008) demonstrated that empowerment training taught couples the skills needed to face the challenges of marital life and prepared them to deal effectively with the problems of life. In addition, it trained couples set of skills to prevent the occurrence and development of marital problems (Cornelius et al., 2007, Lieser et al., 2007. One of the other main reasons of effectiveness of empowerment training program on the decline of marital conflicts is the homework that is given to the participants in each session to practice the session content at home. ...
The purpose of the present study was to examine the impact of training spouses of veterans in empowerment skills on their marital conflict which was conducted in Bandar Abbas. This study was quasi-experiment (pre and posttest) with control group. From 95 spouses of veterans with mental illness who wished to participate and had the criteria to take part in the study, 50 were selected and randomly were assigned to experimental and control groups. Before manipulating the independent variable in both control and experimental groups, pre-test was performed by using marital conflict questionnaire. Then, women in experimental group received empowerment skills training for 8 sessions while women in control group didn't. In the end, both groups took the posttest. Our findings indicated that the impact of empowerment skills training on declining marital conflicts of wives of veterans with mental illness was significant (P <.001, F=45.13). Moreover, the results indicated that empowerment skills have significantly improved the following dimensions, "reduced cooperation", "sexual intercourse", "increased emotional reactions", and "relationship with spouse's relatives and friends" respectively (p < 0.05). The study showed that empowerment skills can be taught and learned and lead to decline marital conflict.
... In this regard, holding training courses of marriage relationships skills with Gottman method for stabilizing martial relationships improved relationships skills of couples, so that this improvement remained for a long time and hope to improve the relationships also increased (Westerop, 2002). The results of another study performed to prevent marital dissatisfaction and divorce basd on Gottman's theory showed that that couples who participated in this program had more positive emotions, better relationships and better problem solving behaviors (Cornelius and Alessi, 2007). Also, the results of study by Johnson (2000), according to Gottman theory entitled behavioral differences on disconsolate and normal couples showed that couples who tend to focus on positive aspects of spouse and have less focus on negative aspects, have happier life, more satisfaction and more sustainable relationships. ...
Background and Aims: marital satisfaction is one of the most important factors of progress and achieving life goals which is affected by couples' emotional stability. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to study the effectiveness of training the principles of improving the relationships based on Gottman's method on couples' marital satisfaction in Tehran. Materials and Method: It was a quasi- experimental research with pretest-posttest and control group. Statistical population involved all the couples without child that at least two years have passed since their marriage and they referred to psychotherapy and family health clinics in Tehran in 2013 and 2014. The sample included 40 couples who referred to these clinics to get marital counseling and they were selected by random cluster sampling. Then, they randomly divided into control and experimental groups (20 couples in each group). ENRICH couple scale (1997) and Gottman's couples' therapy scale (2009) was used to collect data in both pretest and posttest. The experimental group exposed to the independent variable (training the principles of improving the relationships based on Gottman's method) for two sessions of five hours. Statistical analyses performed to analyze data included ANCOVA test. Findings: The findings showed that training the principles of improving the relationships based on Gottman's method had no significant effect on couples' marital satisfaction (P > .05); but has been effective on its subscales (emotional relationships, quality of sexual relationships s, trust, compromise and commitment) (P ≤ .05). Results: The results showed that training the principles of improving the relationships based on Gottman's method can be a very effective way to increase marital satisfaction subscales and improve the couples' relationships.
... Given that conflicts are an unavoidable feature of close relationships, a large body of research has examined how individuals' strategies for managing these conflicts relate to the functioning of the couple (McGinn, McFarland, & Christensen, 2009). According to this body of research, the use of a constructive style promotes positive and satisfying relationships, which generate more open discussions and compromise strategies in conflict situations (Cornelius, Alessi, & Shorey, 2007). By contrast, destructive conflict resolution strategies, such as conflict engagement and withdrawal, predicted poor satisfaction and subjective well-being in couples, increasing the likelihood that conflicts will escalate (Siffert & Schwarz, 2011). ...
Although there is ample evidence linking insecure attachment styles and intimate partner violence (IPV), little is known about the psychological processes underlying this association, especially from the victim's perspective. The present study examined how attachment styles relate to the experience of sexual and psychological abuse, directly or indirectly through destructive conflict resolution strategies, both self-reported and attributed to their opposite-sex romantic partner. In an online survey, 216 Spanish undergraduates completed measures of adult attachment style, engagement and withdrawal conflict resolution styles shown by self and partner, and victimization by an intimate partner in the form of sexual coercion and psychological abuse. As predicted, anxious and avoidant attachment styles were directly related to both forms of victimization. Also, an indirect path from anxious attachment to IPV victimization was detected via destructive conflict resolution strategies. Specifically, anxiously attached participants reported a higher use of conflict engagement by themselves and by their partners. In addition, engagement reported by the self and perceived in the partner was linked to an increased probability of experiencing sexual coercion and psychological abuse. Avoidant attachment was linked to higher withdrawal in conflict situations, but the paths from withdrawal to perceived partner engagement, sexual coercion, and psychological abuse were non-significant. No gender differences in the associations were found. The discussion highlights the role of anxious attachment in understanding escalating patterns of destructive conflict resolution strategies, which may increase the vulnerability to IPV victimization.
... The studies indicate that training communication skills has been set forth as the peaceful discussions and it is more effective than the temporal & educational programs applied for primary & secondary prevention in reducing the couple's disintegration & distress (35).Training communication skills results in family efficiency in issues such as problem solving, communications, roles, emotional accompaniment, emotional association or intercommunion, behavior control, & general family function (36). The more positive interaction between the couple, the higher problem solving & negotiation skills while the higher the negative interactions between them ,the fewer the problem solving & negotiation skills .Also the studies imply that on the one hand, the couple's negative interaction is the negative predictor of decision making skills ,and on the other hand, the couple's with higher positive interaction can talk about their good memories .The couple with good solving problem, negotiation and decision making skills & good memories report higher marriage compatibility (37). ...
Background:
physical problems during pregnancy including Anxiety disorders form a large share of health problems. On the other hand, healthy relationship and communication skills are vital to raise a family. For couples who enjoy communication skills, parenthood will be the best and most pleasant experiences in their lives. High levels of positive communication will lead to couples and their children's mental health and couples' good relationship can have a protective effect against stressors including anxiety of pregnancy. The current study reviewed the studies on the relationship between communication skills and the anxiety of pregnancy.
Methods:
The current study is a review where the researcher browsed the available databases like Google Scholar, Pubmed, Magiran, SID, and Science Direct and using key words of Communication skills, marital satisfaction, and the anxiety of pregnancy, & the researcher has searched the articles of 2000-2014 & read 150 abstracts & 93 full papers and ultimately, chose 50 to write this study.
Results:
By reviewing the findings literature in three general categories as Communication Skills as the Significant Component to Get Marital Satisfaction, Improving Marital Satisfaction as Pregnancy Anxiety Reducing Factor, and Communication Skills Quality as Component Influencing Pregnancy Anxiety.
Conclusions:
Having communication skills will lead to promotion of marital satisfaction and increased mental health in life. It is, therefore, recommended that communication skills be trained in routine programs for pre-marriage counseling, pre-pregnancy cares and pregnancy so that the mental health of community can be improved.
... Con respecto a los instrumentos que se crearon a partir del estudio exploratorio, se realizaron tres escalas válidas y confiables, dos enfocadas al área cognoscitiva del proceso de comunicación (escala de barreras y de facilitadores) y una enfocada en el área conductual (escala de interacción). Ambas áreas de la comunicación (cognoscitiva y conductual) son importantes para la relación de pareja (Hendrick & Hendrick, 2000), ya que lo que piensan y lo que hacen las personas al momento de comunicarse son los elementos que utilizan las parejas para evaluar su relación, por lo que es importante que el psicólogo mida estas áreas para tener una visión global de la misma (Cornelius, Alessi & Shorey, 2007) Las tres escalas ofrecen una evaluación importante de la comunicación en la relación de pareja. ...
Communication revolves around two aspects: cognition, what is thought before giving a message, and the behavioral action used during communication. Research on couples communication has centered on observing interaction in pre-established contexts and situations that may not reflect reality. An alternative is to use self administered reports that can include multiple settings. However, the issue of evaluating the cognitive process that facilitate or hinder communication has still to be resolved. In response, the objective of this research project was to develop and validate a psychometric instrument that will measure communication in a bidirectional fashion, with emphasis on the cognitive process that occur during such interaction. 351 adults cohabiting with their couple participated. The first scale named communication facilitators yielded four conceptually clear and statistically robust factors (explained variance=61.58% & =.959); the second scale refers to barriers to communication and has six factors (explained variance66.02% & =.951); and the third evaluates communication in the interaction has three factors (explained variance=42.69% & =.881).
... Hafen & Crane, 2003), Gottman has been widely acknowledged by several scholars as one of the most influential researchers in the field of marriage and family therapy (Fincham & Beach, 1999; see also Cornelius, Alessi, & Shorey, 2007;Parra & Busby, 2006;Hicks, McWey, Benson, & West, 2004;Fincham, 2003;Stanley, Bradbury, & Markman, 2000). ...
... In other words, even when holding actual negative behaviors constant across couples, distressed couples may report more negative experiences than do nondistressed couples. Recent research has found that sentiment override often occurs in romantic relationships and it may be a marker of individual perceptions of the quality of their relationships (Cornelius, Alessi, & Shorey, 2007;Story et al., 2007). Moreover, wives may engage in sentiment override to a greater degree than husbands (Hawkins, Carrere, & Gottman, 2002). ...
Although observational studies of romantic relationships are common, many existing coding schemes require considerable amounts of time and resources to implement. The current study presents a new coding scheme, the Brief Romantic Relationship Interaction Coding Scheme (BRRICS), designed to assess various aspects of romantic relationship both quickly and efficiently. The BRRICS consists of four individual coding dimensions assessing positive and negative affect in each member of the dyad, as well as four codes assessing specific components of the dyadic interaction (i.e., positive reciprocity, demand-withdraw pattern, negative reciprocity, and overall satisfaction). Concurrent associations with measures of marital adjustment and conflict were evaluated in a sample of 118 married couples participating in the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Couples were asked to discuss common conflicts in their marriage while being videotaped. Undergraduate coders used the BRRICS to rate these interactions. The BRRICS scales were correlated in expected directions with self-reports of marital adjustment, as well as children's perception of the severity and frequency of marital conflict. Based on these results, the BRRICS may be an efficient tool for researchers with large samples of observational data who are interested in coding global aspects of the relationship but do not have the resources to use labor intensive schemes.
Experiences of dating violence are widespread among adolescents. Therefore, increasing the understanding on the developmental antecedents is crucial. However, most existing studies involve cross-sectional designs, which poses a challenge in better understanding the developmental precursors of dating violence victimization. To address this, we examine age 13 predictors of age 17 dating violence victimization in a culturally diverse sample of 643 participants (57.3% girls). Negative binomial regression models showed some significant associations between self-reports of anxiety and depression, poly-victimization, endorsement of violence-legitimizing norms of masculinity, and having initiated sexual relationships and dating at age 13 with dating violence victimization at age 17, with variations depending on the gender of the victim and the form of dating violence measured. Findings increase longitudinal evidence in the field with the aim of informing prevention and intervention strategies that address factors associated with dating violence early in adolescence.
The primary goal of the current study was to examine the dyadic association between communication patterns (CP), dyadic coping (DC) efforts, dyadic adjustment (DA), and parenting practices (PP), using a sample of 340 married couples ( N = 680) in India. The findings from the actor–partner interdependence mediation modeling (APIMeM) indicated that the husbands showed both actor and partner effects between all the variables. The actor and partner effects were not significant for the link between communication patterns and dyadic coping for wives. Still, they showed significant actor and partner effects for the association between dyadic coping and dyadic adjustment, as well as parenting practices. One’s own and spouse’s dyadic coping mediated the association between communication patterns and dyadic adjustment and parenting practices for husbands but not wives. These findings shed light on the communication and coping mechanisms and their link with adjustment and parenting practices among couples beyond Western cultural contexts.
This study analyzed the behaviors during married couples’ problem solving interactions with Markov analysis and test the predictable effect of these behaviors on marital satisfaction. The study involved 25 married couples. The findings show that gender had a significant effect on the behaviors during the interaction. Positive behaviors such as positive solution and acceptance facilitated the couples’ understanding each other, listening made the experienced problems clearer, criticizing such as making excuses caused a reaction that was ineffective; negative behaviors predicted marital satisfaction significantly.
Introduction: Practical Application of Intimate Relationship Skills program is a marriage enrichment program which notifies couples to realize the importance of intimate relationships through putting emphasis on the need for intimacy. The present study was conducted by the aim of investigating the effect of group training based on practical application of intimate relationship skills program on marital relationship quality.
Materials & methods: The current study used a quasi-experimental method with pretest-posttest with control group design. The population of the study consisted of all the couples visiting Golha health house in the 6th district of Tehran in 2013. The sample included 20 couples who were selected by available sampling method, and were randomly assigned to experiment and control groups (10 pairs each). The research tool was The Golombok-Rust Inventory of Marital Status (GRIMS, 1998) which was completed by the participants in the pre-test and post-test phases. Practical application of intimate relationship skills program was performed in thirteen 1.5 hour sessions for couple of the experiment group, but the control group received no intervention.
Findings: The results of univariable covariance analysis indicated that practical application of intimate relationship skills program promoted the quality of marital relationship in the couples of the experiment group, compared to the control group at posttest (F=46.43, P=0/000).
Discussion & Conclusions: The practical application of intimate relationship skills is effective in improving the quality of marital relationships. This program can be used as a marriage enrichment program for the purpose of preventing problems and improving couples’ relationships.
Although most couples enter marriage with the expectation of general marital happiness, a substantial proportion of couples will experience significant marital discord above and beyond the general disillusionment and gradual decline in satisfaction that occurs naturally over the course of marriage. With this in mind, researchers have attempted to better understand the correlates of marital discord. One robust correlate that emerges from the empirical literature that may contribute to marital discord is violence. Marital violence can operate in a variety of forms and settings, and there is evidence to suggest that both husbands and wives may perpetrate violence during the course of the marriage. Additionally, the consequences of marital violence are numerous, with victims often experiencing both psychological and physical injuries. Furthermore, the presence of physical aggression in a relationship is concurrently and prospectively associated with greater marital dissatisfaction and increases the likelihood of marital dissolution, even after controlling for psychological aggression, relationship length, and prior marital satisfaction. There is also evidence to suggest that the manifestation of marital violence is heterogeneous, such that individuals engage in this behavior for a variety of functions and in numerous topographies (Holtzworth-Munroe, 2000). Thus, singular explanations for why married couples use aggression against each other are of limited utility. Instead, researchers should focus on how numerous correlates, particularly those that are potentially changeable and easily accessible for interventions, interact to produce violence in marital relationships. One potentially accessible group of married couples are newlyweds, as research suggests that approximately half of recently married couples report physical aggression in their relationship (O'Leary et al., 1989). Furthermore, several other proximal correlates of marital violence have been identified by the empirical literature, including emotional regulation, aberrant communication skills, and poor problem-solving skills. These variables, because they are potentially malleable, may be viable targets of interventions designed to reduce marital violence. The purpose of this chapter, then, is to review the research on accessible populations and potentially changeable correlates that contribute to the manifestation of violence in marital relationships. Specifically, the data on newlywed couples and skill deficits (emotion dysregulation, poor communication skills, and deficient problem-solving skills) will be reviewed in relation to marital violence. A discussion of future research directions and implications of these correlates for marital violence intervention and prevention programming will also be provided.
This article reviews some of the controversy surrounding the use and effectiveness of active listening or the Speaker—Listener Technique (SL) in relational counseling. The purpose and function of SL is described and two case studies are presented to illustrate how SL operates in a therapeutic setting and how the outcomes can vary. These case studies help clarify the factors associated with the outcome of this technique and include relationship commitment, agreement on therapeutic goals, presence of Axis I disorders, and the ability to self-soothe. Additional benefits to using SL are listed and finally, suggestions for successful implementation of the technique and ideas for future research are offered.
A psychoeducational model for improving couple communication is proposed. An important goal in couples counseling is to assist couples in resolving communication conflicts. The proposed communication model helps to establish a therapeutic environment that encourages insight, therapeutic alliance formation, catharsis, self-disclosure, symptom relief, and positive outcome.
This study experimentally examined the Speaker-Listener technique when couples (N= 30) were instructed to either discuss an issue within or outside their marriage, on marital satisfaction, and communication behaviors. This study examined the J. M. Gottman, J. Coan, S. Carrere, and C. Swanson (1998) hypothesis that the Speaker-Listener technique may lead to improved marital satisfaction when the couple is discussing a third party issue, but discussing an issue about each other may weaken the marital relationship. Behavioral and physiological data during marital interactions were sequentially analyzed. Results suggested that the Speaker-Listener technique reduced negativity but did not increase positivity in marital interactions. There were significant differences in positive reciprocity across the 2 experimental groups, but no differences in negativity. Additionally, adherence to the Speaker-Listener technique was poor, which has implications for both research and theory. Possible interpretations and areas for further investigation are suggested.
Communication behaviors, while extensively studied within the marital field, have received only peripheral attention in violent
dating relationships. The purpose of this research was to better establish empirical continuity between the marital and dating
literatures by exploring communication variables that have been identified in marital relationships broadly and their self-reported
manifestation in violent dating relationships. Using Gottman’s (1999) marital communication conceptualization, individuals were assessed on adaptive and maladaptive communication variables and
relationship aggression. Results suggested that negative communication behaviors were associated with, and predicted, aggression
in participants’ dating relationships, consistent with findings from the marital literature. However, repair attempts, generally
considered an adaptive communication behavior, predicted aggression victimization. Implications and how these data fit within
the context of recent research on positive marital communication behaviors are explored.
KeywordsPartner abuse-Dating-Communication skills
This reply to E. Z. Woody and P. R. Costanzo's (see record
1991-01068-001) critique responds on both methodological and substantive grounds. The methodological grounds are that Woody and Costanzo misrepresented the issues in deciding whether to use change scores, partial correlations, or regression analyses or residuals. Regression toward the mean is misunderstood in their comment with respect to the issue of extreme groups. Futhermore, the problems they point out with the correlation of Time 1 social behavior with change scores in marital satisfaction remain intact with the part and partial correlations if the test–retest correlations are high. Five alternative statistics are discussed in this reply. Each statistic may have its own problems, but they tend to be equivalent if the test–retest correlation is high. Substantively, as suggested in our paper (J. M. Gottman and L. J. Krokoff [see PA, Vol 76:25730]), the analyses presented are robust to employing partial correlations, controlling Time 1 marital satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Due to methodological limitations, past meta-analytic research was not able to identify which treatment was most effective for specific marital distress levels. By converting pre-and post-test scores from marital research into equivalent Dyadic Adjustment Scale scores, it was possible to isolate mild, moderate, and severe levels of mar-ital distress. Results show that Emotionally Focused Therapy is sig-nificantly more effective than isolated Behavioral Marital Therapy interventions for the treatment of moderate marital distress. Future directions of outcome research are also discussed. Over the years, researchers in the field of Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT) have attempted to validate the profession's existence through out-come studies and meta-analyses. The results of these studies did exactly what they were designed to do, they took a wide-angled snapshot of the field and everyone looked good from a distance. All meta-analyses to date have shown positive results when MFT has been compared to no treatment (e.g.
In a recent article, Gottman and Krokoff (1989) presented a fascinating and counterintuitive portrayal of a temporally related dynamic relationship of marital conflict and marital satisfaction. Unfortunately the results from which their conclusions spring are quite problematic. In a 2-wave, extreme-groups design, Gottman and Krokoff used raw change in satisfaction as a correlate of Time 1 conflict variables for purposes of analysis. Serious psychometric questions arise with this approach to the causal assessment of change. Given the considerations raised, there is a high likelihood that Gottman and Krokoff's data result from statistical artifact. Alternative approaches to the measurement of change are discussed in the context of illustrating the problematic components of Gottman and Krokoff's analysis.
This meta-analysis of 163 randomized trials (including 59 dissertations) examines a number of questions not studied in previous syntheses. These include differences in outcome associated with different theoretical orientations, differences between marital and family therapies versus individual therapies, the clinical significance of therapy outcome, differences between marital versus family therapies in both outcomes and problems treated, and the effects of various substantive and methodological moderators of therapy outcome. The review concludes with some observations about the methodological status of this literature.
This article discusses the outcome and process research on couple therapy and integrates the articles special section "Couples and Couple Therapy" into the discussion. All tested couple treatments show statistically significant effects relative to control groups, but there are no reliable differences between different theoretical models. Moreover, all tested approaches leave substantial numbers of couples unimproved or at least still somewhat distressed. A discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of various designs concludes that within-model comparisons have been more productive in producing knowledge than between-model comparisons. Recommendations for future research include developing a technology that would make possible matching studies focusing on Aptitude x Treatment interactions. Also, there needs to be greater emphasis on basic research and prevention.
This article reports the 4- and 5-year follow-up results of evaluating the effects of a marital distress prevention program. The program, Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP), is a 5-session program designed to teach couples effective communication and conflict management skills. At the 5-year follow-up, intervention, as compared with control, couples had higher levels of positive and lower levels of negative communication skills and lower levels of marital violence. Data are also presented on couples who declined the program. Issues are discussed concerning selection effects, change mechanisms, and future directions for prevention research.
This article examines the association between job role quality and psychological distress in a sample of 300 full-time employed dual-earner couples, controlling for such individual level variables as age, education, occupational prestige, and marital quality and for such couple level variables as length of marriage, parental status, and household income. The magnitude of this effect is compared for men and for women. Results indicate that job role quality is significantly negatively associated with psychological distress for women as well as for men and that the magnitude of the effect depends little, if at all, on gender, casting doubt on the widely held view that job experiences more significantly influence men's mental health states than women's. The results are discussed in the context of differentiating between sex differences and gender differences.
This longitudinal study predicted marital outcome from communication skills gained from participation in the Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP; H. J. Markman, S. L. Blumberg & S. M. Stanley, 1989; Stanley et al., 2001) by 39 women and 38 men. Results were in the expected direction for men but not for women. Men's pre- to posttest decrease in negative communication and increase in positive communication predicted decreased risk of marital distress onset in men. Women's pre- to posttest increase in positive communication, which was related to self-reported avoidance of problem solving, predicted an increased risk of male and female distress onset. Couples with men relatively high on premarital risk factors demonstrated a greater benefit from men's positive communication skills acquisition.
Because of its potential to answer pressing applied questions about what treatments to use with which couples as well as its potential to answer basic questions about couple functioning, outcome research on couple therapy is vital to the field. This article describes the primary methodological issues that an investigator faces in conducting outcome research during treatment development, efficacy testing, and effectiveness evaluation. Descriptions of what has been done in the past are integrated with recommendations about what should be done in the future. Mindful of the potential expense of outcome research, the authors suggest ways in which questions can be investigated cost effectively.
In a sample of 134 married couples randomly assigned to traditional or integrative behavioral couple therapy (TBCT vs. IBCT), a multivariate hierarchical growth curve analysis using latent variable regression revealed that measures of communication, behavior frequency, and emotional acceptance acted as mechanisms of change. TBCT led to greater changes in frequency of targeted behavior early in therapy, whereas IBCT led to greater changes in acceptance of targeted behavior both early and late in therapy. In addition, change in behavioral frequency was strongly related to improvements in satisfaction early in therapy; however, in the 2nd half of therapy, emotional acceptance was more strongly related to changes in satisfaction. Research and clinical implications are discussed.
In a sample of 77 recently married couples, within-person variance in cognitive appraisal was expected to predict corresponding within-person variance in communication behavior during conflict. Three types of appraisal were considered: expectancies of partner understanding, expectancies of partner negative communication, and attributions. Couples were observed in 4 different conflict conversations, completed during 2 assessment sessions, and appraisals were assessed prior to each conversation. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze within-person effects. Changes from one conversation to the next in all 3 types of appraisal predicted corresponding within-person change in communication, and many effects were larger for wives than for husbands. Results were strongest for expectancies of partner understanding. Expectancies predicted change in one's own behavior after controlling for the accuracy of the expectancy.
This reply to E. Z. Woody and P. R. Costanzo's (see record 1991-01068-001 ) critique responds on both methodological and substantive grounds. The methodological grounds are that Woody and Costanzo misrepresented the issues in deciding whether to use change scores, partial correlations, or regression analyses or residuals. Regression toward the mean is misunderstood in their comment with respect to the issue of extreme groups. Futhermore, the problems they point out with the correlation of Time 1 social behavior with change scores in marital satisfaction remain intact with the part and partial correlations if the test–retest correlations are high. Five alternative statistics are discussed in this reply. Each statistic may have its own problems, but they tend to be equivalent if the test–retest correlation is high. Substantively, as suggested in our paper (J. M. Gottman and L. J. Krokoff [see PA, Vol 76:25730]), the analyses presented are robust to employing partial correlations, controlling Time 1 marital satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
The present investigation studied couples' resolution of existing marital issues. Videotapes of distressed and nondistressed couples were coded by two groups of coders. One group categorized the content of messages, and the other group categorized the nonverbal delivery of messages by the speaker ("affect") and the nonverbal behaviors of the listener ("context"). An analysis of marital interaction was obtained from a study of content, affect, and context differences as well as from sequential analyses of the data. Findings show that this coding system made it possible to account for most of the variance in the classification of couples as distressed or nondistressed. Specific findings provided tests of many currently untested hypotheses about good communication in marriages that have been the basis of clinical interventions. The hypotheses which were studied in the present investigation involve the function of metacommunication, the expression of feelings, summarizing self versus other, feeling probes, nonverbal behavior during message delivery, context differences, and positive and negative reciprocity. Functions of messages were assessed by sequential analysis procedures.
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This paper discusses the politics of marital therapy, using behavioral marital therapy (BMT) as an illustrative model. Marital therapy is viewed as inherently political. Marital therapists continuously adopt political postures without knowing it; the inadvertent consequences of this insensitivi-ty to the political context of their work are to reinforce traditional values, many of which are oppressive to women. These political postures include an emphasis on treating dyads rather than individuals, an emphasis on behavior change, and a neglect of sex role issues. Clinical innovations are suggested: paying greater attention to whether individual well-being is promoted during the course of marital therapy; shifting toward the exploration of cognitive and perceptual processes; and expanding the emphasis of BMT on process and function to include content.
A study with 130 newlywed couples was designed to explore marital interaction processes that are predictive of divorce or marital stability, processes that further discriminate between happily and unhappily married stable couples. We explore seven types of process models: (a) anger as a dangerous emotion, (b) active listening, (c) negative affect reciprocity, (d) negative start-up by the wife, (e) de-escalation, (f) positive affect models, and (g) physiological soothing of the male. Support was not found for the models of anger as a dangerous emotion, active listening, or negative affect reciprocity. Support was found for models of the husband's rejecting his wife's influence, negative start-up by the wife, a lack of de-escalation of low intensity negative wife affect by the husband, or a lack of de-escalation of high intensity husband negative affect by the wife, and a lack of physiological soothing of the male, all predicting divorce. Support was found for a contingent positive affect model and for balance models (i.e., ratio models) of positive-to-negative affect predicting satisfaction among stable couples. Divorce and stability were predicted with 83% accuracy and satisfaction with 80% accuracy.
This paper provides a review of previous literature reviews on the effectiveness of marital therapy and evaluates the long-term efficacy of couples therapy in preventing marital separation and divorce. There is general agreement that marital therapy can be effective in reducing marital conflict and promoting marital satisfaction, at least in the short term. Research examining the long-term efficacy of couples therapy for the prevention of marital separation and divorce is sparse but promising with respect to its effectiveness in promoting marital stability. Predictors of successful marital therapy outcomes, the clinical significance of marital therapy outcomes, and the cost effectiveness of marital therapy are also discussed.
The concurrent and longitudinal associations between spousal communication and marital satisfaction were investigated using two systems of observation (rating and coding) and two statistical methods. A coding system and a rating system were used to assess the amount of positive, negative, and avoidant behavior exhibited by 30 couples engaged in a 15-minute discussion about a marital problem. Change scores as well as regression methods were used to calculate correlations between communication behaviors and one-year change in Marital Adjustment Test (MAT) scores. Positive behavior by both spouses predicted an increase in wives' satisfaction, and negative behavior by both spouses predicted a decrease in wives' satisfaction. None of the variables consistently predicted changes in husbands' satisfaction. The two systems of observation and the two methods of analysis produced similar though not identical results. The article discusses the constructs of negative and avoidant behavior, reviews limitations of standard marital research methods, and offers theoretical and methodological recommendations for future research.
This study investigated the effects of spouses' global sentiments (i.e., their marital bonds) on spouses' perceptions of their partners' specific affects. Ninety-six newlywed couples participated in the study. Positive or negative sentiment override was indicated when spouse ratings of specific affects differed from the coding of objective coders. For both positive affect and low-intensity negative affect, wives' marital bond predicted their ratings of their husbands' affect. In addition, there was evidence for positive sentiment override when wives rated husbands' low-intensity negative affect. As predicted, neither husbands nor wives were influenced by sentiment override when rating their spouses' high-intensity negative affects. These results suggest that marital bond serves as a perceptual filter through which wives evaluate their husbands' behavior.
There is ample evidence that marital dissatisfaction is associated concurrently with demand/withdraw, the marital pattern of communication in which one spouse nags or criticizes while the other avoids. However, the connection between demand/withdraw and changes in satisfaction is less clear. Some studies suggest that demand/withdraw is associated with low but steady marital satisfaction; other studies imply that demand/withdraw predicts declines in satisfaction; and still others indicate that demand/withdraw foreshadows increases in marital satisfaction. The current longitudinal study of married couples (N = 46) examined the connection between demand/withdraw and changes in satisfaction. The results suggest that the correlation between demand/withdraw and dissatisfaction endures to some extent, but also that demand/withdraw predicts increases in wives' satisfaction. Comparisons of the current study to previous studies of demand/withdraw imply that the association between demand/withdraw and marital satisfaction may be more complex than heretofore assumed, suggesting that future research ought to consider whether different ways of enacting demand/withdraw vary in their impact on marriage.
Two longitudinal studies of marital interaction were conducted using observational coding of couples attempting to resolve a high-conflict issue. We found that a different pattern of results predicts con-current marital satisfaction than predicts change in marital satisfaction over 3 years. Results suggest that some marital interaction patterns, such as disagreement and anger exchanges, which have usually been considered harmful to a marriage, may not be harmful in the long run. These patterns were found to relate to unhappiness and negative interaction at home concurrently, but they were predictive of improvement in marital satisfaction longitudinally. However, three interaction patterns were identified as dysfunctional in terms of longitudinal deterioration: defensiveness (which includes whining), stubborness, and withdrawal from interaction. Hypotheses about gender differences in roles for the maintenance of marital satisfaction are presented.
Measures of depression and marital adjustment were completed by patients hospitalized on an inpatient psychiatric unit and their spouses. Therapists also provided ratings of the patients' depression and couples' marital adjustment. Results indicated a significant negative correlation between patient self-reports of depression and marital adjustment, which was supported by the correlation between therapist ratings. These results demonstrate generalization of the previously established depression-marital maladjustment relationship from outpatients to inpatients. Analyses of sex differences indicated that, although there were no differences between depressed men and women in the severity of the depression, depressed men rated their marriages as significantly better adjusted than depressed women. Clinical implications of these findings with respect to depression and marital maladjustment are discussed.
Examined attributions for marital difficulties in 18 couples seeking therapy and in 19 couples not seeking therapy; husbands' and wives' average ages were 31.7 and 30.6 yrs, respectively, in the therapy-seeking group and 37.1 and 34.8 yrs, respectively, in the control group. Ss were asked to rate their 2 most important marital difficulties on several dimensions and indicate the extent to which they blamed their spouse for the difficulties. Findings show that distressed spouses were more likely than controls to see their partner and the relationship as the source of their difficulties, perceive the causes of their difficulties as more global, and consider the causes as more reflective of their spouses' negative attitude toward them. Results support the contention that variations in attributional patterns within marriage are related to differences in marital satisfaction. Implications for marital therapy are outlined. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this study, we examined when and whether married people engage in attributional activity or form causal attributions to explain their partners' behavior. We used an indirect probe to better approximate naturally occurring cognitive activity. We also examined the content of spouses' causal attributions, using both direct and indirect probes. Spouses were asked about frequent as well as infrequent relationship events, and about partner behaviors that had positive or negative impacts on the recipient. Husbands in unsatisfying relationships reported more attributional thoughts than did happily married husbands, whereas wives in the two groups did not differ. Behaviors having negative impacts elicited more attributional activity than did positive behaviors. Behavioral frequency and impact interacted in ways contrary to predictions. Finally, distressed couples were particularly likely to report distress-maintaining attributions and were particularly unlikely to report relationship-enhancing attributions, compared with their nondistressed counterparts.
Forty-eight couples completed a measure of relationship satisfaction and participated in 2 video-taped problem-solving interactions, 1 focused on an issue identified by the woman and 1 focused on an issue identified by the man. Thirty-six men and 36 women completed the satisfaction measure again 2.5 years later. Demandingness, and to a lesser extent withdrawal, during the interactions showed many significant associations with both Time 1 and Time 2 satisfaction. The relationship of demandingness and withdrawal to change in satisfaction was also examined using both change scores and partial correlations. Withdrawal by men and woman demand-man withdraw during discussions of issues identified by the women reliably predicted change (decline) in wives' relationship satisfaction.
A substantial body of empirical research has documented both the promise and the shortcomings of psychological interventions for preventing or ameliorating marital distress. Couple therapy reduces relationship distress and may affect individual psychopathology, such as depression. However, some couples are unresponsive and others improve but relapse later. Interventions to prevent marital distress usually produce short-term changes in behavior and relationship satisfaction, but little evidence exists demonstrating a longer-term prevention effect. Furthermore, these interventions have yet to be examined on a diverse population of couples or with a diverse set of outcome criteria (e.g. effects on children). Concern about the negative impact of marital discord and divorce will continue to provide the impetus for research on more effective means of intervening with couples. Future research could benefit from a focus on a more diverse population of couples, treatment in natural settings, the development of more powerful interventions, and the examination of those interventions over longer periods of time and with more comprehensive outcome measures.
This article offers an overview of the expanding field of couple therapy, focusing on what the author considers to be new and even revolutionary in this field. In terms of outcome research, this article suggests that differential treatment effects are discernable. Emotionally focused therapy (EFT) appears to demonstrate the best outcomes at present. The most significant differences between research studies and everyday clinical practice may be the levels of therapist supervision rather than the essential nature of clients. The manualization of treatment is also viewed positively in this review. Areas of growth are the mapping of the territory of distress, understanding the process of change, couple therapy as an effective intervention for "individual" disorders, and the integration into couple therapy of clinical research, such as the research on gender and responses in therapy, and research on adult attachment. Practitioner-scientists can contribute to this evolving field by systematic observation and by reminding researchers of the need for clinical relevance. Couple therapy is now integrating description, prediction and explanation. As a result, theory, practice and systematic investigation are beginning to create a coherent whole.
The Munich marital therapy study
- K Hahlweg
- L Schindler
- D Revenstorf
- J C Brengelmann