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Rational Actors, Equilibrium and Social Institutions

January 1995

January 1995

Authors:

Randall Calvert

Washington University in St. Louis

Content uploaded by Randall Calvert

Content may be subject to copyright.

  

          

      

   



 

        



 

 

 

 

         



 

 

 



           

         



  

  

           

           



  



      

 

           

            

           

           

  

 

        

  





           

    



  

 

     

 



        

 

       

  

 

 



        



   









     

        

  

       



 







 



  

      



 





          



 

      

          

 

          



     

 





 





         



   





        



        



     

   







   



















 



   

   









 

   

 

  





  

  

           

        



 

     

  

 





     



   





 

           



  

          



        

      

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



         

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

   

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 

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  

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      

       

          

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    

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   

        

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  

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



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 

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   

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



           



 

  

 

        





   





     



  

  

 

   

         



  

 

 

     

   

   

        

 

 



    

   

        

      

           

    

   

     

          

 





  

 

  



 



     

           



     







   

   



     

        

          





 

 

     

      

            



 

 

       

        







           

 

    





        

   



     

     

  







 

 









 

 

 

 

 

    

  

  

  

  

  

 



  





 

 

 

 



     



          











         



 



  





 

 

   

         





  

  

         

 



      

          

         

         

         





       

   

   

  

  

   

 



 

 

          



       



     

    



 



 

  

  

      

 



    

          

 











 



  

    

      

     

  

 



   

   

 

 

  



           



              

        

      

           

          

  



 

      

      

   

   

        

          



   

     



 

        

      





  

       



     

 



           

       

  



         

            

       

 

             

      

          

  

 

  

     

         



    

  

         

         

          

         

         

         

 

         

         

         

          

         

       





         

 

         

         

         

          

         

         

         



  

       

 



   

   



       

   

   

 

       



      

  









       

         





   

 



   

 

        



  

               









     

   

           



   





       



 













   



  



 

       

    

 

 

  

 

         

         

         

          

         

         

         

 

         

 



      

          

         

         

         

    

 





  

  

         

 





 



 

           

      

        





      





   







      

 

   

 

         









        



        











   



 





  





 ·

 

        







          

 

   

 



  





      





  

       

  

 



   







 

     

      



         

  

 

 









    

 











 



 



 



  

 

        

 

 



           

  







 

    



 



          

          

  

  

 

  

       

  



  

    



         



    

   







   



 



 



        



 

      

 



         



 

  



    



           

      





 

        

 

  





   



       

 









    













           



 

    

  



     





    

      

   

      

 

     

   





   

  

  

     

     

 

  









        







 



 













 



  

 

  

         

     



 

 





   





      





  

 



 

      

  

      



 

  

       

 





         

        

  







    



 



     









  

    

  

       

       





            

    



         

     

    

 









 

        

  

        

  

        

         





         

         



 

   



 

       

   

  





         

      

  



    







   

           

          

     

      

 



         











 









  



        





   





  



       



 

  

       



   

       

























 



      



 





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



 





   







     

 

   



           

    

  

  

   



 

  

   

 

     



    





 

    





 





  

         









     

          

         

   



  

  

         

 

 



















  



   

 

         

   





   

   



     

    

         

          



 













 







   

     

    



        

          







    









 

    





      











 





      

  

    

     

 







   

   

 



  

 

      

    

 





 

 





         

  





  

 



       

   

          

 

          























  



   

   







 

      

       



    

 







    

  





  

      

     



       



  





       



    



f      





  (T  1)-th



          

     

          

       

 

  



 

L  

 

   

  

 





  



       

 

  

  



 



 

         

 

        



        

         

      



         

    







  



 

 



  

 



  

 





             





   

        

  



  

        





     

 

 

   

         

  



      

            







  

 

 

           

        

      



   

     







          





         



 

 

           



  

          



     

 

    

  



        



          



    

 

          



   





 

    

 







        



    

   



     







 





       



  





    



          

   



  

       





     





         

        

            

       

 

 

  



   



          

 



       







          

   

      



      

 

      

       



          





         

    

  



 

      



 

  

 

        

 





 

  

 

  



  

   

     

    





         

     

 

   

       



  

       

    

    

 

 

   

 









     

          

 

     

   



 

       

  

 



       

    

   

 



   

   



   

      

     

   

    



    

      

 

    

 

 

    

        



           

  

 

           

 





  





 



    

           



  

    

    

       

     

       



  

 



    

  

      

 





        

            

             

     



     



   





  



  

  



          

     

    









 

 

 

          

        

 



 



   

    

              

 

    

     



 

         

  

   





  

       



 



 



  

          

     

            

           

      

       

         

          



  

   





      

    

         

 

 

   

      

          

 

    

         

        

  

  

          

  

         

         

   

     

         

 

  

           

            

           

        

  

         

         



 



         



            



          



 

       

           

   

    

             

           

           

 

  



 

  

    

            



 



         

  

           

      

   

        

 

   

        

 

 

  

     

    



    

         

   

  

        

  



  







 

       

       

        

        

 

        



      

 



         

 

        

          

 

 

           

     

  

  

           

  

  

      

     



 

  



Anger and Political Conflict Dynamics

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024

Emotions shape strategic conflict dynamics. However, the precise way in which strategic and emotional concerns interact to affect international cooperation and contention are not well understood. We propose a model of intergroup conflict under incomplete information in which agents are sensitive to psychological motivations in the form of anger. Agents become angry in response to worse-than-expected outcomes due to actions of other players. Aggression may be motivated by anger or by beliefs about preferences of members of the other group. Increasing one group’s sensitivity to anger makes that group more aggressive but reduces learning about preferences, which makes the other group less aggressive in response to bad outcomes. Thus, anger has competing effects on the likelihood of conflict. The results have important implications for understanding the complex role of anger in international relations and, more generally, the interplay between psychological and material aims in both fomenting and ameliorating conflict.

ИНСТИТУТЫ-КАК-РАВНОВЕСИЯ VS ИНСТИТУТЫ-КАК-ПРАВИЛА

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2013

Vitaly Leonidovlch Tambovtsev

1) как равновесий в некоторой игре (инсти-туты-как-равновесия, ИкР) и (2) как правил с механизмами принуждения их к исполнению (инсти-туты-как-правила, ИкП). Несколько особняком стоит подход Э. Остром и коллег, разработавших в рамках второго подхода «грамматику институтов» с довольно необычной терминологией [52]. Поскольку проблематика институционального анализа весьма актуальна для отечественной эко-номической науки, а названные понимания предполагают разную его методологию, мы считаем важным попытаться проанализировать и оценить сильные и слабые стороны данных подходов, с тем чтобы исследователи, выбирающие один из них, более четко представляли их ограничения. Кроме того, такой сравнительный анализ будет полезен, как представляется, и в рамках изучения институциональной экономики в высшей школе. Институты-как-равновесия Этот подход уходит корнями в 1960-е гг., пе-риод активного освоения экономистами тео-рии игр. «Стенфордская энциклопедия фило-софии» называет в числе его родоначальников Т. Шеллинга, Д. Льюиса и Э. Уллман-Маргалит [13]. В более поздний период он развивался в работах А. Шоттера [61], К. Шепсла [63], П. Янга [75], Р. Калверта [15] и М. Аоки [8]. Нельзя не отметить также ряд скорее математических, чем экономических исследований, придавших подходу модельную четкость [16, 33, 34, 51]. В последние годы новый интерес к «равновес-ной» трактовке институтов связан с именем А. Грейфа [28], активно полемизирующего со сторонниками «правильного» их понимания (т. е. ИкП). Основная идея ИкР заключается, как из-вестно, в том, что институты (нормы, конвен-ции) суть не правила игры, а устойчивые рав-новесия (по Нэшу) в той или иной «социеталь-ной» игре. Равновесие по Нэшу, как известно,-это комбинация стратегий, единая для каж-дого игрока, такая, что каждая индивидуаль-ная стратегия, входящая в эту комбинацию, яв-ляется наилучшим ответом на стратегии дру-гих игроков, входящие в ту же комбинацию. Соответственно, отклонение от такой инди-видуальной стратегии для любого игрока бу-дет означать снижение его полезности. Тем са-мым, ожидания игроков, что другие будут вы-бирать стратегии, входящие в названную ком-бинацию, оказываются самоисполняющимися (self-fulfilling). Сторонники ИкР подчеркивают, что институты в такой трактовке становятся эндогенными, возникающими внутри социе-тальной игры, а не вносимыми в социальные взаимодействия откуда-то извне, как ее (непо-нятно, кем введенные) правила. Иными сло-вами, институты появляются в ответ на повто-ряющиеся проблемы, с которыми сталкива-ются игроки. А. Грейф, один из наиболее активных про-пагандистов ИкР, определяет институт как «си-стему "институциональных элементов", в част-ности, убеждений, норм и ожиданий, которые генерируют регулярности поведения в соци-альных ситуациях. Эти институциональные элементы являются экзогенными для любого лица, принимающего решения, на чье поведе-ние они влияют, но эндогенными для системы в целом. Социальные «правила» возникают в соответствии с поведением, которое внутренне мотивировано, ограничено, поддержано, на-правляемо, самоисполняющимися убежде-ниями, нормами и ожиданиями. Кроме того, чтобы институт был увековечен, конституиру-ющие его элементы должны быть: (1) подтвер-ждены (а не отвергнуты или подвержены сом-нению) наблюдаемыми результатами; (2) под-креплены этими результатами (в смысле, что их способность быть самоисполняющимися не снижается с течением времени) и (3) воспроиз-водиться во времени путем передачи нович-кам» [28, p. 26]. С нашей точки зрения, исключение из со-держания института механизма принужде-ния, замена его на убеждения (или верования, beliefs) и ожидания, фактически лишает инсти-туты нормативной окраски, что оставляет от-крытым вопрос о последствиях отклонения от ожиданий, например, вследствие ошибки агента. Его место в обсуждаемой концепции занимает понятие «самоисполняющихся (self-enforcing) ожиданий» (СИО). Для введения и объяснения этого понятия авторы предпола-гают наличие теоретико-игровой модели си-туации взаимодействия индивидов и ее выяв-ленного равновесия. Если таковое известно, то под СИО предлагается понимать следующее:

Institucionalismos ou Neo-Institucionalismos?

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Fernanda Henrique Cupertino Alcântara

This article discusses the contributions of neoinstitutionalism to the Social Sciences and the study of social behavior. The research was carried out from the bibliographic review on the theme, and it concludes that the theoretical framework of neoinstitutional theory gives a new guise to the classic founders of Social Sciences, being also identified as institutionalist theory. In addition, such a theoretical perspective offers instruments capable of contributing to the effectiveness of public policies, from diagnosis to execution, considering transition institutions as effective mechanisms for the institutionalization of new practices and capable of promoting effective institutional changes.

The nature and significance of social ontology

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023
SYNTHESE

We propose a bridge-builder perspective on social ontology. Our point of departure is that an important task of philosophy is to provide the bigger picture. To this end, it should investigate folk views and determine whether and how they can be preserved once scrutinized from the perspective of the sciences. However, the sciences typically present us with a fragmented picture of reality. Thus, an important intermediate step is to integrate the most promising social scientific theories with one another. In addition to this, social ontology can provide input to and benefit from other philosophical disciplines that engage in normative theorizing. Thus, we propose that social ontology connects not only with folk ontology and scientific ontology but also with fields such as ethics and political philosophy. Building bridges between them serves to formulate a credible and encompassing worldview that is of theoretical and practical significance.

A history of continuous power delegation: the establishment and further development of the European system of Financial Supervision

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

International and Regional Regulatory Institutions (IRIs) have, throughout history, been created and reshaped by crises. This article argues that this phenomenon can be explained through rational choice neo-institutionalism, which argues that crises shift policy equilibrium and allow for greater political will towards solving the root causes of the crisis – in turn, this usually involves some degree of power delegation from the national to the supranational. This article applies this theory to the creation and further development of the European System of Financial Supervision in three cases: the post-2009 crisis; the post-sovereign debt crisis; and the European Union’s shortfall in anit-money laundering compliance and supervision. This article concludes that by delegating power after every crisis and debacle, countries attempt to solve cooperation, coordination, trust, and uncertainty problems. However, relying on crises to generate political will makes IRIs reactive not proactive – ultimately, this might have implications over global financial soundness, as exemplified by the case of crypto-assets.

The Basic Trajectory of Theoretical Evolution: Balancing the Individual and the Community

Chapter

Jan 2024

Shuyang Liu

Although contemporary utilitarianism inherits the basic features of classical utilitarianism, it is already a new utilitarian theory. The “new” development of contemporary utilitarianism is manifested in the change of its ontology, and in the process of reflecting on classical utilitarianism, contemporary utilitarianism no longer holds a purely individualistic position, but holds a claim that requires attention to the relationship between human beings, and calculates the utility value of an act in the relationship of interpersonal interaction. Contemporary utilitarianism attaches great importance to the role of rules, treats individuals and communities in a relatively balanced approach, endows communities a relatively independent subject status, and reconstructs the basic norms of utilitarianism on the position of treating individuals and communities in a balanced manner. It is because of the breakthrough of ontology that contemporary utilitarianism undergoes the theoretical evolution above-mentioned and achieves the effective compatibility of the utility principle with the theory of rights, the theory of equality with the theory of public interests, so that utilitarianism had won a place in discussion of contemporary political philosophy. It can be said that the trajectory of contemporary utilitarianism's evolution is along the direction from individualism to community-individual equilibrium.

References

Chapter

Aug 2023

The standard neoclassical model of economics is incapable of explaining why one form of organization arises over another. It is a model where transaction costs are implicitly assumed to not exist; however, transaction costs are here defined as the costs of strengthening a given distribution of economic property rights, and they always exist. Economic Analysis of Property Rights is a study of how individuals organise resources to maximise the value of their economic rights over these resources. It offers a unified theoretical structure to deal with exchange, rights formation, and organisation that traditional economic theory often ignores. It explains how transaction costs can be reduced through reorganization and, in the end, how the distribution of property rights that exists is the one that maximizes wealth net of these transaction costs. This necessary hypothesis explains much of the puzzling organizations and institutions that exist now and have existed in the past.

Institutions are not Rules: Realigning the Ontology Behind Theories of Change

Article

Jan 2023

Henrique A. Castro

Comparative Institutional Changes

Chapter

Full-text available

Apr 2023

Mario Coccia

Institutional change is the evolution of institutions, considered as rules and/or expectations that govern human interactions for socioeconomic development of nations.

Explaining Institutional Change

Chapter

Feb 2023

The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Political Science contains twenty-seven freshly written chapters to give the reader a panoramic introduction to philosophical issues in the practice of political science. Simultaneously, it advances the field of Philosophy of Political Science by creating a fruitful meeting place where both philosophers and practicing political scientists contribute and discuss. These philosophical discussions are close to and informed by actual developments in political science, making philosophy of science continuous with the sciences, another aspiration that motivates this volume. The chapters fall under four headings: (1) evaluating theoretical frameworks in political science; (2) methodological challenges and reconciliations; (3) the purposes and uses of political science; and (4) the interactions between political science and society. Specific topics discussed include the biology of political attitudes, intraagent mechanisms, rational choice explanations, theories of collective action, explaining institutional change, conceptualizing and measuring democracy, process tracing, qualitative comparative analysis, interpretivism and positivism, mixed methods, within-cause causal inference, evidential pluralism, lab and field experiments, external validity, contextualization, prediction, expertise, clientelism, feminism, values, and progress in political science.

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