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Experimental study of suppressing cooking oil fire with water mist using a cone calorimeter
Abstract
Cooking oil fires in kitchens are difficult to extinguish as they are easy to re-ignite. Such kind of fires are different from the conventional flammable liquid fuel fires and have been classified into a new fire class, i.e. Class F, by some international recognized standard institutions such as National Fire Protection Association. Water mist fire suppression systems are proposed to suppress kitchen fires. In this paper, results in small-scale experiments using cone calorimeter on suppressing cooking oil fires with water mist will be reported. It is observed that good design of the system can suppress peanut oil fire effectively. There might be adverse effects on enhancing the combustion, producing more carbon monoxide and giving out more dark smoke for improper design.
... The shockwave breaks up the droplets into a micro-mist that can quickly evaporate to absorb a significant fraction of the combustion energy released during the deflagration. To be effective, water mist must be produced at a smaller droplet size of around 1 µm, which is smaller than what is seen to be achievable for the existing water mist products for fire suppression that have been reviewed [46,47]. During this literature review, there was little research found on this topic. ...
... A common method is carbon dioxide (CO2), which can extinguish flames across the oil surface but is not able to cool the oil sufficiently and prevent reignition. Water mist has demonstrated good fire extinguishing and oil cooling capabilities for these fires [6,[46][47][48]. Specifically, research by Liu et al. in 2006 [45] found that water mist effectively extinguished a large industrial oil fire and cooled the hot oil to prevent it from reigniting regardless of the oil depth. ...
... Water mist systems have been developed and used in commercial buildings, with FM Global and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) having test protocols for Light Hazard and Ordinary Hazard I and II, which are commonly protected by sprinkler systems. A water mist suppression system's ability to suppress a fire and maintain minimal water damage to the protected area makes it an attractive option for protecting areas such as libraries, archives, heritage buildings, and museums [21,46,49,50]. Milke and Gerschefski [51] completed fire testing for library settings with shelving-type storage and book vaults for sensitive archives. ...
Interest in water mist fire suppression has increased within the fire protection industry due to its ability to control the spread and development of fire without using environmentally damaging agents. Water mist fire suppression has been used for many years in various applications such as machinery spaces, combustion turbine enclosures, and onboard passenger sea vessels. Now there is a demand to use this firefighting method to protect other fire risks such as cooking areas, commercial buildings, residential buildings, electrical equipment, road tunnels, bushfire (wildland fire) protection, and nuclear power generation facilities. To support this industry demand, this review covers the fundamentals of water mist, its suppression mechanisms, areas of application, existing research and development, and the codes and standards related to design. This comprehensive review provides a clear history of water mist suppression. It is able to identify the issues and challenges related to the technology to help pave the way for future research and development that will improve these systems to a level so that they are suitable for these new applications and meet the industry demand for nontoxic fire suppression systems.
... A water jet extinguisher directed at the surface of burning cooking oil will create an explosion as the water is quickly converted into steam resulting in the expulsion of burning oil, spreading the fire and harming the operator. Sprinkler water sprays, as shown in the previous research were able to extinguish industrial oil cooker fires, but extensive oil was spilled over the oil cooker and formed large fires on the ground, as coarse water droplets sank and boiled up in the hot oil[66]. Conventional foam might extinguish the flame, yet the heat involved would quickly destroy the foam blanket, exposing the surface of the oil, and allowing re-ignition. ...
... Recently, a series of papers on the application of water mist in extinguishing cooking oil fires were reported[59,67,68]. The possibility of using water mist in suppressing cooking oil fires was also investigated with cone calorimeter[66,69]. Results all indicated that water mist could effectively control and extinguish the cooking oil fires. ...
... However, vapor explosion and boil over during the initial touch of water mist with hot oil surface still existed and usually presented potential danger to nearby personnel or fire firefighters. Therefore, special design and operation must be conducted to ensure the effectiveness and safety of water mist in suppressing cooking oil fires[66]. Among the various fire suppressants, dry powder has been demonstrated as the most efficient in suppressing various types of fires. ...
Possible applications of dry powders in suppressing supertall buildings fires will be discussed. Development of the agent with the chemical fire extinguishing mechanism is reviewed. Condensed phase compounds including powders of certain alkali metal compounds with gas loaded appear to achieve quicker fire suppression in very tall buildings. Dry powder properties are independent on the flame conditions and so having better suppression performance than other agents. Quantitative information on dry powder suppression behavior, particularly on the effect of size, physical and chemical effects of the powders, and the fire extinction mechanism are still limited. Although the objective of this review article is specifically targeted for fire suppression in very tall buildings, the findings are applicable to fire suppression by dry powders in general.
... A water jet extinguisher directed at the surface of burning cooking oil will create an explosion as the water is quickly converted into steam resulting in the expulsion of burning oil, spreading the fire and harming the operator. Sprinkler water sprays, as shown in the previous research were able to extinguish industrial oil cooker fires, but extensive oil was spilled over the oil cooker and formed large fires on the ground, as coarse water droplets sank and boiled up in the hot oil [66]. Conventional foam might extinguish the flame, yet the heat involved would quickly destroy the foam blanket, exposing the surface of the oil, and allowing re-ignition. ...
... Recently, a series of papers on the application of water mist in extinguishing cooking oil fires were reported [59, 67, 68]. The possibility of using water mist in suppressing cooking oil fires was also investigated with cone calorimeter [66, 69]. Results all indicated that water mist could effectively control and extinguish the cooking oil fires. ...
... However, vapor explosion and boil over during the initial touch of water mist with hot oil surface still existed and usually presented potential danger to nearby personnel or fire firefighters. Therefore, special design and operation must be conducted to ensure the effectiveness and safety of water mist in suppressing cooking oil fires [66]. Among the various fire suppressants, dry powder has been demonstrated as the most efficient in suppressing various types of fires. ...
Automatic sprinkler systems are used as a first aid fire protection system in buildings. A sprinkler's actuation time in compartment fires is calculated on the basis of its rated operating temperature [1-3]. Studies show that the actual operating temperature of sprinklers in a simulated environment is approximately 15-20°C higher than the rated temperature. Thus, one may expect incorrect values of response time of sprinkler operation in compartment fires. In the present article, an attempt has been made to determine the most reliable operating temperatures of sprinklers in a simulated environment. The results reported here are expected to provide a better estimate of the sprinkler's actuation time in compartment fires.
... Experiments on extinguishing cooking oil fires are reported by Liu and co-workers [18,19]. Studies on the possibility of using water mist in suppressing cooking oil fires in bench-scale tests with a cone calorimeter [20] and in a largerscale kitchen were led by Chow and associates [21,22]. All their results indicated that water mist can only control and extinguish cooking oil fires if designed properly [23]. ...
... However, there were risks to nearby personnel or firefighters due to vapor explosion and boilover when the water mist reached the hot oil surface. Therefore, special design and operation scheme must be prepared for suppressing cooking oil fires by water mist [19][20][21]23]. ...
... Four factors on fuel, oxygen, heat, and chain reaction have to be considered in fire suppression. Previous work [4,20] showed that extinguishment of cooking oil fires required the flame extinction over the entire surface at once, and then rapid cooling of oil below its autore-ignition temperature to prevent re-ignition. The failure of conventional BC powders in restricting the re-ignition of cooking oil fires was due to its limited cooling capacity, which could not decrease the oil temperature fast below its auto-ignition point. ...
New gas—solid composite particles appropriate for extinguishing cooking oil fires will be reported in this article. This powder product is composed of zeolite 13X particles of diameter 1—2 μm and absorbed 2-bromo-3,3,3-trifluoropropene. The preparation and physicochemical properties of the composite particles will be reported. Their performance and possible mechanism in extinguishing cooking oil fires are then investigated with full-scale burning tests. Experiments were carried out in a room of length 3 m, width 3 m, and height 3 m. A cooking oil pool fire of diameter 0.25 m was ignited by ethanol and burnt inside the room. Different dry powder products were also evaluated. Their suppression effect was compared with that of this new product. Results indicated that the new composite particles have better performance in extinguishing cooking oil fires in comparison with other dry powder tested. Relatively shorter extinguishing time was achieved with smaller amount of agents required without any re-ignition. The new composite particles give better performance in suppressing cooking oil fires because of highly efficient free flame radical scavengers, improved cooling capacity, hydrophobic and oleophobic surface. Chemical suppression effects are reported.
... Applying water spray to cooking pans and stoves might give adverse effects. New fire suppression systems such as water mist system [15][16][17][18][19] are acceptable. However, their performance in controlling fires from Chinese woks is not yet studied. ...
... There is an increasing use of water mist system for kitchens [e.g. [15][16][17][18][19]. Water, carbon dioxide, halon gas (in the past) and powder types of extinguishers are commonly used. ...
... Cette maîtrise est d'autant plus aisée que le point éclair 9 est élevé. Des auteurs tels que Qin [115] et plus récemment Liu [83] ont effectué plusieurs essais d'aspersion par brouillard d'eau sur un feu de combustible dont le point éclair est élevé. En l'occurrence, il s'agit dans ces deux études d'huile de friture dont le point éclair est compris entre 285 et 385˚C [115]. ...
... Des auteurs tels que Qin [115] et plus récemment Liu [83] ont effectué plusieurs essais d'aspersion par brouillard d'eau sur un feu de combustible dont le point éclair est élevé. En l'occurrence, il s'agit dans ces deux études d'huile de friture dont le point éclair est compris entre 285 et 385˚C [115]. Les auteurs de ces études ont attribué l'extinction du feu et sa non-reprise au refroidissement du combustible en deçà du point éclair et ce, du fait de la rapidité de l'extinction, la vapeur d'eau étant en trop faible quantité dans la pièce pour un effet d'inertage. ...
Ce travail de thèse est consacré à l'étude de l'interaction entre une aspersion par brouillard d'eau et un feu. Il s'appuie sur une modélisation existante figurant dans le code à champs « Fire Dynamics Simulator ». L'approche consiste en premier lieu à appréhender, par le biais d'une synthèse bibliographique, les phénomènes physiques mis en jeu lors d'un feu en tunnel et lors d'une aspersion par brouillard d'eau. Ensuite, un travail d'évaluation est mené. L'évaluation se veut évolutive, en commençant par des cas simples à l'échelle du laboratoire afin de travailler le plus indépendamment possible sur certaines parties du modèle d'aspersion, pour ensuite s'intéresser à la configuration tunnel. Ce travail d'évaluation permet de mieux cerner les aptitudes du code à simuler les phénomènes physiques mis en jeu lors d'un feu en tunnel soumis ou non à une aspersion. Des comparaisons sont effectuées avec plusieurs essais réalisés entre 2005 et 2008 sur une maquette de tunnel à échelle 1/3. Une fois cette évaluation accomplie, l'outil est exploité pour améliorer notre compréhension des phénomènes d'interaction entre le brouillard d'eau, la ventilation du tunnel et le feu. En particulier, l'influence de l'aspersion sur l'écoulement longitudinal est analysée, le rôle énergétique du brouillard d'eau est mesuré et les modes de transfert de chaleur associés aux gouttes sont quantifiés. Cette exploitation permet également d'évaluer numériquement l'influence de quelques paramètres sur l'efficacité de l'aspersion telles que la vitesse de ventilation longitudinale, la puissance du feu et la taille des gouttes pulvérisées. En dernier lieu, le code champs est exploité dans le cadre d'une étude numérique exploratoire en vue d'une campagne d'essais en bâtiment pour appréhender l'interaction entre l'aspersion, la nappe de fumée et le désenfumage mécanique
... Water spray/mist is widely used in liquid pool fire suppression [5][6][7] and is proposed to be installed in kitchen [8,9], while its applicability for cooking oil fire needs to be further studied. Although there are many investigations focused on water mist or spray suppressing high-temperature oil fire, the microscopic mechanism is still not clear and quantified [9,10]. ...
... Water spray/mist is widely used in liquid pool fire suppression [5][6][7] and is proposed to be installed in kitchen [8,9], while its applicability for cooking oil fire needs to be further studied. Although there are many investigations focused on water mist or spray suppressing high-temperature oil fire, the microscopic mechanism is still not clear and quantified [9,10]. Therefore, the topic of droplet impingement has attracted the interest of many researchers [3,[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. ...
The article presents the dynamic process of a single water droplet impinging on a hot oil surface with various temperatures ranging from 205 to 260 \(^\circ \hbox {C}\). Distilled water is used to produce water droplets with different diameters. The impact behavior is recorded by using a high-speed digital camera with the speed of 2000 fps. The result shows that two typical phenomena, including crater–jet–bubble and vapor explosion, can be observed. The vapor explosion occurs when the oil temperature is higher than 210 \(^\circ \hbox {C}\). The oil temperature, the droplet size, and the Weber number are found to have significant influence on the vapor explosion time. The higher the oil pool temperature is, the earlier the vapor explosion occurs. Vapor explosion time increases with the droplet size, while decreases as the droplet Weber number increases. Moreover, the maximum heat absorption for a single water droplet immersing into the hot oil is calculated considering the changes of the droplet size. Both dimensionless maximum crater depth and maximum jet height increase with the pool temperature due to the surface tension, viscous force and decreasing density of the hot oil.
... Fire suppression tests involving water mist have long been reported. Water mist was studied to suppress methane explosions, pool fires, poly fires, cooking oil fires, and so on [3][4][5][6][7][8]. Some comparisons may be found in the literature on experiments and computations in confined spaces or in pipelines [9][10][11]. ...
... Coal mining makes it Fire suppression tests involving water mist have long been reported. Water mist was studied to suppress methane explosions, pool fires, poly fires, cooking oil fires, and so on [3][4][5][6][7][8]. Some comparisons may be found in the literature on experiments and computations in confined spaces or in pipelines [9][10][11]. ...
To safely mine coal, engineers must prevent gas combustion and explosions, as well as seek feasible and reasonable techniques to control for these types of incidents. This paper analyzes the causes and characteristics of methane combustion and explosions. Water mist is proposed to prevent and control methane combustion in an underground confined space. We constructed an experiment platform to investigate the suppression of methane combustion using water mist for different conditions. The experimental results showed that water mist is highly effective for methane flame inhibition. The flame was extinguished with water mist endothermic cooling. However, the annular regions of water vapor around the fire played a vital role in flame extinction. Water from the evaporating mist replaces the oxygen available to the fuel. Additionally, the time required for fuel ignition is prolonged. For these reasons, the water particle action to flame surface is reinforced and the fuel's reaction with air is delayed. As a result, flame stretching and disturbances occur, which serve to extinguish the flame. Engineering application tests were carried out in the goaf, drill hole and upper-corner to investigate the prevention and control of methane gas combustion, with the results showing a good application effect.
... Cette maîtrise est d'autant plus aisée que le point éclair 9 est élevé. Des auteurs tels que Qin [115] et plus récemment Liu [83] ont effectué plusieurs essais d'aspersion par brouillard d'eau sur un feu de combustible dont le point éclair est élevé. En l'occurrence, il s'agit dans ces deux études d'huile de friture dont le point éclair est compris entre 285 et 385˚C [115]. ...
... Des auteurs tels que Qin [115] et plus récemment Liu [83] ont effectué plusieurs essais d'aspersion par brouillard d'eau sur un feu de combustible dont le point éclair est élevé. En l'occurrence, il s'agit dans ces deux études d'huile de friture dont le point éclair est compris entre 285 et 385˚C [115]. Les auteurs de ces études ont attribué l'extinction du feu et sa non-reprise au refroidissement du combustible en deçà du point éclair et ce, du fait de la rapidité de l'extinction, la vapeur d'eau étant en trop faible quantité dans la pièce pour un effet d'inertage. ...
This work deals with the study of the phenomena involved when a water mist is sprayed in a tunnel fire environment. It relies on an extensive use of numerical simulations using the CFD code Fire Dynamics Simulator. The first chapter of this thesis provides an overview of the tunnel fire characteristics and the phenomena involved when the water mist is sprayed. A bibliographical review on the research on tunnel fires with or without any mitigation system is conducted, allowing to outline the reason and the context for this research. In the second and third chapters, the computational tool undergoes testing. It is verified and validated based on comparison with analytical solutions and experimental cases of increasing complexity : from the laboratory scale for assessing one particular part of the water spray model (chapter 2) up to the tunnel scale (chapter 3). For the last case, the code validation makes use of the results of a reduced scale (1/3rd) tunnel fire test campaign conducted between 2005 and 2008. Once the validation is achieved, the computational tool is used intensively in the third chapter in order to improve the understanding of the interaction phenomena between water mist, tunnel longitudinal ventilation and fire. In particular, the water mist influence on the tunnel air flow is studied, the water mist heat contribution is quantified and the heat transfered to the droplets is identified. Furthermore, the CFD code is used to assess the impact of the longitudinal air velocity, the heat release rate and the water droplet size on the water mist efficiency. The last chapter illustrates how a CFD code can be used on a given situation, here a compartment fire test campaign, in order to foresee the interaction between the water mist, the smoke layer and the smoke extraction.
... This system has the benefits of high efficiency, environmental acceptability, and low cost. Studies on water mist fire suppression systems are reported in the literature and include spray characteristics, spray dynamics, generation of water mist, extinguishing mechanisms, use of additives, computer modeling, application for Class A and B fires, explosion (deflagration) suppression, and applications in the special areas [7][8][9][10][11]. In this paper, to the use of water mist systems for suppression of spray bitumen fires is assessed. ...
... The water mist characteristics under various operating pressure were measured separately using a three dimensional Laser Doppler Velocimeter/Adaptive Phase Doppler Velocimetry (LDV/APV) system. The parameters of the LDV/APV system, as reported by Qin [9], are shown in Table 1. The measurement techniques and the system configuration have previously been described in detail [11][12]. ...
Spray bitumen fires often occur in buildings and industrial processes. To investigate this type of hazard, the burning behavior of this flammable mixture was tested under practical conditions. Investigations of the suppression of this typical kind of fire were also included. CFD simulations were used as supplementary validation of tests that assessed the suppression of this type of fire by application of water mist. The water mist was generated from a centrifugal nozzle operating at low pressure about 1.0 MPa. The characteristics of the water mist were tested by LDV/APV system. The fuel was sprayed using the same sprayer as the sub-sprayer of the water mist nozzle. The flame structure was observed by the Thermograph (TG, SATHY6850). The various temperatures were tracked every 1 second by the K-type thermocouple. The flame suppression processes were observed and analyzed using a Charge Coupled Device (CCD) video camera. All the experiments were carried out in a 3 m × 3 m × 3 m confine space. Results indicated that the highest temperature of the spray bitumen fire was recorded in the core of the spray. The spray bitumen fire could be suppressed effectively by using the water mist fire suppression system. For lower pressure of the spray bitumen, the water mist suppression demonstrated higher efficiency. The test results showed that there was a short-lived "fire enhancement" phenomena as long as the water mist was released into the spray fire. Also, using the FDS to simulate the spray bitumen fire, we found comparative results between the numerical and experimental results.
... To reduce the potential for fires that occur in the kitchen, Qin et al. [16] uses water mist to be applied in the prevention of fire in the kitchen where according to his research; the burning of oil used for cooking can be anticipated with water mist. However, the installation that is used for design using water mist requires high technology, so it is not easy to apply. ...
This study aims to create a fire protection design in the kitchen with technology that is easily applied along with inexpensive extinguishing media using silica gel from rice husk ash. By using an experimental method, the active design of fire protection in the kitchen area uses compartmentalization equipped with a gas stove, kitchen equipment, as well as specially designed fire equipment components. The composition of the air in the compartment is calculated based on the volume of the compartment so that it can represent the coverage of oxygen and fuel in accordance with the conditions of free air, while the silica used as an extinguishing media from the extraction of rice husk ash using KOH 0,5M solvent. From the results of this study, the design of fire protection for silica gel-based kitchens made from rice husk ash is effectively used and easy to install in the kitchen area.
... Also related to residential fires, Chow [16] suggested that water mist suppression can be used to target and suppress small fires at an early stage, such as for open kitchen fires in residential buildings. In relation to this topic, Qin et al. [17] undertook experimental studies on suppressing cooking oil fires in kitchens with water mist operation at three different operating pressures (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 MPa, ranging from larger to finer droplets). They observed that the HRR increased rapidly after discharging the water mist. ...
It is commonly assumed in fire modelling that suppression systems can control the heat release rate of a fire. However, many performance-based assumptions are derived from experimental data for sprinklers, and uncertainty remains for their application to water mist systems. In the UK, residential water mist systems are usually tested to the BS 8458:2015 standard, but the heat release rate in these tests is not quantified and focus is instead placed on thermocouple temperatures. This paper details a series of fire tests to the BS 8458:2015 standard for an electronically controlled water mist system. The paper also includes B-RISK zone modelling of these tests to estimate the suppression performance of the system, comparing model outputs to thermocouple test data. Three traditional suppression assumptions, historically derived from experimental data for sprinklers, have been adopted in the zone modelling to examine whether their application following system activation can be extended to the tested water mist system. The work indicates that applying these suppression assumptions remains reasonable in the context of the performance of the tested water mist system, noting the constraints of the test methods in representing a limited number of fire scenarios.
... Stauffer (2005) indicated that vegetable oils are likely to undergo autoxidation and generate heat, which can lead to spontaneous combustion in certain environments. Qin et al. (2004) observed that kitchen fires caused by vegetable oils are difficult to extinguish and easily reignite. Marlina et al. (2019) found that the burning rate of vegetable oil is not only influenced by molecular polarity but by the geometric form of the fatty acids that compose vegetable oil. ...
Vegetable oil residues, which are often used for biogas production, are prone to fires. The decomposition and fire behaviors of four vegetable oil residues, namely rapeseed oil residue (ROR), peanut oil residue (POR), gingili oil residue (GOR), and soybean oil residue (SOR), were investigated using elemental analysis, thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry-derivative thermogravimetry (TG-DSC-DTG), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry, and a cone calorimeter. Based on the TG-DSC-DTG results, ROR is the residue most susceptible to spontaneous ignition and complete decomposition. Further, although the FTIR results showed that the functional group compositions of the four residues are similar, according to cone colorimetry experiments, SOR has the lowest critical heat flux and the lowest peak value of heat release rate under an external heat flux.
... Dette er grunnet funnene i rapporten til Glansberg og Stensaas [1], hvor inspeksjon av ventilasjonskanalene avdekket oppsamling av stekefett og sot. Matolje har en selvantennelsestemperatur på mellom 285 ˚C og 385 ˚C [12] og sammen med gnister kan dette utgjøre en brannrisiko. Når bakveggen ble flyttet bakover kan det observeres en endring i noen av sideveggens temperaturer. ...
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RISE-rapport 2019:04 «Brannrisiko forbundet med kull- og vedfyrte griller i restauranter» [1] undersøkte regelverk og dokumentasjonskrav knyttet til kull- og vedfyrte griller i restauranter i Norge. En del av konklusjonen i denne rapporten understreket et behov for, gjennom fysisk prøving, å kartlegge hvorvidt eksisterende teststandarder kan dekke sikkerhetsbehovet til kullgriller i restauranter. NS-EN 13240:2001 Ildsteder for romoppvarming i boliger, fyrt med fast brensel — Krav og prøvingsmetoder [2] ble valgt ut som aktuell teststandard å basere testingen på.
Tre testgriller (lukket testgrill, en dummygrill og en åpen testgrill) ble produsert av RISE Fire Research, med grunnlag i eksisterende kullgrillmodeller på det norske markedet og som ble etterlignet så godt det lot seg gjøre mtp. isolasjonsevne, materialer og dimensjoner. Dette ble gjort for å oppnå en objektiv fremstilling av problemstillingen, uten å forholde seg til en spesifikk merkevare. Det ble benyttet restaurantkull for å få en så reell varmeutvikling som mulig i testgrillene.
Oppbygging av testforhold er basert på NS-EN 13240:2001, med en testrigg bygget opp som et hjørne med to «sikkerhetsvegger», tak og gulv instrumentert med fastmonterte termoelementer. Sikkerhetsveggene måler temperaturene fra testgrillen i mange målepunkter i et standardisert rutenett, og tak og vegger måler et fast varmest temperaturpunkt. Termoelementer i skorsteinen og i ventilasjonskanalen målte temperaturer i røykgassene som ble transportert til ventilasjonssystemet. Fire tester ble gjennomført, hvor den første var en standardisert sikkerhetstest på den lukkede modellen av testgrill. Den andre testen var samme sikkerhetstest med dummygrill ved siden av testgrillen. Dummygrillen hadde en innebygd gassbrenner for å simulere varmebelastning til en ordentlig grill. Hensikten med denne testen var å simulere to griller plassert ved siden av hverandre. Den tredje testen var en overbelastningstest på den lukkede testgrillen med 150 % brenselmengde og hyppigere påfyllingsintervaller av brensel. Den siste testen var test av åpen grill.
Sikkerhetstest-metoden, som er beskrevet i NS-EN 13240:2001 er egnet for å teste nivået for stabil maksimaltemperatur i omkringliggende brennbart materiale, på samme måte som for ildsteder, som metoden egentlig er ment for. Metoden tar også for seg sikkerhetsaspekter som temperatur på overflater og eventuelle håndtak på grillen. Forsøk viser at temperaturene som dannes av kullgrillene kan overgå teststandardens temperaturkriterie til omkringliggende brennbare materialer og vil da kunne bidra til at nærliggende brennbare materialer kan antennes. Slike situasjoner utgjør en brannfare og sikkerhetstiltak angående dette aspektet må dokumenteres av produsent.
NS-EN 13240:2001 omhandler ikke temperaturer i avtrekk eller dannelse av gnister og deres eventuelle spredning til brennbart materiale. Dette er viktige sikkerhetsaspekter som må hensyntas ved dokumentasjon av restaurantgriller. Forsøk viser at gnister dannes i grillen, også fra grillkull som er avsett for restaurantgriller, og at disse kan spres opp i avtrekk og ut gjennom grillens åpning når man åpner døren til grillen. Sammen med høye røykgasstemperaturer i ventilasjonskanaler og avleiringer av sot og matfett utgjør dette en brannfare. Det må derfor dokumenteres at grillen er utstyrt med et tiltak (for eksempel gnistfanger) som i tilstrekkelig høy grad fanger opp disse gnistene fra grillens avtrekk. Brukere av grillen må få opplæring og må bruke forsiktighet ved åpning av en lukket grill, for å unngå hendelser i forbindelse med at gnister slippes ut denne veien.
Plassering av lukkede griller ved siden av hverandre ser ikke ut å øke varmestråling mot omkringliggende vegger, men kan lede til forhøyede temperaturer mellom grillene. Konsekvensene av slike temperaturøkninger må dokumenteres. Overbelastning med overfylling av brensel og intensive påfyllingsintervaller vil kunne lede til forhøyede temperaturer i grillen som for eksempel kan påvirke materialer og sveisesømmer. Overbelastning kan også påvirke temperaturer mot tilstøtende vegger og i avtrekk og dermed ha konsekvenser for brannsikkerheten. NS-EN 13240:2001 krever at produsenten dokumenterer hvordan testobjektet er bygd opp og hvilke materialer som er valgt og at sveisesømmer passer til tiltenkt materiale. Det anbefales at produsenten dokumenterer sikkerhetsnivået til grillens materialer ved en overbelastningstest. Det må dokumenteres at ventilasjonssystemet som røykgassene fra grillen slippes ut til er dimensjonert for å håndtere de temperaturer som kan oppstå, også ved feil bruk. --------------------------------------|||English summary|||--------------------------------------
Safety requirements for charcoal burning ovens in restaurants The RISE report 2019:04 «Charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants-Fire safety and documentation requirements» [1] investigated regulations and documental demands tied to charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants in Norway. A part of the conclusion in this report emphasized the need for, through physical testing, mapping whether existing test standards covers the safety requirements of charcoal ovens in restaurants. NS-EN 13240:2001 «Roomheaters fired with solid fuel. Requirements and test methods» [2] was chosen as a relevant test standard. Three test ovens (a closed test oven, a dummy oven and an open test oven) was produced at RISE Fire Research. Their construction with regard to insulation capabilities, materials and dimensions was based on existing charcoal ovens placed on the Norwegian marked. This was done to achieve an objective depiction of the issue, without the need for a specific brand of ovens. Restaurant oven charcoal was utilized to achieve as real heat development as possible in the test ovens. The test layout is based on NS-EN 12340:2001, with a test rigg constructed of two «safety walls», ceiling and floor attached with thermocouples. Temperatures from the test oven are registered in the safety walls at several positions according to a standardised grid, and in the ceiling and the floor each have one single measurement position measuring warmest point. Thermocouples in the chimney and exhaust duct measured the flue gas temperatures transported to the exhaust system. Four different tests were conducted, where the first one was a standardized safety test including the closed oven model. The second test was the same safety test setup with the dummy oven besides the closed oven. The dummy contained a built-in propane burner to simulate the heat load from a real oven. The purpose was to simulate two ovens placed next to each other. The third test was an overload test on the closed test oven with 150 % fuel load and higher refueling frequency. The last test was a test of the open test oven. The safety test method described in NS-EN 13240:2001 is suitable to test the level of stable maximal temperature in the surrounding combustible materials, in the same way as for roomheaters, which the method is designed for. The method addresses safety aspects such as surface temperatures and handles on the oven. Tests show that the temperatures developed in the ovens have the potential to breech the temperature criterion given by the test standard, and therefore contribute to the ignition of surrounding combustible materials. Such situations pose a fire risk and safety measures regarding this aspect must be documented by the producer. NS-EN13240:2001 does not cover temperatures for exhaust duct and the production of sparks and their possible spread to combustible materials. These are important safety aspects which must be addressed when documenting the fire safety of restaurant grills. Tests show that sparks are created in the oven, including from restaurant charcoal fuel, and are transported into the exhaust duct, and out through the opening of the grill door. Together with high flue gas temperatures in the exhaust duct and deposits of soot and cooking oil this pose a fire risk. Documentation must therefore be presented, showing that the oven is equipped with measures (for instance spark screen) which guards the exhaust duct from sparks to a satisfactory degree. Operators of the oven must receive adequate training and must operate the closed oven with caution, as to avoid incidents with sparks being released though the door. 2 The placement of ovens next to each other does not seem to increase the heat load on surrounding walls but may lead to increased temperatures in between the ovens. The consequences of temperature increases must be documented. Tests show that overloading with fuel and intensifying the refueling intervals can lead to increased temperatures in the oven, which can affect materials and welding seams. Overloading can also affect the temperatures towards surrounding walls and exhaust ducts and therefore may affect fire safety negatively. NS-EN 13240:2001 requires the producer to documents how the oven is constructed and of what materials, and that the welding seams are dimensioned for the materials used. It is recommended that the producer documents the safety level of the oven materials with an overload test. It must also be documented that the exhaust ducts in which the flue gas are transported are constructed to handle the potential temperatures that can arise, including erroneous use.
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... Cone calorimeters were also used in the fire suppression study of water mist. For example, Liao and Chow studied the suppression of water mist on liquid pool fire, PVC fire, and cooking oil fires in cone calorimeter, respectively[148][149][150]. Thermogravimetry (TG) and derivative thermogravity (DTG) are also widely used in the chemistry research of some fire retardants, assessing their thermal stability and thermal degradation behavior of polymers with flame retardant additive[151]. ...
Clean fire suppressing agents are characterized with unique chemical and physical properties. Strictly speaking, clean fire suppressants are the agents which extinguish fires without follow-up cleaning up exercise leading to business interruption. This is very different from traditional fire suppressing agents such as water, foam, and dry powder, which often result in more secondary damage. Chemical effects play a key role in the fire suppression of clean fire suppressants. In this article, a literature review of the fundamental suppression chemistry of common clean suppressing agents is performed. There are different categories of typical clean suppressing agents with associated research activities reported in the literature. Experimental methods, involving the flame configurations and the diagnostic techniques, are discussed in detail.
... [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] ...
Full scale experiments were performed in an underground subway station to investigate the effect of water mist on smoke flow from tunnel area to platform through shield door. Smoke temperature, species concentrations and smoke visibility were measured at different points. Dimensionless variables were introduced to represent the variations of smoke characteristics. The smoke temperature with water mist interaction could be reduced to less than 1/10 of the spill smoke flow. The mass flow rate could be reduced to less than 1/4 of the spill smoke flow. The experimental results indicated that the water mist system could help to reduce smoke temperature and the concentration of toxic species, improving survival conditions for evacuations of passengers.
... These systems have economic benefit and are highly efficient fire-suppression systems. These systems generate little or no pollution during fire control and are significantly more efficient than traditional fire sprinklers [2][3][4][5]. The WMFSS codes, developed by US National Fire Protection Association (NFPA750), indicate that mean droplet diameter should be <1000μm [6]. ...
Personnel inside health care facilities are mostly at a disadvantage during evacuation, therefore in the event of a fire, evacuation would possess certain difficulties and result in serious consequences. Use of conventional fire hydrants for fire extinction could damage equipment because of the amount of water used. To avoid this, the amount of water used was a key consideration during this study besides fire extinction performance. This research used newly developed mobile high pressure equipment and nozzle A with a K value of 3.7, and extinguished three standard wood cribs (7.5 MW), its performance being superior to that of the equipment used by the NRIFD (National Research Institute of Fire and Disaster).Using the equipment at a pressure of 49.3kgf/cm2 and discharge flow rate of 26 LPM, the time needed for extinction was 68s, 76s, and 60s,without any recrudescence within 2 min afterwards. Calculations showed that this system only required 33L of water for extinction, 27% less than the indoor hydrant, but was still effective, and it also showed no leakage of electricity under operation pressure and discharge flow rate. This research is a first to quantifiably analyze and compare the performance between mobile high pressure water mist equipment and indoor hydrants
The cone calorimeter is traditionally used to measure the response of solid materials to radiant heating. Liquids are also commonly tested, but the methods employed are varied and inconsistent. There is a need to understand how the experimental conditions impact test results, and to develop formal guidance on a testing protocol for liquids. The cone calorimeter can be used to characterize the fire performance of liquids according to their propensities for ignition, boiling, and burning, as well as their combustion characteristics. A review of the literature was carried out to understand the breadth of apparatus and procedures used to date and their impacts on test results. From this, a series of recommendations were developed for adapting the test protocol for liquids. The vessel used should be circular; steel, borosilicate glass, or fused quartz; positioned on 13 mm of flat ceramic fiber insulation within a larger spillage containment pan; and have a diameter between 65 mm and 90 mm. Liquid depths of 10 mm should be used, and tests should be nominally be conducted at a heat flux of 10 kW⋅m⁻². This work provides the necessary technical basis for adoption of a consistent methodology for cone calorimeter testing of liquids.
An experimental program is conducted to investigate the parameters for extinguishing cooking oil fire by water-mist system with additive. The design parameters are dispatch flow rate and charge pressure. Also adding an additive to increase the ability of extinguishing cooking oil fire is validated in the test program. Two different agent percentage water-mist systems are investigated experimentally as well. Finally, the complete quantitative analysis is provided using data from experimental work.
This paper is a follow-up study for the phenomenon of vapor explosion for single water droplet impacting on a hot liquid pool. To explore the effects of vapor explosion on the dynamics of single droplet interacting with burning liquid pool, a series of experiments of pure water, water droplet with 5% NaCl, water droplet with 3% AFFF, and HFE-7100 droplet impacting on high-temperature burning oil were performed. For the cases of pure water, water droplet with 5% NaCl, and water droplet with 3% AFFF, vapor explosion can occur when the oil temperature reaches 210 °C. For the case of HFE-7100 droplet, however, the vapor explosion can only appear when the oil temperature ranges from 180 to 190 °C. Moreover, the vapor explosion has a significant effect on flame expansion. The flame expansion intensity is quantified by calculating the flame area and volume. Flame expansion intensity can rank as pure water droplet > droplet with 5% NaCl > droplet with 3% AFFF.
The present study seeks to measure suppression effects in a canonical experimental configuration, featuring the exposure of a buoyant, turbulent, methane or propane-fueled diffusion flame to a co-flowing oxidizer diluted with nitrogen gas. Species-based calorimetry measurements, using either oxygen-consumption (OC) or carbon-dioxide-generation (CDG) based methods, are derived and applied to this configuration. Traditional OC models, which cannot account for oxidizer-dilution, are found to significantly overpredict total heat release rate in the present configuration, while traditional CDG models coincidentally give accurate results. Only the present calorimetry formulation, with full accommodation for oxidizer dilution, provides accurate results for both methods. In both methane and propane flames, global combustion efficiency is found to remain close to unity over a wide range of oxidizer dilution, decreasing abruptly only at the onset of global extinction. Similar trends are noted in the net combustion yields of oxygen, carbon-dioxide, and water-vapor. Net yields of carbon-monoxide remain close to zero for both fuels, but increase slightly near the extinction limit. These measurements reveal that despite visible suppression effects in all of the present flames, until the extinction limit is reached, nearly all of the fuel continues to react and combustion products are produced in stoichiometric proportions.
The validity of water mist extinguishing quenching oil pool fire was studied using two kinds of nozzles by bench-scale experiments. It was found that in both processes of water mist fire suppression the phenomenon of fire expansion may be found initially. The one with larger droplet size and faster velocity leaded to a much more intensively but evidently shorter combustion intensifying, and showed a higher extinguishing efficiency. Experiments and theoretic study showed that the one with smaller and slower mists intensified combustion mainly by air entraining and extinguished fire mainly by flame and oil surface cooling, while the one with larger and faster mists intensified combustion mainly by azeotropism with oil and extinguished fire mainly by oil surface cooling.
A full-scale heat release rate platform for multifunctional measurement is used to study the interaction of water mist with cooking oil fires in an open space. The heat release rate of cooking oil fires, the temperature history of flame, and the characteristic of smoke are measured and investigated in the experiment. The effect of preignition time on fire extinguishment efficiency of water mist is analyzed, and the principles of effect of water mist on cooking oil fires development are also studied. The experimental results show that cooking oil fires is restrained and extinguished by water mist effectively, the temperature and heat release rate decrease quickly with application of water mist, the concentration of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide is decreased by water mist, and the concentration of oxygen and the visibility of smoke is increased. At the same time the heat release rate of cooking oil fires is also calculated by heat release rate model of steady fire, which shows that this model can forecast the heat release rate of the developing K-class fires.
Burning behaviors of the spray bitumen mixture were investigated experimentally. Investigations of the suppression methods of this typical kind of fire were also included. The characteristics of water mist were tested by LDV/APV system. Temperatures were measured by thermocouples and the internal structure was observed by Thermography. Results indicated that the highest temperature was measured in the core of the spray. At the lower pressure ratio (pw/pf≤2. 65), the water mist envelops the spray fire into a ball of fire. At the higher pressure ratio (pw/pf>2. 65), the water mist suppressed the spray fire within a short time. The higher pressure water mist demonstrated higher efficiency for the suppression of spray fires.
Aiming at studying the effectiveness of water mist suppressing spray fires and analyzing the suppression mechanisms, high-pressure fuel ejection system, water mist extinguishing system were established, and experimental and numerical study on water mist suppressing spray flame were carried out. Based on the study of steady-state flame structure and radiative properties of spray flame, this paper analysed the process of water mist suppress spray flame and the flame stretch during the process, and concluded that the predominant extinguishing mechanisms for water mist suppressing spray fire is dilution of fuel in gas phase. The secondary extinguishing mechanisms for water mist extinguishing spray fire is cooling of flame and radiation attenuation. The experimental results and simulation results are very close through comparisons.
'Water mist' refers to fine water sprays in which 99% of the volume of the spray is in droplets with diameter less than 1000 μm. The paper deals with the use of 'water mist' as fire suppressant in coal mines. Water mist could have better suppressant in comparison with other existing fire suppressant like Halon 1211, Halon 1301 as the latter have environmentally unsuitable, being ozone depletion properties. Water mist considerably reduces heat and subsequently temperature of fire as well as radiation attenuation, which resists the spreading of fire to virgin fuel. Higher latent heat of evaporation and specific heat of water mist make it better than other suppressant. Large scale model based study done by Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR), Dhanbad on water mist establishes its suitability to suppress coal mine fires. Water mist infusion has been proved to be safe and very effective technique for not only controlling open fire in underground mines but also reducing toxic gases, minimizing rollback and improving visibility in the fire affected areas. However further research should be carried out to determine the optimum water droplet size, air velocity, water droplet velocity according to fire size and category on field based study.
The concentration of carbon monoxide during fire suppression with water mist is one of the important parameters for safety evaluation of water mist system. Based on the experimental results of fire suppression with water mist in confined space, it is found that the carbon monoxide production rate during fire suppression is controlled in two modes. One is fuel controlled mode, and the other is water mist flux controlled mode. In the fuel controlled mode, the carbon monoxide production rate increases with the increase of fuel flux. In the water mist flux controlled mode, the carbon monoxide production rate increases with the increase of water mist flux. In order to classify the critical condition for transformation between these two modes, the concentration of water vapor in confined space is analyzed. The results show that the critical concentration of water vapor for the mode transformation is 25%-65.5%, which is consistent with Suh and Atryeya's conclusion.
Fire safety in kitchens of Chinese restaurants will be discussed in this article. The licensing requirements and legislation aspects are outlined first with the past fire records briefly discussed. As identified, most kitchen fires in Chinese restaurants started from "cooking woks" at the stoves. For assessing the thermal environment in a kitchen, heat release rates in burning such "woks" in accidental fires should be measured. Two scenarios of burning woks with cooking oil were identified. The first scenario is a stove arrangement with only two woks. The second one is with six woks for serving banquet. Full-scale burning tests on those two identified scenarios were carried out at a remote area in Northeast China. The heat release rate was measured by the oxygen consumption method. As sprinklers and water mist systems are commonly installed, the action of the sprinkler and water mist system on the cooking wok fires were also studied. The times of fire extinguishment upon discharging the water mist were also reported in evaluating the protection system. These experimental results would provide useful information for future designs of fire safety provisions in kitchens of large hotel groups in the Far East.
Effect of water mist on the small-scale solid fuel polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fire in the confined space has been studied experimentally with the heat release rate measured by a cone calorimeter in this paper.The water mist is generated by a single pressure nozzle and the diffusion flame is produced from PVC samples respectively. The LDV/APV system is employed to determine the water mist characteristics. The Cone Calorimeter is used to measure the heat release rate, oxygen and carbon monoxide concentrations and other important parameters of the interaction under various conditions.The results of the test showed that heat extraction cooling (flame cooling and fuel surface cooling) plays a dominating role to suppress the PVC fire, when the water mist with enough volume flux are applied to the diffusion flame in the confined space. The higher the operation pressure, the easier the suppression. The faster the PVC fire suppressed by water mist with large enough water flux, the less the total amount of toxic gases (CO, CO2) produced.
Interaction of water mist with cooking oil fires is studied experimentally and theoretically. A LDV/APV system is used to
measure the velocity and diameter of water mist at different pressures in the experiments, and the effect of water mist velocity
and diameter on fire extinguishment efficiency is investigated. The experimental results show that water mist has excellent
surface cooling effect; it can control and extinguish cooking oil fires quickly without re-ignition. The critical temperature
(Τ
fo) is calculated by energy balance equation, and the fire plume momentum is calculated and compared with that of water mist
in order to determine the critical velocity (ν
wy) of fire extinguishment. This paper provides references for cooking oil fires extinguishment with water mist.
The progress on the research and application of water mist systems in fire suppression has been substantial over the last decade. To bring this work into focus, a review has been undertaken to identify future developments and potential efficacy improvements for water mist fire suppression systems. This paper, as a first step, provides a review of the fundamental research in water mist fire suppression systems. This includes a review of extinguishing mechanisms and the factors that influence the performance of water mist, such as spray characteristics, enclosure effects, dynamic mixing, the use of additives and methods of generating water mist. Recent studies on the use of computer modeling for the development of water mist fire suppression systems are also reviewed and discussed.
The fire risk in Chinese restaurants in Hong Kong is analyzed using the ARGOS fire risk analysis model developed at
the Danish Institute of Fire Technology. A sample size of fifteen Chinese restaurants with different floor areas and fire
load densities is considered. Fire simulations are performed for two cases by assuming a PU foam furniture fire
occurring in the dining hall and a kerosene fire in the kitchen. Correlations are derived between the floor area and the
predicted maximum hot gas temperature, the corresponding smoke layer interface height and the cost of damaged
stock in the restaurants. The effectiveness of fire protection systems including sprinkler systems and smoke vents in
controlling the fire is also discussed.
The feasibility of using water mist fire suppression systems (WMFSS) in a commercial kitchen was discussed in this paper. Active fire protection systems (or called fire services installation in Hong Kong) required for kitchens were outlined. Advantages and disadvantages of WMFSS were discussed. Recommendations were made on the potential application strategies. An example was used to illustrate the design of the system.
The rate of heat release is the most important parameter for characterising an unwanted fire. The oxygen consumption principle has accelerated the development and use of equipment of measure rate of heat release. The Cone Calorimeter is the most significant of small scale instruments in this field. The paper describes the apparatus and theory. Applications including correlation with large scale fire tests are discussed.
In this paper, some preliminary measurements and observations were conducted to investigate the interaction of water mist with pool fires. The fire source is a small-scale circular stainless steel pan with heptane, ethanol and kerosene as fuel. Water mist was generated by a downward-directed pressure nozzle that was positioned on a square steel plate 300 mm over the fuel sample and was operated at pressures of 0.5 MPa. The water mist characteristics were determined by a LDV/APV system. The radiation spectra of the flames were measured by a monochromator and the radiant heat flux was obtained by a thermogage before and after application of water mist. Thermography was used to visualize the thermal field of the flame. The experimental results show that the interaction mechanisms of kerosene flame are different from those of ethanol and heptane.
Water has become the most widely used fire-fighting agent because its fire suppression performance is hard to beat. The thermal characteristics of water make it ideally suitable as an extinguishing agent for most types of fire, whether it is used to extract heat directly from the flames, the hot products of combustion or from the surface of the fuel. The phase change from liquid water to water vapour (steam) is particularly effective in extracting thermal energy and the production of large quantities of water vapour may further contribute to fire extinguishment by reducing the oxygen concentration of the surrounding atmosphere, particularly where the fire is confined. The present paper is based on an extensive literature review conducted within Edinburgh University's Fire Safety Engineering Group and sponsored by the UK Home Office Fire Research and Development Group. The aim of the research project was to establish the current state-of-the-art regarding the use of water sprays for the suppression and extinguishment of typical (Class ‘A’) compartment fires and to identify where gaps exist in the current knowledge.
This paper describes the study of the interaction of water mists with a diffusion flame in a confined space with proper ventilation control. Water mist was generated by a single pressure nozzle and diffusion flames were produced from ethanol and pine samples, respectively. The LDV/APV system was employed to determine the water mist characteristics. The Cone Calorimeter was used to measure the heat release rate, oxygen and carbon monoxide concentrations and other important parameters of the interaction under various conditions. The test results showed that water mist suppressed the diffusion flame in the confined space through oxygen displacement, evaporative cooling and heat radiant attenuation, and enhanced the combustion through expansion of the mixture and chain reaction as well. Suppression played the dominating role when the water mists with enough volume flux were applied to the diffusion flame in confined space. The poorer was the ventilation, the easier the suppression. The water mists had a more complex effect on the solid sample than the liquid, and affected the smoke release rate and movement.
This work describes observations and measurements from the interaction of a fine water spray from a hollow cone nozzle, with purely buoyant diffusion flames from a natural gas ceramic-plate burner located directly underneath the nozzle. The burner plate was instrumented with thermocouples cemented on its upper and lower surfaces to assess the influence of the spray on the burner temperature. A set of thermocouples was also used to measure plume centerline temperatures above the burner plate. An imaging system was used to record the presence of droplets near the burner surface, and a narrow angle total radiation detector was used to measure changes in local flame radiation. A limited number of measurements of the steady state O2 and CO concentrations along the plume centerline were also carried out.For the conditions tested, the plume-to-spray thrust ratio was large, resulting in negligible direct penetration of the droplets into the fire region. A consequence of the low spray thrust was an almost droplet-free region above the flame. The observed cooling of the ceramic burner when the spray was applied was due to decreased radiant emission from the flame as well as deposition and evaporation of droplets entrained into the plume near the burner. The centerline plume temperatures did not change significantly upon application of the spray, at least within the error limits of thermocouple measurements. However, there was a significant decrease in O2 and an increase in CO concentrations along the plume centerline upon application of the spray. An energy balance on the ceramic-plate burner, together with the experimental data, yielded estimates of the water deposition rate on the burner surface.
Recent experimental work on fine water sprays indicates that they may have a wider application in the fields of fire extinction and combustion suppression than previously anticipated. In this paper, the means of producing fine sprays are briefly examined and the major results of some case studies are reviewed. A few unexpected positive results have come to light, especially with regard to using fine mists to protect against fires involving live electrical equipment. However, it is still premature to advocate the use of fine sprays for many applications.
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