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Laboratory Experiments: The Role of Group Belongingness
... Research on groups has given attention to the natural formation of groups, uniformity within groups, and a normalization of behavior (Greenberg et al., 1997;Baumeister and Leary, 1995;Festinger, 1950). Similar observations appear in business contexts. ...
... The psychology literature suggests people in general have a need to belong to groups, and there is constant pressure towards uniformity within groups (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1997). Research on groups has given attention to the natural formation of groups, uniformity within groups, and a normalization of behavior (e.g., Festinger, 1950Festinger, , 1954. Greenberg et al. (1997) suggest that individuals belong to at least some group and that people identify themselves with a particular worldview. ...
... Additionally, Baumeister and Leary (1995) note that groups exist beyond the need for basic survival and may be shaped by economic need and opportunity. Festinger (1950Festinger ( , 1954) describes a social comparison tension within groups as a force that persuades members to strive for the uniformity necessary for group goal achievement. Individuals within the group share information, socially compare, and corroborate beliefs. ...
... In this environment, βi(n) = 1 is assumed as a punishment signal or failure and βi(n) = 0, as a reward signal or success. In an environment of Q, βi can discretely get one of the limited values in the interval [0,1]. In the S Model, βi is a random variable between zero and one βi(n) ϵ [0,1]. ...
... In an environment of Q, βi can discretely get one of the limited values in the interval [0,1]. In the S Model, βi is a random variable between zero and one βi(n) ϵ [0,1]. In S model with r action, if the action is selected in n-th iteration step and the environment's answer to that is the vector of automata probabilities will be updated according to the following equation. ...
The topological structure of peer-to-peer networks is one of the topics of interest in these types of networks. Using the concept of community, as a technique for putting together the peers with similar interests, has largely contributed to the topological structure of peer-to-peer networks. A community is created when one or more numbers of a peer claim a similar interest about a common subject. Discovering a community and proposing it to a peer regardless of the priority of the keywords in the vector of interests leads to surplus connections and higher traffic in the network. Hence, in this paper it is tried to, unlike previous studies and using learning automata, prioritize the interests of a peer in the vector of interest and the peer chooses more accurate communities for the sake of its own durability. Using this method, one node could choose those communities suggested to it with members with more similar interest. By implementing the interest-based searching method on the network obtained through the proposed algorithm, the search overhead and the success rate are investigated and the obtained results proved our claim.
... It is well-known and understood that people generally prefer others who are similar to them. Festinger (1950) argued that individuals choose to associate with similar others because such affiliation serves to reduce uncertainty and facilitate the achievement of goals. Furthermore, when individuals meet with agreement from their fellow group members regarding their beliefs and ideas, they will tend to feel more confident about the validity of those beliefs and, consequently, their positive expectations about themselves and their group will be fulfilled (Insko, 1983;Kelley & Volkart, 1962). ...
... Here, cohesion is understood to be the sum of all pressures working on a group to keep individuals together (Baron & Kerr, 2003;Dion, 2000;Patnoe, 1988). Festinger (1950) later defined cohesion in a similar way, calling it "the resultant forces which are acting on the members to stay in the group" (p. 274). ...
... McMillan (1976) contended (a) that working for membership will provide a feeling that one has earned a place in the group and (b) that, as a consequence of this personal investment, membership will be more meaningful and valuable. This notion of personal investment is paralleled by the work of cognitive dissonance theorists (Aronson & Mills, 1959;Festinger, 1953). For example, the hazing ritual of college fraternities strengthens group cohesiveness (Peterson & Martens, 1972). ...
... Reward or humiliation in the presence of community has a significant impact on attractiveness (or adverseness) of the community to the person (Festinger, 1953;James & Lott, 1964). ...
For several years many of us at Peabody College have participated in the evolution of a theory of community, the first conceptualization of which was presented in a working paper (McMillan, 1976) of the Center for Community Studies. To support the proposed definition, McMillan focused on the literature on group cohesiveness, and we build here on that original definition. This article attempts to describe the dynamics of the sense-of-community force — to identify the various elements in the force and to describe the process by which these elements work together to produce the experience of sense of community.
... Social scientists have shown that the more people interact, the more likely they are to feel attached to one another (Sherif et al., 1961; Festinger, 1950). Studies of the military have found similar results (Ingraham, 1984). ...
... The research on contact and proximity reviewed above suggests that frequent interaction with others is likely to increase social bonds (Sherif et al., 1961; Festinger, 1950; Festinger, Schachter, and Back, 1950 ). Thus those who are frequentiy relocated will have more difficulty developing social bonds with others in the community. ...
In addition to organizational issues, the military is concerned with individual and family welfare. To meet the needs of military members and their families, the Department of Defense has created a number of personnel support programs. Such programs help maintain a high quality of life within the military. One important aspect of quality of life is a sense of community. The social science literature has shown that a sense of community is positively associated with a number of important organizational outcomes, such as commitment, performance, retention, and readiness. This report reviews nine insights from the social science literature that can be used to strengthen a sense of community within an organization. Suggestions are provided on how personnel support programs can implement these principles. This report is part of a longer-term study of quality-of-life issues in the military. It is intended for military and civilian policymakers and decisionmakers with an interest in how quality of life bears on retention and readiness. The study is assessing the mix and scope of military support programs and will recommend policies to enhance the effectiveness of support programs. The work was sponsored by the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Personnel Support, Families, and Education. This research was conducted in the Forces and Resources Policy Center, which is part of RAND's National Defense Research Institute, a federally funded research and development center sponsored by the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Staff, the unified commands, and the defense agencies.
... As far as McMillan and Chavis's [23] study highlighted, the last determinant is a common emotional link-the order can be traced to the history, or histories, of the community itself, especially as it has been proved that when crises are overcome together by a community's members, the links that tie them to the community are reinforced [83]. Conversely, when the organization of a community is confused, the cohesion between its members is affected [84,85]. ...
This research explored the effects of sense of community and authenticity on meaning in life in social communities in France. The sample included one hundred participants from four social communities (i.e., political, religious, virtual learning, and mutual aid). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire, the Sense of Community Scale, and the Authenticity Scale were administered to the respondents. The correlational analyses indicated that sense of community and authenticity were more related to the presence of meaning (r = 0.29 and r = 0.54, respectively) than to the search for meaning (r = −0.39 and r = 0.03, respectively). In addition, no interaction effects were found between sense of community and the three dimensions of authenticity, suggesting that the level of authenticity did not influence the relationships between sense of community and presence of or search for meaning. The practical and research implications of the study for social communities in the field of existential psychology were discussed.
... Theoretical and empirical work examining the conditions and processes enabling a SOC demonstrate that a SOC depends on the depth of relationship cultivated between members (Gusfield, 1975). It is asserted that deep relationships are built on repeated sets of social interactions (Miller & Stiver, 1997), and are strengthened through time spent together (Boyd & Nowell, 2014;Dawson, 2008;Festinger, 1950). Thus, this framework assumes that continuity or endurance of social interactions is a necessary condition for the creation of a SOC (e.g., Blatt & Camden, 2007;Garrett, Spreitzer, & Bacervice, 2017). ...
Relational sense of community (SOC) research suggests that SOC depends on the depth of relationships cultivated between members over time. The rise of temporary organizations, representing transient work arrangements with limited expectations for future interactions, implored us to consider: how can a swift SOC emerge in temporary organizations, where the cultivation of relationships may be challenging? We introduce a broader relational approach and draw on high-quality connections and resourcing theories to examine how a swift SOC emerges. Utilizing rich data sources, qualitative analyses show that a swift SOC is cultivated in five days in a sleepaway summer camp. We find that a swift SOC is built on brief supportive connections that are made durable by resourcing artifacts. Resourcing artifacts creates scaffolds that mobilize actors to create a web of connections, leading to an organization-wide swift SOC. We propose that a swift SOC emerges through four intertwined resourcing artifact phases: initial resourcing, embracing resourcing, reinterpreting resourcing, and expanding resourcing. During these phases, individuals imbue artifacts with new meaning and resource artifacts for: 1) dyadic connection, 2) staff coordination, 3) membership in a subgroup, and 4) an organization-wide community. We demonstrate symbolizing and momentary connections as novel resourcing mechanisms enabling this process.
... One of the topological structuring methods in peerto-peer networks is the interest-based classification method [2,5,10,11]. The vector of interests is a set of keywords obtained from the users' inquiries. ...
The topological structure of peer-to-peer networks is one of the topics of interest in these types of networks. Using the concept of community, as a technique for putting together the peers with similar interests, has largely contributed to the topological structure of peer-to-peer networks. A community is created when one or more numbers of a peer claim a similar interest about a common subject. Discovering a community and proposing it to a peer regardless of the priority of the keywords in the vector of interests leads to surplus connections and higher traffic in the network. Hence, in this paper it is tried to, unlike previous studies and using learning automata, prioritize the interests of a peer in the vector of interest and the peer chooses more accurate communities for the sake of its own durability. Using this method, one node could choose those communities suggested to it with members with more similar interest. By implementing the interest-based searching method on the network obtained through the proposed algorithm, the search overhead and the success rate are investigated and the obtained results proved our claim.
... Consequently, development of group cohesion becomes an important next step prior to implementing the aforementioned multi-source feedback tool. Castaño et al. (2013), drawing from Festinger (1950) and Mudrack (1989), defines cohesion as "the 'field of forces interacting to keep a group intact" (p. 209) which may be "represented by a group that is bonded and sticks together" (p. ...
In order to train young professionals, instructional methodologies in engineering need not only teach students knowledge, but must also instill the values and teach the behaviors—competencies students can demonstrate—required of professional practice. Herein, we focus on understanding the values and behaviors of students with respect to working as a member of an engineering group as a part of a course project. Our hypotheses are (1) that the students’ values with respect to the behavior of individuals in a group will remain stable through the academic year and (2) there will be behavioral predictors to group-based values. Our findings agree with the literature on societal groups which indicate that values should remain constant over time; we see here with our cohort of students that values not only remain stable, but also, students maintain high agreement through the academic year. With respect to behavior predictors, the behaviors that repeatedly correlated or predicted positive group values were related to interpersonal skills rather than knowledge or learning. This finding is important as it points to a noted necessity to foster strong interpersonal skills among students. Students need to recognize that how they interact with their group is just as important as the skills being brought to the group. The results presented herein are a first step toward creating a “personalized” instructional approach that focuses on aligning individual values and behaviors when working in an engineering group.
... Psychologists have long shown that people have an affiliation motive [5] and a need for information about the world around us [6]. These are some of the instincts that have driven the formation of human groups. ...
Current peer-to-peer systems are targeted for information sharing, file storage, searching and indexing often using an overlay network. In this paper we expand the scope of peer-to-peer systems to include the concept of "communities". Communities are like interest groups, modeled after human communities and can overlap. They can also exist without anyone knowing about their existence. Communities are created, implicitly when one or more entities claim an interest in the same topic. Our work focuses on efficient methods to discover the formation of these self-configuring communities. We investigate the behavior of randomly created communities and model the complexity of discovery algorithms. Discovering communities on the fly is essential to being able to perform community directed searching. In addition, efficient discovery algorithms allow us to manage quickly changing community structures (dynamic communities, failures, mobile nodes and so on). We use some simulations to discover the architecture of randomly created communities and then perform studies on techniques for discovering communities.
... This is true regardless of whether the identity is a self-perceived attribute (like conservative–liberal) or a self-perceived social group membership (like Republican–Democrat). Conservative-and liberalidentifiers have in fact diverged on various political attitudes since the 1970s (Baldassari & Gelman, 2008), and such divergence has coincided with a more polarized elite political atmosphere (Brewer, 2005; Poole & Rosenthal, 1997). 1 Thus ideological identity has become more closely tied to social conflict, and may therefore have become more likely to impact the subjective meaning ascribed to objects based on discourse indicating what is identity-appropriate. Research examining the role of identity in social influence has largely shown that people are especially persuadable by identity-matched sources. Furthermore, evidence suggests that this form of social influence often occurs because identitymatched sources define the relevant aspects of reality for the individual (Allen & Wilder, 1977; Festinger, 1950; Insko, Smith, Alicke, Wade, & Taylor, 1985; Kelman, 1961; Mackie and Queller, 2000; Mackie et al., 1990; Terry et al., 2000). In Deutsch and Gerrard's (1955) terminology, this type of social influence is referred to as ''informational influence,'' as opposed to ''normative influence'' in which conformity results from group pressure (e.g., Moscovici, 1980). ...
To many commentators and social scientists, Americans’ stances on political issues are to an important extent driven by an
underlying conservative–liberal ideological dimension. Self-identification as conservative vs. liberal is regarded as a marker
of this dimension. However, past research has not thoroughly distinguished between ideological identity (a self-categorization)
and ideology (an integrated value system). This research evaluates the thesis that conservative–liberal identity functions
as a readiness to adopt beliefs and attitudes about newly politicized issues that one is told are consistent with the socially
prescribed meaning of conservatism–liberalism. In Study 1, conservative–liberal identity, measured in 2000, had an independent
prospective effect on support for invading Iraq in 2002 and support for the Iraq war in 2004, controlling for substantive
ideology, party identity, and demographics. In Study 2, conservative- and liberal-identifiers adopted stances on farm subsidy
policy based on randomly varied cues indicating which ideological group supports which stance. This cue-based influence was
mediated by adoption of attitude-supportive beliefs. Discussion addresses the joint impact of political discourse and identity-based
social influence on the organization of political attitudes.
KeywordsConservatism-Liberalism-Ideology-Political attitudes-Identity-Social influence
... Psychologists have long shown that people have an affiliation motive [5] and a need for information about the world around us [6]. These are some of the instincts that have driven the formation of human groups. ...
Current peer-to-peer systems are targeted for information sharing, file storage, searching and indexing often using an overlay network. In this paper we expand the scope of peer-to-peer systems to include the concept of "communities". Communities are like interest groups, modeled after human communities and can overlap. They can also exist without anyone knowing about their existence. Communities are created, implicitly when one or more entities claim an interest in the same topic. Our work focuses on efficient methods to discover the formation of these self-configuring communities. We investigate the behavior of randomly created communities and model the complexity of discovery algorithms. Discovering communities on the fly is essential to being able to perform community directed searching. In addition, efficient discovery algorithms allow us to manage quickly changing community structures (dynamic communities, failures, mobile nodes and so on).
... The first principle they identify is the contact hypothesis. The contact hypothesis states that the more times people interact with one another the more likely they will become close (Allan and Allan, 1971;Festinger, 1950). The second principle identify is the quality of interaction. ...
The relationship between the built environment and human behavior has been a topic of debate for decades, increasing significantly since the time of the industrial revolution. The latest arguments in this debate are the claims made by New Urbanists. New Urbanists claim to foster greater sense of community through the use of design. The goal of this study is to explore the relationship between the built environment and sense of community in order to identify which physical properties positively affect sense of community. This thesis not only examines the physical properties claimed to foster sense of community but the social variables that literature has found to also affect sense of community among residents.
Built upon the earlier findings of Glynn (1981), McMillan and Chavis (1986), Nasar and Julian (1995), Talen (1999) and Lund (2002), this study examined residents of four residential developments in the City of Arroyo Grande who were surveyed on their perceived sense of community. The residential developments The Village and Berry Gardens were selected as developments containing New Urbanist design elements. Rancho Grande and Oak Park Leisure Gardens were selected as traditional suburban developments.
The results of this study found two key findings. The Village and Berry Gardens, while containing similar spatial variables, found a noticeable difference in sense of community scores. Residents of The Village felt that their needs and wants were met, that they were active, satisfied members of their neighborhood, and shared an emotional connection with their fellow neighbors. Residents of Berry Gardens were overall less satisfied, less fulfilled, less active and shared less of an emotional connection with their fellow neighbors than all other developments. And while Rancho Grande and Oak Park Leisure Gardens contained noticeably distinct spatial variables, strikingly similar sense of community scores were found. Although Rancho Grande had a density of 2.5 dwelling units per acre and large setbacks its residents felt they could influence one another and belonged in the neighborhood to the same degree as residents of Oak Park Leisure Gardens with 9 dwelling units an acre and shallow setbacks.
Based on the four sense of community indicators used (membership, integration and fulfillment of needs, influence, and shared emotional connection) the results show a lack of relationship between the spatial variables found in each residential development and the sense of community its residents have. The social variables, education, gender, age, and homogeneity, can account for the range of sense of community scores among physically similar developments as well as physically different. This implies that the built environment plays the role of a medium in which all factors influencing sense of community are stimulated rather than determining sense of community.
... Social influences were first studied by Sherif (1936), and then reported in Festinger (1950) and Asch's (1956) studies. In all their studies, experimental groups socially constructed norms and then group members used these norms as frame of reference to guide attitudes, judgments and behaviors. ...
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Hong Kong, 2004. Mode of access: World Wide Web.
... Psychologists have long shown that people have an affiliation motive (Murray, 1938) and a need for information about the world around us (Festinger, 1950). These are some of the instincts that have driven the formation of human groups. ...
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Arizona State University, 2003. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [109]-115).
... Instead, it should be defmed in terms of the income of the "significant others". as sociologists as well as economic theory and empirical evidence have established, [Miller (1963); Kelly (1968); Newcomb (1968);Festinger (1968) and Hayakawa and Venieris (1977)]. Indeed, it is neither reasonable to assume that the peer group of the prospective young parents includes their own parents nor is it clear that the phenomenon of spatial mobility or the comparatively short memory of the prospective parents allow the type of comparisons advocated by Easterlin. ...
Based on the results of an econometric analysis, the paper looks into the dynamic response of fertility behaviour in the United States, to changes in some of its determinants. Specifically, the effect of current and past marriage rates on fertility has been studied. In doing so, the role of permanent income and the divorce rate on the marriage rate, and through it, on fertility, has also been examined.
The literature on assessments of whistleblower tips is limited and many unanswered questions exist. This study investigates the assessment of anonymous whistle blower tips by participants acting as internal auditors and the actions that ensue. Two-hundred sixteen participants rated the likelihood and seriousness of fraud and the investigative resources applied based upon a written script. Results suggest that the wording utilized by a tipster impacts fraud likelihood assessments, which in turn impacts tip importance assessments. The source of the tip was not significant in either assessment. Fraud likelihood assessments and tip importance assessments influence the experience level of the personnel assigned to investigate the tip, while tip importance also influences the hours assigned to investigate the tip. Finally, the frame of the tip has a significant indirect effect on the experience assigned and the hours assigned, mediated by fraud likelihood and tip importance assessments.
JEL Classifications: G41; M42; M49.
Learning how to carry out experiments is an important part of the bachelor’s degree curriculum in psychology at the University of Zurich. Students learn how to plan and perform experiments, how to analyse the collected data, and how to interpret and present the results. Most of these experiments are laboratory and have their limitations, for example the artificial nature of the setting. One way to reduce this artificial character of laboratory experiments is to carry out the study in the form of performance art. For this project, 15 students received a lecture including examples of performance art. Afterwards they executed their own experiments using performance art. In addition, the students’ personal character traits were measured and analysed. After the students completed their experiments, the role of the experimenters’ character traits in psychological experiments using performance art was investigated and the new method of carrying out experiments was discussed.
In solving choice problems under bounded rationality, one relies on “heuristics” provided by social interdependence. Such “heuristics” consist in taking a particular social group as a reference group and in emulating its life-style by acquiring an associated cluster of complementary wants. A preference map generated by this reference-group-taking behavior exhibits smooth indifference curves which are convex to the origin with a “relevant range” over which the marginal rate of substitution is positive and diminishing. However, its implications on consumer choice and welfare economics are significantly different from those of traditional theory.
Considérations méthodologiques sur l'application de la psychologie cognitive dans la recherche par questionnaire. Dans l'empressement à appliquer la psychologie cognitive et ses méthodes dans la recherche sociale par questionnaire pendant la dernière décennie, une attention insuffisante a été donnée aux principes scientifiques. Cet article fournit un cadre pour corriger ce problème en se concentrant sur des méthodes qui peuvent améliorer la validité et la fiabilité des données collectées avec l'appui de la psychologie cognitive. Ces méthodes utilisent de meilleurs plans d'expériences et de meilleures techniques de mesure. Des plans d'expériences qui facilitent la comparaison entre des procédures cognitives alternatives et des travaux de chercheurs différents sont présentes. Un autre aspect de ces plans est qu'ils demandent plus d'attention dans l'élaboration du protocole expérimental. En ce qui concerne la mesure, des techniques pour rendre l'utilisation des données qualitatives plus systématique sont discutées, et des méthodes de construction d'indicateurs ordinaux et d'intervalle sont présentés.
There has been concern expressed in the financial press and focus established in the accounting literature over rising levels of executive compensation. Individuals on the compensation committee, a sub-committee of the board of directors, collectively determine executive compensation and are responsible for maintaining the pay-for-performance standard, a concept that warrants further attention. This study examines the process of exaggeration of a group decision over individual beliefs and the impact of leadership upon a committee's outcome when making compensation awards. In an experiment with 98 subjects role-playing as compensation committee members, results show that in a committee of individuals where a coterie and a majority belief is present, group polarization occurs and the compensation results are exaggerated as compared to individual beliefs. The findings also suggest, though, that the appointment of a leader as chair of the committee, either in the majority or minority view, has a moderating effect on the group outcome. These results highlight and add to the literature the potential for agency costs in the group decision process that may be found in the executive compensation-setting environment.
Hypothesized that: (a) salience of group membership might be aroused implicitly by cues provided in the objective situation without the explicit reminders of group membership used in previous research; and (b) by varying number of persons of each sex, in an aggregate responding to a questionnaire which included material relevant to the sex group norms, the salience of the norms of the respective groups would be aroused, and these norms would influence responses to the relevant material. 214 undergraduates responded anonymously to a questionnaire dealing with attitudes toward feminism and child rearing, under 3 conditions of group composition, with either a male or female E. Results show that males' responses on feminist items varied significantly over the conditions of group composition, but females' did not. Responses to the child-rearing items did not vary for either sex over conditions of group composition. It is concluded that results for male Ss are the result of the resolution of conflicting norms chauvinism and chivalry. The relevance of this experiment to methodological procedures is indicated, stressing that in the administration of group questionnaires, even though anonymous, neither the characteristics of the individuals composing the aggregate nor those of the administrator could be ignored. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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