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Long-Term Stability of Clay Slopes
... The values of the saturated permeability fell in a wide range between 4 × 10 −8 m/s and 8 × 10 −5 m/s, with most values included in the range 1 × 10 −7 -3 × Given the composition and nature of the tested colluvial materials (CF* < 45%, PI < 25%, LL < 50%), the samples appear in the parts of the diagrams where the dispersion is higher and the differences more marked. Overall, most of the measured values fall within the range limits proposed by widely adopted research works [70,71]. Based on the results obtained, an average residual value of the friction angle that can be assumed as a reference for flysch-derived colluvial soils is ϕ r = 23 • , which is associated with average values of CF* = 37% and PI = 17%. ...
... friction angle vs. CF* of the soil samples subjected to ring shear tests, with the range limits proposed by[70] (Figure 12a); (ii) Residual friction angle vs. PI, with the range limits proposed in[71] (Figure 12b); (iii) Residual friction angle vs. LL, with the range limits proposed by[72] (Figure 12c).Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of Values of the residual friction angle vs. (a) the clay fraction, (b) the plasticity index, (c and the liquid limit of the colluvial samples from the Sedilis landslide. The results of this study are compared with other authors[70][71][72]. ...
... friction angle vs. CF* of the soil samples subjected to ring shear tests, with the range limits proposed by[70] (Figure 12a); (ii) Residual friction angle vs. PI, with the range limits proposed in[71] (Figure 12b); (iii) Residual friction angle vs. LL, with the range limits proposed by[72] (Figure 12c).Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of Values of the residual friction angle vs. (a) the clay fraction, (b) the plasticity index, (c and the liquid limit of the colluvial samples from the Sedilis landslide. The results of this study are compared with other authors[70][71][72]. ...
Heterogeneous rock masses that include rhythmic alternations of marl, shale, marly limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and argillite, such as Flysch, are particularly prone to generating colluvial deposits on gentle slopes, which are often subject to failures triggered by heavy rainfall. Flysch-derived colluvial soils are made up of highly heterogeneous sediments ranging from clayey loam to rock fragments, and they have been studied more rarely than homogeneous soils. In this work, we present a geotechnical and hydraulic characterisation performed both in situ and in the laboratory on flysch-derived colluvial soils that were involved in a channelised landslide in the pre-alpine area of the Friuli Venezia Giulia region (NE Italy). The investigated soils were characterised by the average values of the grain size composition of about 25% gravel, 20% sand, 30% silt, and 25% clay. The loamy matrix presented low-to-medium values of the liquid and plastic limits, as well as of the plasticity index (LL = 40%, PL = 23%, and PI = 17%, respectively). The values of the peak friction angle for natural intact samples were 33° < ϕ’p < 38°, whereas the residual friction angle fell to 23–24° at great depths and high vertical stresses, for a prevailing silty–clayey matrix. Variable head permeability tests were performed both in situ and in the laboratory, showing that the values of the vertical and horizontal permeability were very close and in the range 1 × 10−4–1 × 10−6 m/s. The soil permeability measured in the field was generally higher than the hydraulic conductivity calculated on laboratory samples. The proposed geotechnical and hydrological characterisation of flysch-derived colluvial soils can be of fundamental importance before the use of more thorough analyses/models aimed at forecasting the possible occurrence of slope failures and evaluating the related landslide hazard. The reported geotechnical and hydraulic parameters of flysch-derived colluvial materials can represent a useful reference for rainfall infiltration modelling and slope stability analyses of colluvial covers that are subject to intense and/or prolonged precipitation. However, when facing engineering problems involving colluvial soils, particularly those coming from flysch rock masses, the intrinsic variability in their grain size composition, consistency, and plasticity characteristics is a key feature and attention should be paid to the proper assumption of the corresponding geotechnical and hydraulic parameters.
... The torsional shear resistance of clays is vital in the stability analysis of slopes where large shear deformation takes place before the landslide (Skempton 1964, 1977, Gibo et al. 1987, Rahardjo et al. 1995, Stark et al. 1997, Tiwari et al. 2005. Minimal constant shear strength along the slip plane due to the re-orientation of soil particles under sufficiently large displacements is termed the residual shear strength of soil (Skempton 1964(Skempton , 1985. ...
... The torsional shear resistance of clays is vital in the stability analysis of slopes where large shear deformation takes place before the landslide (Skempton 1964, 1977, Gibo et al. 1987, Rahardjo et al. 1995, Stark et al. 1997, Tiwari et al. 2005. Minimal constant shear strength along the slip plane due to the re-orientation of soil particles under sufficiently large displacements is termed the residual shear strength of soil (Skempton 1964(Skempton , 1985. Some of the available studies showed that the stability of the slip surface of both new and reactivated landslides strongly depends on the residual shear strength of the soil (Bishop et al. 1971, Mesri et al. 2003, Mesri and Sarihan 2012, Li et al. 2017. ...
... The shear resistance of clays under large shear deformations is important for various engineering applications, such as geotechnical analysis of soils that are prone to progressive failures (Tiwari et al. 2005), design of countermeasures for reactivated landslides (Skempton 1964, 1977, Gibo et al. 1987, Rahardjo et al. 1995, Stark and Eid 1997, Tiwari et al. 2020, and seismic displacement analysis (Tiwari et al. 2020). Clays exhibit residual shear strength, which is a minimal constant shear strength along the slip plane due to re-orientation of the clay particles under sufficiently large displacements at relatively low shear rates (Skempton 1964(Skempton , 1985. ...
... The shear resistance of clays under large shear deformations is important for various engineering applications, such as geotechnical analysis of soils that are prone to progressive failures (Tiwari et al. 2005), design of countermeasures for reactivated landslides (Skempton 1964, 1977, Gibo et al. 1987, Rahardjo et al. 1995, Stark and Eid 1997, Tiwari et al. 2020, and seismic displacement analysis (Tiwari et al. 2020). Clays exhibit residual shear strength, which is a minimal constant shear strength along the slip plane due to re-orientation of the clay particles under sufficiently large displacements at relatively low shear rates (Skempton 1964(Skempton , 1985. The stability of both new and reactivated landslides strongly depends on the residual shear strength of the clays (Bishop et al. 1971, Mesri et al. 2003, Mesri and Sarihan 2012, Li et al. 2017. ...
The normal stress, strain rate, and pore-fluid chemistry significantly influence the large-strain shear response of clays and received great attention for engineering practice. The effect of inundation pressure, consolidation pressure, pH of aqueous solutions, and di-electric on the shear response of kaolin was experimentally investigated. The strain-softening behaviour was observed under normally consolidated (NC) conditions as observed in the past studies on different clays. However, this anomalous shear response with volumetric contraction is not understood. Thus, for the first time, the strain-softening behaviour of NC clays was addressed from an effective stress approach using physico-chemical analysis of kaolin. In this study, the drained shear strength response of NC kaolin was investigated under physico-chemical influence using ring shear tests. A theoretical framework was developed by including micro-mechanism of clay fabric evolution during shear and explicit expressions for electro-chemical forces. The proposed framework provides useful expressions for predicting the shear strength behaviour of kaolin clays, which were validated with experimental data from the present study and literature studies. The new conceptual framework satisfactorily explained the peak and residual shear strength variations under different chemo-mechanical loading for NC conditions. The proposed model adequately predicted the effective stress paths, peak, and residual envelopes in ring shear stress conditions for normally consolidated kaolin soils
... The post-failure behavior of sensitive clays is attributed to the reduction in strength after reaching peak strength under shear loading, which is also known as strain softening (Pusch, 1966). Sensitive clays generally have high intact shear strength, but the shear strength reduces to a significantly low value (remolded shear strength) when subjected to disturbance in undrained condition (Crawford, 1968;Skempton, 1964). The strength reduction reaches a point where the clay completely loses its intact structure and disintegrates to a liquid-like mass (remolded clay) that can flow (Rosenqvist, 1953(Rosenqvist, , 1966. ...
... The devastating aftermath of landslides in sensitive clays intrigued researchers to extensively investigate the behavior of these materials that leads to the initiation and progress of extremely large landslides under different loading conditions. Due to strain-softening behavior, the mobilized strength along a potential failure surface varies from the peak to the remolded shear strength, unlike a constant value used in limit equilibrium (LE) methods (Bishop, 1971;Bjerrum, 1967;Locat et al., 2011Locat et al., , 2013Skempton, 1964). Therefore, analysis of sensitive clay slopes requires peak shear strength and detailed information about the strain-softening behavior, which fundamentally cannot be incorporated into conventional LE analysis (Gylland et al., 2014). ...
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... Generally, the slope is sheared along the (potential) slip zone (Tong et al., 2023). With the increase of deformation, the strain softening of the soil in the shear zone occurs, leading to the reduction of the soil strength (Skempton, 1985;Mesri and Shahien, 2003;Troncone, 2005), and the slope also shows a progressive failure behavior (Skempton, 1964;Law and Lumb, 1978;Li et al., 2022;Sun et al., 2022;Tremblay-Auger et al., 2022;Zou et al., 2023). Therefore, it is of great significance to consider the softening behavior of the shear zone in the stability analysis of expansive soil slopes. ...
Slope stability analysis is a classical mechanical problem in geotechnical engineering and engineering geology. It is of great significance to study the stability evolution of expansive soil slopes for engineering construction in expansive soil areas. Most of the existing studies evaluate the slope stability by analyzing the limit equilibrium state of the slope, and the analysis method for the stability evolution considering the damage softening of the shear zone is lacking. In this study, the large deformation shear mechanical behavior of expansive soil was investigated by ring shear test. The damage softening characteristic of expansive soil in the shear zone was analyzed, and a shear damage model reflecting the damage softening behavior of expansive soil was derived based on the damage theory. Finally, by skillfully combining the vector sum method and the shear damage model, an analysis method for the stability evolution of the expansive soil slope considering the shear zone damage softening was proposed. The results show that the shear zone subjected to large displacement shear deformation exhibits an obvious damage softening phenomenon. The damage variable equation based on the logistic function can be well used to describe the shear damage characteristics of expansive soil, and the proposed shear damage model is in good agreement with the ring shear test results. The vector sum method considering the damage softening behavior of the shear zone can be well applied to analyze the stability evolution characteristics of the expansive soil slope. The stability factor of the expansive soil slope decreases with the increase of shear displacement, showing an obvious progressive failure behavior.
... The notion of residual shear strength originated from the experimental studies of Tiedemann, Haefeli, and Hvorslev in the 1930s, and MacNeil Turnbull in the 1950s. However, it was Skempton who synthesized these findings in his Rankine Lecture (Skempton, 1964). ...
... Strain softening generally refers to the decrease in strength past 65 the peak (intact) strength, into the post peak regime during shear failure. Skempton (1964) ...
Strain softening in sensitive clays is a major cause of retrogressive landslides. The assessment of post failure movements like retrogression or run out in such landslides requires detailed data regarding the post peak parameters, especially in terms of stress and strain at remoulded state. The limitations concerning experimental studies in this regard is well known which has often led to the use of mathematical and analytical models in assessing strain softening. Here, an exponential model to predict strain softening is proposed by making use of triaxial testing data. The model is developed through a series of triaxial testing results collected from ten different sites in Eastern Canada. The developed softening equation is governed by the peak undrained shear strength, sensitivity of the clay, ease of strength reduction from the peak to the remoulded state and the strain at remoulded strength. The main advantage is that a quick and reasonable evaluation of the softening behaviour of the sensitive clay maybe carried out through experimental studies. The prediction of strain at remoulded state is an important outcome of this study and is consistent with field data. Keeping in mind the effect of geological and topographical factors in the estimation of post failure movements in retrogressive landslides, an attempt has been made to conduct a preliminary assessment of the retrogression distance through the strain at remoulded state.
... It can be concluded from Mesri and Shahien (2003) work that creep failure could happen at stresses greater than fully softened or residual strength, similar to what is implied from Lefebvre (1981). Skempton (1964), as reported by Tavenas and Leroueil (1980) also mentioned that the failure in natural slopes in fissured clays is governed by the residual shear strength of the soil. Therefore, the same conclusion as Lefebvre (1981) could be drawn from Mesri and Shahien (2003) and Tavenas and Leroueil (1980) studies: for slopes in clay, if the shear stress is greater than the residual strength, failure could happen. ...
It is recognized that glacio-lacustrine varved clay in Abitibi region of Quebec, Canada presents a moderate level of strain-weakening that needs to be considered in the design of embankments over these clays. Moreover, failure under sustained shear load, i.e., creep-induced failure, has been identified as a potential failure mechanism. The literature suggests that for a material that is susceptible to strain weakening, any mechanism that causes deformations large enough to bring the material to instability could lead to a failure. In this paper, it is suggested that advanced laboratory testing, field monitoring data, and stress-deformation modeling could provide a framework to judge whether creep in the normally consolidated clayey foundations of embankments could lead to a failure. In this study, the containing structures of a tailings storage facility (TSF) of a mine site located in Abitibi region were studied and this framework was examined. For the studied dikes and their upstream raises, undrained shear tests in the field and laboratory on the normally consolidated clay showed some level of brittleness, which implied that the clay under the dikes and the tailings pond is susceptible to strain weakening under undrained loading. The monitoring data along with the construction and deposition stages suggests that creep and consolidation were taking place at the same time. The coupled stress-flow numerical models using FLAC software also indicate that the clay behavior under construction was partially drained. Therefore, clay is expected to also behave partially drained during creep. Thus, both field data and numerical models indicate that in the stress path space, the clay should not approach the instability line while undergoing creep. Therefore, creep failure was judged to be unlikely.
... As explained in the section on the material preparation, the soil samples that passed through a 0.425 mm sieve were packed into a shear box with inner and outer diameters of 60 mm and 100 mm, respectively. Skempton [26] showed that the residual strength values obtained from laboratory tests were almost the same under normal consolidation or overconsolidation conditions, but the time required by normal consolidation to obtain the residual strength was much longer than by overconsolidation. Based on this finding, the condition of overconsolidation was applied in the present study for preparation the samples before shearing. ...
Recently, stability analyses of structures built of granite residual soils, for example, earth dams or other urban structures, particularly when under vibration, are being recognized as much more important than previously imagined. In such analyses, it is emphasized that the residual strength should be utilized considering the seismic effect. Therefore, the residual strength of granite residual soils must be evaluated accurately in order to reduce the damage to structures built on them. This paper presented a laboratory study designed to examine the effect of fine-grained particles (FGPs; particle size £ 0.075 mm) on residual strength by the multistage procedure of the Bromhead ring shear test and evaluate the physical indexes forecasting the residual strength of granite residual soils using soil samples composed of fifteen different percentages of FGPs artificially adjusted from a reservoir embankment soil sample. The results showed that the residual strength decreased along with the increase in FGPs and that the residual frictional angle was rarely dependent on the ratio of FGPs when the ratio was over 90%. Even in the residual state, a small amplitude of fluctuation in shear stress still existed and was affected by the coarse-grained particles (CGPs; particle size ³ 0.075 mm), such as the quartz particles in the granite residual soils. It was also found that the amplitude of fluctuation was smaller when the FGP fraction was greater. In addition, under the same normal stress, the peak strength and residual strength decreased with an increase in the ratio of FGPs. Then, they remained almost the same when the ratios of FGPs were equal to 85% and 90%, respectively, and the post-peak attenuation tended to increase initially with an increase in the FGPs and then remained almost the same. Moreover, based on the sensitivity analysis, the order of influence of physical indexes on the residual frictional angle was also ranked for the granite residual soils.
... • Clay fraction (Skempton 1964;Lupini et al. 1981; and Tika and Hutchinson 1999) • Liquid limit (Cancelli 1977;Mesri and Cepeda-Diaz 1986; and Stark and Eid 1997) • Liquid limit and mineralogy (Tiwari and Marui 2003;and Tiwari and Marui 2005) • Liquid limit, clay fraction and effective normal stress (Stark and Eid 1994;Eid 1996;Stark and Hussain 2015;Eid et al. 2016;and Tiwari and Marui 2005) • Plasticity index (Voight 1973;Kanji 1974;Kanji and Wolle 1977;Gibo 1985;Borden and Putrich 1986;Müller-Vonmoss and Løken 1989;Tiwari and Marui 2005;and Toyota et al. 2009) • Plasticity index and effective normal stress (Hawkins and Privett 1985) (Collotta et al. 1989) Tiwari and Marui (2003) conducted a comprehensive study involving ring shear tests on mixtures of bentonite, kaolin, and Toyoura sand. Their research shed light on the influence of clay mineralogy on the residual friction angles of these soil materials. ...
Landslides are devastating natural disasters that result in loss of life, property damage, and community disruption. They have global impacts, causing fatalities and economic losses, particularly in mountainous regions near densely populated areas. Landslides can be caused by natural factors, including water saturation from heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and changes in groundwater levels, as well as seismic activity such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Human activities, such as altering drainage patterns, destabilizing slopes, and removing vegetation, also contribute to landslides. Construction and development on slopes, over-steepening, and improper land management practices can further increase the risk of landslides. A key component in understanding the stability of slopes will be knowledge of the shear strength of the soils involved. However, to do so, it will be necessary to understand the various measuring methods of shear strength, loading conditions, and other parameters. Different methods and tests are employed to determine the shear strength of soil, depending on the specific conditions and objectives. Direct shear tests are often utilized to measure peak and fully softened shear strengths. Triaxial tests, on the other hand, are suitable for assessing both peak and fully softened shear strengths under drained or undrained conditions. Generally, the ring shear device is preferred for measurements of the residual shear strengths. However, multiple reversal direct shear tests and specifically modified direct shear tests as well as triaxial tests have also been utilized for this purpose. The cyclic simple shear test is recommended as an effective technique for replicating in-situ conditions to investigate the cyclic resistance and post-cyclic shear strengths of soils. Several correlations have been developed in the literature to estimate various shear strengths, including the fully softened and residual shear strengths of soil, as summarized in this paper. These correlations utilize parameters such as the liquid limit, plasticity index, mineralogy, clay fraction, and effective normal stress. The undrained shear strength of over-consolidated soils can be captured with the use of the Stress History and Normalized Soil Engineering Properties (SHANSEP) method. Extending this approach with the use of the normalized undrained strength ratio can result in two correlations that can capture the undrained shear strength. The paper also presents correlations for the true and base friction angles to estimate the shear strength using Hvorslev’s theory. This allows for a departure from the use of the cohesion intercept and friction angle in the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope, both of which are dependent on the over-consolidation ratio. The power function effectively represents the cyclic strength curves in soils with the curve fitting parameters a and b defining their shape and position. A correlation between the normalized undrained strength ratio and post-cyclic effective stress ratio to assess the undrained shear strength after cyclic loading was also introduced. This correlation was shown to also capture the effects of excess pore pressure dissipation and reductions in shear strength induced by a second cyclic load.
... In many parts of the world, there are frequent occurrences slope failures and landslides in cemented clays which formed over long periods due to diagenesis. The residual strength is widely regarded as one of the most important strength-related parameters when evaluating the stability of reactivated landslides, such as in old landslides, sheared bedding planes, and shear joints or faults (Skempton 1964(Skempton , 1985. Conventional ring-shear apparatus has been used to measure the residual strength because of its many advantages over other testing apparatuses (La Gatta 1970;Bishop et al. 1971). ...
... Some studies have shown an increase in undrained shear strength with increasing OCR, while others have reported the opposite trend. Skempton (1964) was one of the pioneers in landslide and soil mechanics research, and his work indicated that the particle arrangement in overconsolidated soil remains denser than that of normally consolidated soil. Seed et al. (1975) and Ishihara and Takatsu (1979) found that the liquefaction resistance of soils with various fines contents increased with increasing OCR, especially soils with higher fines contents. ...
Despite the fact that many factors have been identified as having an effect on the undrained monotonic behavior of granular materials, the impact of the overconsolidation ratio is still a contentious issue. One of the main reasons for the discrepancies in the undrained behavior is the manner in which stresses are applied, specifically the effective preconsolidation and confining pressures. To clarify this controversy, two separate series of undrained monotonic triaxial compression tests have been carried out to explore and therefore, compare the effect of the overconsolidation ratio (OCR = 1, 2, 4, and 8) on the mechanical behavior of Chlef sand considering the way that the stress state is applied. During the first series, the OCR is achieved by consolidating the specimens to an effective preconsolidation pressure (σ'p= 100, 200, 400 and 800 kPa) and subsequently unloading them to the constant desired effective confining pressure (σ'c=100 kPa). While in the second one, all specimens were isotropically consolidated to a maximum effective preconsolidation pressure of σ'p = 800 kPa (constant effective preconsolidation pressure) and then unloaded to different effective confining pressures (σ'c = 800, 400, 200, and 100 kPa), using two different sample preparation techniques (Dry funnel pluviation and Moist Tamping). The test results revealed a significant increase in the shear strength with the increase of OCR for the first series, however, the reverse trend is observed for the pore water pressure response. In the second series, an increase in the OCR parameter resulted in a decrease in shear strength and pore water pressure (although the trend of pore water pressure evolution did not really reflect the behavior of the deviator stress for this series). Moreover, parameters such as normalized behaviors, brittleness index, Af ratio, and flow potential appear as reliable predictors for clarifying and consequently explaining the studied behaviors.
... Drained residual shear strength is the parameter used in the back analysis of the reactivated landslides and slip surface test [1,2]. The effects of temperature on residual shear strength were not extensively studied, and the method used to assess such effect across the literatures shows some discrepancies. ...
Drained residual shear strength is the parameter used in the back analysis of the reactivated landslides and slip surface test [1,2]. The effects of temperature on residual shear strength were not extensively studied, and the method used to assess such effect across the literatures shows some discrepancies. Any internal or external factor impacting the applied stresses and the mobilized residual shear strength may lead to reactivating landslides. Therefore, considering the aggrevating climate change, it is essential to study the impact of temperature on residual shear strength and establish the best method for measuring this effect. The study by [3] concluded that for smectite-bearing soils, the residual shear strength decreases as temperature decreases. In the thermal ring shear tests conducted by [3], the specimen was first consolidated under the desired normal stress, and sheared in room temperature. Furthermore, the temperature was lowered while shearing and residual shear strength was measured as the specimen continued to be sheared. Changing the temperature during shearing without removing the loading arms from the top cap prohibits the specimen to experience the full thermally-induced volume changes and potentially disrupts the results . On the other hand, the study by [4] concluded that there is no significant effect of temperature on residual shear strength of soil. In [4], the specimen was cooled to 5°C at the beginning of the consolidation stage and was sheared after reaching desired normal effective stress. The main difference between these two described procedures is that [3] changed the temperature as the specimen was sheared, while [4] changed the temperature of the specimen prior to the consolidation stage. The observed disrepencies within the literature may originate in the method of testing. Therefore, this study aims to investigate whether the instant in which the temperature changes in the testing procedure to determine the residual shear strength impacts the results. The tests are conducted in accordance with ASTM 6467 on two clays: EPK clay (99.3% Kaolinite and 0.7% Zeolite) and Rhassoul clay (70.5% montmorillonite, 29.4% Illite and 0.1% Kaolinite). Three ring shear experiments are performed on each of the selected clays. All the experiments starts with preparing the specimen at the liquid limit and place it in the container to form a specimen. In the first set of experiments, the specimen is consolidated under the first effective stress of 7kPa. Once the primary consolidation under this first load is complete, the temperature of the specimen is changed to the target value of 50°C. After the temperature and the volumetric strains stabilize, the consolidation stages proceed to a maximum vertical stress of about 300kPa and then unloaded back to the first load to initiate the preshearing stage. Preshearing is the step to develop a failure surface by shearing the sample for at least the displacement of one full revolution. After one full rotation, the reloading and subsequent shearing stages are performed and residual shear strength is recorded. The other two sets of experiments are conducted in similar fashion, with the difference in the time of the temperature change; in the second set of experiments the temperature is altered before the preshearing stage and in the third set the temperature is changed after the preshearing stage. It should be noted that during the temperature change the loading arms of the ring shear apparatus are not in contact with the top cap. These individual tests are then compared to assess whether the timing of temperature change can influence the residual shear strength of soils. It should also be noticed that the same procedure was followed without a sample in the ring shear apparatus to calibrate the impact of temperature on the system. The results, however, were not significant and thus, neglected in after the test data processing. Figure 1 presents the obtained residual shear strength friction angles for EPK and Rhassoul Clay at room temperature and at 50°C. The preliminary results of EPK Clay shown in Figure 1 (a) suggest, although minimal, the residual friction angle of the EPK decreases as the temperature increases to 50°C after preshearing. On the other hand, the results obtained from Rhassoul Clay ring shear tests reveal that the alteration of the friction angle is more significant when changing the temperature before preshearing, see Figure 1 (b). These results suggest that the instance at which the temperature changes in a thermal ring shear test can impact the drawn conclusion. Therefore, in the absence of a global standard, it is more reasonable to choose the test method by considering real-life situations, precisely the actual temperature and its variation during the compaction or consolidation of the soil in situ. Furthermore, since clays' thermo-mechanical behavior depends on mineralogy [5], the observed trend between the residual shear strength and temperature is also consequently mineralogy dependent. Therefore, this study will be expanded further by considering various mineralogy of clays and a wide range of temperatures to provide a better understanding of both the impact of the thermal ring shear test method and the impact of temperature on residual shear strength.
... Soil shear stress can increase until a peak state is reached and then decrease gradually to a lower ultimate value with increasing shear deformation. This behaviour is referred to as strain-softening behaviour of soils [1]. The strain-softening behaviour of saturated soils has been well recognized in overconsolidated clays and dense sands. ...
... However, in practice, the reliability of the measured strength and stiffness results can be greatly reduced through sample disturbance. Skempton (1964Skempton ( , 1970Skempton ( , 1977Skempton ( , 1985, Bjerrum (1967), Wroth (1984), Fahey (1998), Whittebolle (1982 and many more have shown for fissured HOCs it is difficult to obtain a representative sample that is reliable for laboratory strength measurements. Fissures represent discontinuities within the soil mass, and sample sizes may be inadequate to fully capture the overall macrostructure of the soil. ...
This paper presents the results of thirteen pressuremeter tests conducted in Clearwater Formation Clayshale at Syncrude's oil sands operations near Fort McMurray. This paper performs an interpretation of nonlinear stiffness data from undrained pressuremeter tests. The behavior of the secant shear modulus for several shear strain values is analyzed and a comparison of the nonlinear stiffness is made using London clay as a reference. In addition, the initial modulus obtained with shear wave velocity values derived from seismic tests is included. Finally, the stiffness parameters for the Clearwater clayshale are presented. RÉSUMÉ Cet article présente les résultats de treize essais pressiométriques menés dans les schistes argileux de la formation Clearwater, dans les exploitations de sables bitumineux de Syncrude, près de Fort McMurray. Cet article interprète les données de rigidité non linéaire provenant d'essais pressiométriques non drainés. Le comportement du module de cisaillement sécant pour plusieurs valeurs de déformation de cisaillement est analysé et une comparaison de la rigidité non linéaire est effectuée en utilisant l'argile de London comme référence. En plus, le module initial obtenu avec des valeurs de vitesse d'onde de cisaillement dérivées d'essais sismiques est inclus. Les paramètres de rigidité de l'argilite de Clearwater sont enfin présentés. 1 INTRODUCTION Standard practice for analyzing the stability of mine pit walls within the oil sands is to run limit equilibrium analysis (LE) using conventional soil parameters along with application of the observational method. LE outputs do not permit the prediction of displacements associated with cut slopes that would be an indication of the onset of undesired performance. In addition, LE models are not capable of showing progressive failure within cut slopes or adequately deal with stress rotations that occur over time. The criteria that relate instrumentation readings to mitigative actions meant to minimize and control against poor performance were developed over the 35+ year history of mining in the oil sands and observations of behavior due to unloading. With the advancement of computational power, the ability to measure in-situ stress-strain characteristics, and mines advancing into locations markedly different than the pits that led to the development of the instrumentation criteria, application of finite element (FE) numerical models is the future. The accuracy of calculated displacements for slopes and walls from FE models of is typically poor when compared to measured values. Inaccuracies have been attributed to the general simplicity of most linear elastic / perfectly plastic, constitutive models. Because deformations prior to yielding can be considerable, the assumption of linear elasticity is often invalid and tends to underestimate the pre-yield deformations. As such, Burland (1989), Simpson (1992), Benz et al (2009) and Clayton (2011) demonstrate that the use of non-linear elasto-plastic constitutive models, tend to better predict lateral deformations when compared to conventional linear elastic-perfectly plastic models. The conventional non-linear models like the Hardening Soil (HS) model (Schanz et al, 2009) however, require inputs from advanced triaxial testing. These data are easily acquired for most soils, however in HOC (heavily overconsolidated) soils, sampling and testing is not straight forward. Stiff-fissured clays are typically characterised by their brittle behaviour during laboratory testing. However, in practice, the reliability of the measured strength and stiffness results can be greatly reduced through sample disturbance.
... The concept of slope progressive failure was first proposed by Terzaghi (1936), who believed that slope failure was caused by the strain softening of the soil mass. Skempton (1964) used the slope progressive failure theory to analyze the stability of a slope, and found that the shear strength of the soil at different positions of the over consolidated cohesive soil slope was asynchronous. According to the concept of progressive failure, the strength of the soil mass does not affect the entire sliding surface simultaneously; only when the shear stress increases at a certain point and exceeds the soil strength does shear failure occur. ...
To analyze the progressive failure of structural loess slopes due to changes in humidity and loading, this study analyzes the degrees of influence of these changes on slope failure and their relationships with various structural parameters. According to the analysis, the shear failure of the soil gradually develops with the change of the water content. When the water content reaches a 17%, with the development of shear deformation, the shear zone is formed and finally penetrates the soil body. With the increase of the water content, the total displacement of the slope body gradually develops. When the water content reaches 17%, the total displacement of the slope body changes suddenly. This mutation is consistent with the formation of the shear zone. The sudden change of displacement indicates the penetration of the shear zone and the damage and slippage of the slope. With the increase of the soil moisture of the slope, the strain localization phenomenon occurs, the development of strain localization and shear bands increases, the structural damage increases, and the quantitative structural parameters decrease. The quantitative parameters can therefore be used to evaluate the feasibility and rationality of the progressive failure process of homogeneous structural loess slopes.
... The first study on the performance of excavation was made by Terzaghi and Peck in the early 1940s based on observation of structures in Chicago clay. Bjerrum and Eide (1956), Skempton (1964), Peck (1969), and Clough and O'Rourke (1990) performed several research studies related to the analysis and design of braced excavations. Finno et al. (2006) andChoudhury et al. (2014) computed the deformation behavior of soil around braced excavations using the finite element method (FEM). ...
A finite element analysis of a typical braced excavation in normal Kolkata deposit was carried out to assess the time dependent behavior of ground movement around the braced cut. A typical 30 m wide and 14 m deep excavation with 17 m deep diaphragm walls was adopted from a reported case study of Kolkata metro construction during the late eighties, and was analyzed in the present study. The analysis was performed by using the software package Plaxis 2D in which the soft soil creep constitutive model was used. The time dependent ground deformations obtained from the analysis were compared with the reported data of the case study. Analyses were performed to highlight the effect of rate of excavation on the deformation behavior of the excavation.
... On the other hand, the strain softening of the clay interfaces can be attributed to the removal of the soil at the interface, causing the interface to progressively lose the shear strength with horizontal displacement. The reduction in the shear resistance due to the progressive failure mechanism has been reported in geomembrane-compacted clay interfaces, which could be attributed to the rearrangement of the flexible and flaky clay particles during the shear deformation [15,28,55]. The strain softening observed in the clay interfaces in the study could also be due to a similar rearrangement of the flaky particles of the compacted clay layer arising out of the non-homogeneous plastic deformation at the ribbed interfaces. ...
The effect of the shape of snakeskin-inspired patterns on the shear behaviour of soil-continuum interfaces was investigated for their potential applications in geotechnical engineering. For this purpose, continuum surfaces with ribs inspired from the ventral scales of three different snakes, each with three intra-rib spacings, were fabricated using a 3D printer and their shear behaviour with sand and clay soils was tested under three normal stresses. The results of the interface direct shear tests show that snakeskin-inspired ribs mobilise higher interface shear resistance than an unpatterned surface in sand and clay and considerable inhomogeneous deformations at the interface. The type of soil, the applied normal stress, the shape of the ribs and the direction of shearing were found to be factors that influence and dictate the shear behaviour of the different ribbed interfaces. The snakeskin-inspired ribs mobilised considerable frictional anisotropy owing to the difference in their shapes in the shearing directions. The failure envelopes of the ribbed interfaces were found to follow a nonlinear trend and were described using a power curve. The efficiency of the sand-ribbed interfaces decreased with an increase in normal stress, while a reverse phenomenon was observed in clays, indicating that the interaction mechanism of the ribs is different in different soils for the direct shear test conditions. Digital Image Correlation technique on the sand interfaces revealed that a shear zone of thickness 11 times D50 of sand was mobilised at the interface, further confirming the inhomogeneous deformation at the interfaces.
... Com o objetivo de confirmar os dados de mineralogia obtidos por meio de DRX, apresenta-se na Figura 6 a carta de atividade e plasticidade com dados de várias argilas duras encontrados na literatura, juntamente com o solo testado para o presente estudo. Observa-se que o Taguá estudado apresenta uma baixa atividade, menor do que por exemplo London Clay (Skempton, 1964). ...
As argilas duras são materiais que possuem características muito particulares, que podem influenciar diretamente no desenvolvimento de projetos e segurança das obras. Na cidade de São Paulo, um dos principais solos de ocorrência são justamente argilas desse tipo, as chamadas argilas duras cinza-esverdeadas. A história geológica desse material pode induzir uma estrutura particular no solo e a influência dessa estrutura poderá ser compreendida a partir da comparação de seus parâmetros naturais com os parâmetros intrínsecos, que são aqueles obtidos em ensaios com amostras reconstituídas aqui apresentados. Atualmente, os poucos dados disponíveis sobre este solo na literatura são referentes apenas a ensaios realizados com amostras indeformadas, não havendo dados de amostras reconstituídas. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho é determinar os parâmetros intrínsecos desta argila, por meio de ensaios na condição reconstituída.
... The choice of soil material property scenarios was informed by (i) published strength parameters for medium and high plasticity clay strata for UK cut slopes (Table 2) and (ii) the time-dependent strength reduction of these medium and high plasticity clays due to the process of softening (James 1970;Stark and Eid 1997 The strength scenarios included the transition from peak strength to the fully softened state (FSS) and residual strength with increasing strain and slope displacement (Figure 3(b)). This was observed in back-analyses of first-time slope failures in stiff, fissured clays that are typical of those in the NR dataset (Skempton, 1964;Skempton and Petley, 1967, Skempton, 1970, Skempton, 1977. The scenarios represent pre-failure, first-time failure, and reactivated failure conditions of the earthwork assets. ...
Earthwork assets, including cut slopes and embankments, are essential components of the infrastructure supporting road and rail transportation networks. Asset owners must assess the stability of these slopes as they deteriorate, to prevent unwanted slope failures. Assessing the stability of individual earthworks within a portfolio using slope stability analyses can be expensive and time-consuming. Hence, a Bayesian logistic regression model was developed to evaluate the probability of slope failure, using training data from published case histories of slope failures. The Bayesian model was then used to assess the probability of failure for the more specific case of clay cut slopes within a railway earthwork asset portfolio owned by Network Rail (NR). The portfolio includes earthworks at various stages of degraded strength and with different drainage conditions. The results from models with material properties that were equivalent to those for the deteriorated strength of clays compared most closely with clay cut slope failures within the NR dataset. Steeper slopes (>35 degrees) had the highest probability of failure, regardless of the drainage condition. However, for shallower slopes, the poorly-drained slopes had a ≈20% higher probability of failure than the well-drained slopes.
... Field evidence for shrink-swell properties of the Mangatuna Formation soils at Wallis Road on the eastern slopes of Kaiti Hill was presented in . These effects can have a further 'strainsoftening' effect on soils, making them progressively weaker over time, and therefore more suspectable to failure (Skempton, 1964). ...
Gisborne/Tairāwhiti is particularly susceptible to rainfall‐triggered landslides on account of (1) steep slopes, (2) young, soft geology, (3) landuse change effects. The interplay of these factors led to a particularly damaging rainfall‐induced landsliding event during 3–7 November 2021, following >200 mm of rainfall. This caused a Multiple Occurrence Regional Landslide Event, impacting residential properties and infrastructure in the city and rural areas. We report mainly on landslides in Gisborne city and suburbs, based on field reconnaissance and interferometric synthetic aperture radar monitoring of slopes. This highlights prevailing land instability prior to the more recent ex‐Tropical Cyclone Gabrielle (2023).
... Terzaghi [11] pointed out that cracks, as structural characteristics of overconsolidated soil, affect the strength of cohesive soils. Skempton [12] stated that when the stress on the soil exceeds the peak value of its shear strength, the crack tip causes greater stress concentration and soil damage. Zhang et al. [13,14] examined the hydromechanical behavior of expansive soils related to suction and the suction history and investigated the strength and stress-strain behavior of expansive soils under suction control using triaxial shear tests. ...
Expansive soil is prone to shrinkage and cracking during the drying process, leading to strength and permeability problems that exist widely in water conservancy projects and geotechnical engineering, including foundation pits and cracks at the bottom of channels and slopes. Such problems are closely related to the tensile strength of the soil. In this study, Nanyang expansive soil is taken as the research object and radial splitting tests were performed using a particle image velocimetry (PIV) test system on both undisturbed and remolded expansive soil during the drying process. The results indicated that the load–displacement curve of the undisturbed and remolded expansive soil specimens showed a strain-softening phenomenon and that the peak load increased with decreasing water content. Under the same other conditions, the peak load of the remolded expansive soil specimen was higher than that of the undisturbed soil specimen, with the undisturbed soil specimen having distinctive structural and fractural features. The load–displacement relation curve, displacement vector field, and fracture characteristics had an obvious one-to-one correspondence in the stage division. The compression deformation stage, crack development stage after the peak value, crack maturity stage, and failure stage could be observed via the PIV technique. Moreover, the fracture characteristics of the remolded specimens were more regular than those of the undisturbed specimens. The above research results provide a scientific basis for the design and construction of geotechnical engineering related to expansive soil.
... At the microstructural level, particle orientation, local stresses and contact area properties define residual friction (Mitchell, 1976;Ruina, 1983;Alonso et al., 2016), whereas, at the macroscopic level, the residual strength depends on soil characteristics and external factors. Particle-size distribution (Lupini et al., 1981;Hungr and Morgenstern, 1984;Henderson et al., 2010;Li, 2013), mineral composition (Kenney, 1967;Moore, 1991;Tiwari et al., 2005;Nakamura et al., 2010;Strauhal et al., 2017), pore fluid chemistry (Di Maio and Fenellif, 1994;Tiwari et al., 2005;Wen and He, 2012;Di Maio et al., 2015;Fan et al., 2017), water content (Zhao et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2020b;Lian et al., 2020) and other index properties (e.g., plasticity, viscosity) (Skempton, 1964;Lupini et al., 1981;Stark and Eid, 1997) have been identified as intrinsic soil characteristics controlling the residual shear strength. ...
The behavior of strain-softening geosynthetic interfaces that can lead to progressive failures in lined containment facilities has been a source of confusion in slope stability evaluations for over 30 years. The paper presents fifteen mechanisms that can potentially induce displacements along strain-softening interfaces, along with measures that can be considered to reduce strain-softening displacement. New quantifications of shear strength variability that can be caused by manufacturing, installation, and construction practices are introduced. Guidance and recommendations are given that are applicable to numerical continuum as well as limit-equilibrium approaches to assist in selecting appropriate geosynthetic shear strength parameters for containment facilities that have strain-softening interfaces. While most of the paper focuses on deep-seated critical interfaces for high normal stress bottom liners, low normal stress veneer covers are also addressed.
This research aims to develop a hybrid artificial intelligence model to predict the residual strength required to resist soil movement after post-liquefaction. The model is trained using available case history and experimental data, with a focus on soil parameters such as standard penetration test, cone penetration test resistance, percentage fine, void ratio, relative density, and pore water pressure. Detailed statistical analysis of the model is conducted using previous case histories to assess its accuracy. The practical implications of this research lie in the challenge of having to extrapolate beyond available data for flow failures and lateral spreading after liquefaction. By providing a reliable prediction model for residual strength, this paper offers a valuable tool for geotechnical engineers and practitioners to assess the stability of soil and mitigate risks associated with soil movement after post-liquefaction.
Creep is one of the typical mechanical properties of clay, and studying the creep mechanical properties of clay is of great significance to construction projects in clay sites. This study conducted creep tests on Chengdu clay and found that the soil mass underwent elastic deformation, decay creep deformation, steady-state creep deformation, and accelerated creep deformation. The isochronous stress ratio-logarithmic strain curves and their mathematical models were proposed to thoroughly analyze clay creep mechanical properties. Creep automatic feature points, such as linear elastic extreme point, initial yield point, long-term strength point, and plastic point, were identified on the curve. Considering the hardening and damage effects during creep loading, linear elastic and viscoelastic elements considering the time-dependent damage, a viscoplastic element considering the load hardening effect, and viscoplastic and plastic elements considering the load damage effect were established based on the element model and the Riemann–Liouville fractional derivative. Based on the mechanical properties of the whole clay creep process, the creep mechanical feature points, and the established element model, a clay creep model was proposed considering the hardening and damage effects. The rationality and regularity of the creep model were verified using the creep test data. This research accurately revealed the creep mechanical properties of clay and facilitated soil deformation prediction, thus providing technical guidance and references for construction projects in clay sites.
The undisturbed soil in the slip zone is highly water sensitive. Elucidation of its strength properties and degradation mechanism is important for assessing the stability of slopes with bedding planes parallel to the slope. For this purpose, a series of direct shear test, ring shear test, scanning electronic microscope (SEM) test, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) test were conducted on undisturbed slip zone soil samples sourced from a typical bedding slope along the Mabian River. Finally, an evaluation method of the bedding slope stability was investigated. The results show that the shear strength of undisturbed slip zone soils under saturated softening degrades sharply within the first hour. During this period, the moisture content of slip zone soil increased by 79.6%, and the cohesion and internal friction angle decreased by 45.0% and 36.2%, respectively. The occlusion of coarse grains in the slip zone soil hinders the formation of the shear plane, thus transforming the occlusal friction into sliding friction under saturated softening, leading to an obvious characteristic strain softening. The decreasing shear strength of the slip zone soil is caused by the shear failure of its internal structure. Under saturated softening, cementation between solid grains is destroyed when clay minerals are swelled by water absorption. Furthermore, the NMR shows the increase in the volume of small pores in the samples under submerged conditions, indicating a more losing structure, which provides a reasonable explanation for the significant strength degradation of undisturbed samples. A quantitative relationship is proposed for the bedding slope stability considering the effect of saturated softening.
Description
Describes the development of new test techniques and methods for the evaluation of the laboratory shear strength of soil.
Description
First publication of its kind in 25 years, this 900-page volume serves as an engineer’s guide for triaxial testing. Subjects include: equipment, test methods, and test interpretation and errors, and new test varieties.
Description
Describes the development of new test techniques and methods for the evaluation of the laboratory shear strength of soil.
Description
A very interesting book showing the effects of poor field sampling and preparation on final laboratory results. A must for civil engineers and soil scientists
Description
Twenty-two papers discuss: reviews of the vane test on land and offshore; field and laboratory vane theory and interpretation; new laboratory test methods; and comparisons of field vane testing to laboratory testing and other methods of in situ testing.
Description
The papers in the Symposium on Sampling of Soil and Rock were given at the Seventy-third Annual Meeting of the American Society for Testing and Materials held in Toronto, Ont., Canada, 21-26 June 1970. The sponsor of this symposium was Committee D18 on Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes. B. B. Gordon, Woodward Clyde and Associates, and C. B. Crawford, National Research Council of Canada, presided as symposium cochairmen.
Description
The papers in the Symposium on Sampling of Soil and Rock were given at the Seventy-third Annual Meeting of the American Society for Testing and Materials held in Toronto, Ont., Canada, 21-26 June 1970. The sponsor of this symposium was Committee D18 on Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes. B. B. Gordon, Woodward Clyde and Associates, and C. B. Crawford, National Research Council of Canada, presided as symposium cochairmen.
From August 21 to December 22, 2019, unexpected successive retrogressive failures occurred in a mild dip rock slope on the right bank of a newly constructed expressway in Yunnan, China, induced by slope cutting and rainfall. The unique failure kinematics of the event urged for a thorough back analysis of the interior and exterior factors to reveal the mechanisms of the initiation and process of this landslide. To this end, a comprehensive engineering geological and geotechnical study on this slide, including field investigations, data collections, and in situ and laboratory tests, was conducted and is presented in this study. It is revealed that active failure constrained by the rock joints in the sliding body and the underlying fully weathered mudstone (slip soil) is the essence of the mild dip rock slope failure. Furthermore, the study finds that an unbalanced shear stress region (USSR) can develop on the slip surface due to the strain softening of the slip soil and foot unloading. The propagation of the USSR may trigger a failure at its end along the rock joints in mild slopes, as opposed to the conventional limit equilibrium methods (LEM) that do not consider strain softening. Accordingly, a simple criterion is proposed to assess the active failure controlled by the rock joints, which can be easily used for a quick risk assessment of excavated dip rock slopes. These findings are expected to enrich the current failure predictive models for the excavated mild dip rock slopes and serve as a reference for design considerations.
Seasonal, weather-driven pore pressure cycles alter and degrade the hydro-mechanical engineering properties of earthworks as they age. The accumulating effects of deterioration over many years can lead to the excessive deformation or failure of earthworks; requiring interventions to ensure their reliable performance. This paper reviews the evidence for the weather-driven deterioration of ageing transportation earthworks, with a focus on clay earthworks in the UK. These include earthworks of various ages (up to ∼200 years old), formed from a range of clay-rich strata and at various stages of deterioration. Evidence is considered for both past behaviour and projected behaviour in response to continued ageing and a changing climate. There is clear evidence that some clay earthworks are influenced by the cumulative effect of seasonal weather cycles over many decades. Simulations show that seasonal slope ratcheting will become an increasingly dominant driver of shallow failures in high-plasticity cut slopes as they age and in response to projected climate change. The evidence can inform performance curves describing the deterioration of individual earthworks in response weather-driven ageing. This can help identify earthworks with the highest likelihood of failure and inform decisions made by earthwork asset managers.
Soil is rock on its way to ocean. It undergoes many changes during the travel. The important factors which influence the geo-technical behavior of soil are : Grain size and Shape, Gradation, Water, Parent rock materials and Environment. The Geo-technical behavior of fine grains in soil is highly complex than coarse grains. A pure cohesive soil has pure shear or coaxial shear component only. A pure friction soil has Non-coaxial or simple shear component only. Normally a soil sample is a mixture of coarse and fine grains. The shear strength is shared between coaxial and non-coaxial component of the total shear strength of soil. The environment influences the Geo-technical behavior of soil. The coaxial and non-coaxial components of shear strength (coax and non-coax) of soil accepts and adjusts to reach a new equilibrium in stability. In this paper the association and dissociation of coax and non-coax with environmental conditions starting from laboratory and ending in marine environment through examples, illustrations and documented, reliable data available in literature.
Dhaka is the capital city of Bangladesh. A lot of people migrate every day. For their survival, the housing
sector is flourishing day by day. The demand impacts the supplies. A number of people are doing housing
business to support the situation. Still, on the contrary, they are grabbing a lot of green fields or water bodies
from private properties evacuating the owners. One of the ill examples is considered as Pallabi Eastern Housing
2nd Phase Project. The study is to find the socio-economic status of the land owners and local inhabitants who
are evicted from their land for the project. According to the primary observation and information collected
from different sources, approximately 350 families are relocated. Of the 45 relocated people placed under
survey from the questionnaire survey by snowball sampling, it was found that most people were displaced from
their original location through the involuntary procedure. The income level, housing condition, and utility
facilities are worse off than before the resettlement. They are unaware of taking action against the developer
for the deprivation in the land price. The study discovered different aspects that clarified how land developers
exploited the local people. The four different actors, namely land developers, local musclemen, local officials,
and local people, were identified who actively played various roles in this relocation procedure. A few scopes
are identified to rehabilitate the victims to recover from their present situation. Government should adequately
care about the reallocated people to compensate at the current rate considering the long period of suffering.
There is scope for more intensive study on the topic.
This research aims to develop a hybrid artificial intelligence model to predict the residual strength required to resist soil movement after post-liquefaction. The model is trained using available case history and experimental data, with a focus on soil parameters such as standard penetration test, cone penetration test resistance, percentage fine, void ratio, relative density, and pore water pressure. Detailed statistical analysis of the model is conducted using previous case histories to assess its accuracy. The practical implications of this research lie in the challenge of having to extrapolate beyond available data for flow failures and lateral spreading after liquefaction. By providing a reliable prediction model for residual strength, this paper offers a valuable tool for geotechnical engineers and practitioners to assess the stability of soil and mitigate risks associated with soil movement after post-liquefaction.
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