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Module 2: Philosophy of Student-Centered Learning
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MODULE 2
PHILOSOPHY OF
STUDENT-CENTERED LEARNING
Module 2: Philosophy of Student-Centered Learning
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List of Abbreviation
Abbreviation
HEIs
Higher Education Institutions
SCL
Student-Centered Learning
PBL
Problem-Based Learning
TCL
Teacher-Centered Learning
ZPD
Zone of Proximal Development
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Table of Content
No
Page
2.0
Introduction
5
2.1
Student-Centered Learning
6
2.1.1
What is Student-Centered Learning?
7
2.2
Student-Centered Learning Philosophies
9
2.2.1
Progressivism
9
2.2.2
Social Reconstructionism
10
2.2.3
Existentialism
11
2.3
Principles of Student-Centered Learning
11
2.4
Student-Centered Learning vs Teacher-Centered Learning
14
2.5
Common Misconceptions
16
2.6
Advantages of Student-Centered Learning
19
2.6.1
Benefits for Students
19
2.6.2
Benefits for Lecturers
24
2.7
Student-Centered Pedagogy
29
2.8
Characteristics of Learners
2.8.1 Characteristics of Adult Learners
2.8.2 Learning Approaches
2.8.3 Learning Style
2.8.4 What Can Educators do to Encourage Students to Adopt
Deep Approach To Learning?
31
32
35
37
41
2.9
Characteristics of the Learning Environment
2.9.1 Physical Environment
2.9.2 Authentic Environment
2.9.3 Social Environment
43
45
45
46
2.10 Summary
47
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Module Description
Module two provides an overview of student-centered learning. It aims to introduce the concept
of student-centered learning and its underlying principles. It is crucial to understand this concept
because there is a paradigm shift in higher education from the Instruction Paradigm to the
Learning Paradigm, from being teacher-centered to student-centered orientation of learning.
Higher education not only aims to transfer knowledge but to create environments and
experiences that bring students to discover and construct their own knowledge, understanding,
and skills. For this reason, this module also explains the underlying philosophies that support
student-centered approach to teaching. In order to provide rationales for adopting such an
approach in teaching and learning, the key benefits of student-centered learning for students
and lecturers are highlighted, along with some general misconceptions that should be
discarded. In this module, student-centered pedagogy, characteristics of the learners and the
nature learning environment in student-centered setting are also discussed briefly.
Module Outcomes
The following are the outcomes of this module:
1. Understand the concept of student-centered learning and able to identify its major
underlying principles.
2. Explain the ideas behind each philosophy that support student-centered approach to
teaching.
3. State the key benefits of student-centered learning for students and lecturers.
4. Apply the student-centered pedagogy in teaching.
5. Explain the characteristics of adult learners, learning approaches, learning styles, and
measures that can be taken to promote deep approach to learning.
6. Design the learning environment which is based on the characteristic of students
centered learning environment.
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2.0 Introduction
As university lecturers, when come to teaching, we always put our minds and efforts into what
we do as we teach our students. We plan on what knowledge and skills to teach, how we are
going teach them and on how we are going to assess their performance later. We will try to find
ways of delivering the knowledge and skills in the best possible manner so that most, if not all,
of our students will be able to grasp what we have taught. We plan on what we will do in the
lecture halls or tutorial rooms, through our well-prepared and updated power-points and lecture
notes, hand-outs, worksheets, etc. In doing so, we hope that the students will be able to
understand and do what they presumably need to know when they attend our course. Such
focus of teaching is considered as a teacher-centered teaching, which place emphasis mainly
on the instruction, which is a common practice among lecturers in many higher education
institutions.
If we may ask, can the students learn the knowledge and skills that we want them to learn by
themselves? We need to acknowledge that these university students are those who had
qualified to enter and follow university education, and we can surely assume that they are
capable to read and possibly understand most of what they read. May be there are few students
that cannot understand parts of the materials they read, but many of them can. Do not be
surprise that there are also students who have already acquired what we want them to learn in
our course, even before they attend our class or course. As we are teaching not one or few but
many students, they are not similar in terms of experience, existing knowledge and skills they
have and bring into our classrooms. We have to accept that they are diverse learners: students
of different strengths to offer and weaknesses and needs to be fulfilled. Therefore, when
teaching them, they need to be treated differently. Our teaching then has to be student-centered
instead of teacher-centered.
This chapter is about the ideas behind student-centered learning. Our university is moving
toward applying Student-Centered Learning approach in teaching our courses. We need a
paradigm shift in our practice of teaching at higher education level, shifting from focusing on
instruction to focusing on learning. Our students are adults that can become self-directed
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learners if we can empower them to control and regulate their own learning. In this chapter, we
are going to describe and argue for student-centered learning at university level education. After
reading this chapter, we hope to move your position from being a teacher-centered lecturer to a
student-centered lecturer who is willing to allow students to be responsible for their learning. We
will start by describing what is student-centered learning and misconceptions about the term,
followed by explaining the philosophical bases of student-centered learning. Then we will
describe the principles involved in applying student-centered learning approach, compares such
approach against the traditional teacher-centered approach, and argue for the earlier approach.
In this chapter, you will also learn about the methods of teaching student-centered learning
classes, understand the learning styles of adult learners and the characteristics of physical and
social learning environment for student-centered learning.
2.1 Student-Centered Learning
Student-centered learning is a concept that can be traced back since early 20th century. It was
first mentioned in the writings of Frank Herbert Hayward in 1905 and was later credited to John
Dewey’s work in the 1950s (O’ Sullivan, 2003; O’Neill & McMahon, 2005).The term student-
centered learning was also associated with the work of Carl Rogers, Jean Piaget, and more
recently with Malcolm Knowles’ notion of self-directed learning in adult education (Burnard,
1999). Over the past century, there were strong educational movements to shift away from
teaching to emphasis on learning, which encourages power to be moved from the teacher to the
student. The urge for this paradigm change was founded on the premise that students should
be actively constructing their own learning particularly at the university level. The theoretical
standing of student-centered learning is primarily grounded in the constructivist view of learning
(Landau, 2001:22).
"Constructivist learning models require active input from students and
requires intellectual effort and aids retention. The role of the teacher in
student-centered learning is to facilitate the students' learning by providing a
framework (i.e. activities for students to complete) that facilitates their
learning. For example, the teacher posts activities or questions that students
complete. Projects include: writing papers, essays, and reports, publishing
Web pages, conducting research, answering open-ended questions, creating
artwork, and organizing events."
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2.1.1 What is Student-Centered Learning?
The term student–centered learning is widely used in the educational literatures. Many terms
have been associated with student–centered learning (e.g., flexible learning, active learning,
experiential learning, and self-directed learning) (Taylor 2000; Burnard 1999). The various
concepts and terminologies can be potentially confusing (O’Neil & McMahon, 2005).
Nevertheless, it is crucial to note that despite the various terminologies, there is a broad
consensus on the common conceptualization of student-centered learning in the literatures
(Lea, Stephenson, & Troy, 2003)(Figure 2.1):
Figure 2.1: The Concept of Student-Centered Learning
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In general, student-centered learning represents both a mindset and culture within a given
higher education institutions. It is characterized by innovative methods of teaching which
emphasizes students as the key players of learning and promotes their active participation at all
stages of learning processes. More time is allocated for students to construct their own
knowledge, to explore, to solve problems, and to self-reflect. In other words, students play
active roles in planning, monitoring, and evaluating all forms of learning activities, which include
interacting with lecturers, tutors, other students, researching on issues and problems solving as
well as engage in self-assessments, while lecturers act as facilitators during all these
processes.
Further Readings on the Learning Paradigm in Higher Education and the Concept of SCL
• Wright, G. B. (2011). Student-Centered Learning in Higher Education. International Journal of Teaching
and Learning in Higher Education. Access at http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/IJTLHE834.pdf
• Kennedy, R. (2009). The power of in-class debates. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10 (3), 225- 236.
• Slunt, K. M., & Giancarlo, L. C. (2004). Student-centered Learning: A comparison of two different methods
of instruction. Journal of Chemical Education, 81 (7), 985-988
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2.2 Student-Centered Learning Philosophies
The underlying philosophies for student-centered learning are showed in Figure 2.2, namely
progressivism, social reconstructionism and existentialism.
Figure 2.2: Student-Centered Learning Philosophies
2.2.1 Progressivism
People who believe in Progressive ideas about education see students as individuals who have
the right to progress at their own pace, and they demand teachers to allow that to happen. John
Dewey, a major proponent of this philosophy, highlighted such idea as a democratic principle in
education, where each student is considered as an individual who bring in his or her experience
into the classroom, who also has his or her own needs and concerns. The student also has his
or her own interest and curiosity about surrounding environment. Under such circumstances,
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the main attitude for teachers to have is to respect diversity among learners and differences
between individual students. Therefore, teachers’ role is to assist each of the students to ask
meaningful questions about things that they are curious about, and to devise strategies to seek
answers to the questions. Teachers’ role then is less on transmitting the information or providing
information to answer students’ questions; their role is to facilitate students to arrive at the
answers. Within progressivism, teachers will also allow students to progress at different rate,
which takes into account their individual characteristics. Student-centered learning approach is
in line with the ideas of progressive philosophy of education, where students are at the center of
our plan and implementation of teaching. Organizes schools around the concerns, curiosity, and
real-world experiences of students. The progressive teacher facilitates learning by helping
students formulate meaningful questions and devise strategies to answer those questions.
2.2.2 Social Reconstructionism
A social reconstructionist teacher creates lessons that both intellectually inform and emotionally
stir students about the inequities that surround them. Social constructivists believe in the role of
education to help solving society’s problems. As our society develops and lives with problems, it
is emphasized that education should aim at addressing all problems in our life. We need to
reconstruct our society through education, which has been traditionally as a channel to transmit
accumulated knowledge of various disciplines to our future generations.
However, if education is to solve society’s problems, the nature of problems we are facing is ill-
defined, contrary to the knowledge which is conventionally divided into various categories of
disciplines. Problems that we face in life are do not fall into separate categories like the
disciplines of knowledge. We can only categorize them into certain themes of problems, such as
poverty, disease, floods, unemployment, etc. Under student-centered learning approach,
problem-based learning a teaching and learning strategy emphasizes on learning in the context
of solving real-world problems.
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2.2.3 Existentialism
If we follow existentialist philosophy, as teachers we have to readily accept our students as they
are (exist), and we not decide on what and how the students should learn. Existentialists believe
on the importance of human existence and human free will to decide and be responsible to one
self. Something which is considered good by one can be considered bad by another, and each
individual has to respect that.
Teachers will provide opportunities for students to experience by the genuine learning activities
themselves in order to learn, through which students will become self-actualize – becoming
aware of and realize their own meaning of the experience, reaching answers to their own
questions. But it is the students responsibility to choose and decide the direction to learn.
In the existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students
understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals. The teacher's role is to help
students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and
by creating an environment in which they can freely choose their way.
2.3 Principles of Student-Centered Learning
Student-centered learning reflects the necessity of a focus on both learners and learning
(McCombs & Whisler, 1997). The following are the major principles of student-centered
learning.
Principle 1: Required Active Learning and Ongoing Reflective
The philosophy of student-centered learning is such that students need to be active learners.
Bonwell and Eison (1991) define active learning as instructional activities involving student in
doing things and thinking about what they are doing. They must take ownership of own learning
processes and continuously find ways to improve their experiences. Lecturers and higher
learning institutions, on the other hand, need to continuously reflect on their teaching and
infrastructural systems. This step is crucial to ensure that the intended learning outcomes of a
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given course or program component are achieved in a way that stimulates students’ thinking
(e.g., critical and creative thinking) and promote their transferable skills (e.g., time management
skills, social skills, and cooperative skills)
Principle 2: Does not have One-Size-Fits All Solution
A key concept underlying student-centered learning is the realization and acknowledgement that
all Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are different, all lecturers are different, and all students
are different, thus, there is no one-size fits all solution. For effective student-centered learning to
take place in such a diverse context and across various subject-disciplines, there must be
adequate support structures, whether it is physical or non physical, to accommodate and
promote student-centered learning activities.
Principle 3: Recognize Students’ Diversity
Student-centered learning recognizes that students have different pedagogical needs. This is
because they may have different learning styles, motivation, needs, and interest to learn. Some
learn better through trial and error, others learn more effectively through practical experiences.
For some learners much is learned by reading literature, others need to debate and discuss
theory in order to understand it and some may be more motivated and ready to learn than
others. Students also may come from various socio-cultural backgrounds, thus, they may have
different learning needs, different level of language competency and readiness to learn. There
may also be a small number of special needs students (e.g., students with hearing impairment,
visual impairment, and physical disabilities) who require assistance to learn effectively.
Principle 4: Students have Different Experience and Background Knowledge
Learning will be more meaningful if students can connect their life or professional experiences
and existing knowledge with the content of the course and advance their knowledge in the field.
For instance, students should be encouraged to relate their existing understanding on the usage
of Technology and Communication Technology (ICT) when learning an ICT-related course. If
students already have considerable knowledge on research skills, perhaps it would be better to
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help them apply these skills in practical research projects. Personal experiences can also be
used to motivate students, for instance, by allowing them to share a personal story to illustrate a
point and to reflect on their overall experiences.
Principle 5: Students need to have Choice and Control Over their Learning
When students are given choices in learning, they are empowered to take control of their own
learning processes. Thus, it is crucial to provide students with opportunities to make decisions
concerning the subject matter, learning methods, and pace of study. By doing so, they are no
longer completely depending on the lecturer to tell them what, when, and how to learn. Students
should be seen as active partners who have a stake in the way learning transpires at the higher
education context. One of the best practices to ensure that learning focuses more on students is
by engaging them in shaping own learning experiences; to have a say in their own learning
processes.
Principle 6: Enabling Higher-order Thinking
Instructional approaches that are examination-oriented and focus on rote learning hardly enable
what more promote higher-order thinking skills among students. Learning at higher education is
not just about transmitting information from lecturers (who are the experts in their respective
fields) to students but to facilitate students in knowledge construction and engage them in
higher-order thinking activities. Higher order thinking includes critical, logical, reflective, and
creative thinking, which can be promoted through learning activities that require students to
analyze, synthesize, criticize, apply or solve problems, etc.
Principle 7: Learning needs Cooperation between Student and Lecturer
Even though the paradigm of learning has shifted to students, this does not imply that lecturers
have lesser roles to play. In fact, cooperation and mutual respects must occur in order to
develop a shared understanding and to come to a consensus related to learning methods, type
of assessment, and pace of study. Such cooperation in a particular course will create a positive
effect as both lecturers and students increasingly come to consider each other as partners in
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the process of optimizing the learning outcomes. Such partnership is central to the philosophy of
student-center learning.
The major principles of student-centered learning are summarized in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Principles of Student-Centered Learning
2.4 Student-Centered Learning vs Teacher-Centered Learning
The characteristics of student-centered learning and teacher-centered learning are shown in
Figure 2.4. The orientation towards these characteristics such as level of student choice, the
degree of their active participation in learning and the emphasis of the power, whether it is with
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the lecturer or student will determines the degree of student-centered learning that take place in
a course.
Figure 2.4: Student-centered and Teacher-Centered Continuum
Teacher-centered Learning
(TCL)
• Low level of student choices
• Student passive
• Power is primarily with the lecturer
• Assume students have little useful
knowledge
• The course has specific objectives
relating to what students have to
know for formal-assessment
• Present facts to students
• Cover information that might be
available from textbook
• Structure the course to help
students pass formal assessment
• Give students good set of notes
• Provide information needed to
pass formal assessment
• Lecturers should know the answers
to questions that students put
forth
Student-centered Learning
(SCL)
• High level of student choice
• Student active
• Power is primarily with the student
• Develop conversation with
students
• Provide opportunity for
students to reveal change
• Encourage students to
restructure existing knowledge
• Set aside some teaching time
for students to discuss among
themselves
• Use examples to provoke
debate
• Discuss their changing
understanding of the subject
• Students generate own notes
• Question students’ ideas
VS
TCL SCL
Activity 1
Reflect on your teaching approach and learning activities that take place in your course, where do
think the degree of student-centered learning lies within the continuum in Figure 1? What makes
you think so?
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2.5 Common Misconceptions
The following are the general preconceptions and misconceptions about student-centered
learning that should be discarded.
Requires Higher Amount of Resources
There is a common misconception that the shift towards student-centered approach requires
higher amount of resources. In reality, the adoption of student-centered approach in teaching
does not necessarily require additional resources. Much can be done to achieve student-
centered learning without having to spend high amount of money and time. For instance,
lecturers can design the learning activities with greater emphasis on group work, class
discussion, pair work, quizzes, debates, reflective diaries, peer monitoring, role play, and so on
which encourage students to be active learners.
Inappropriate to Teach Large and Diverse Group
As student population in higher education institutions is becoming increasingly larger and more
diversified, some lecturers believe that it is inappropriate to promote student-centered learning
in such scenarios. Lecturers will need to think outside the box and be more creative in
incorporating the elements of student-centered learning even with large and diverse group of
students. It can be done! For instance, lecturers can get each student to think and reflect on the
learning process by requiring them to write done on a small slip of paper aspects of the course
that they really like and reflect on their individual learning experiences. Even having one such
session is a concrete step towards implementing student-centered learning.
Undermines the Teaching Profession
There are also preconceived ideas that student-centered approach is undermining the teaching
profession, particularly at the higher education level where lecturers are commonly regarded as
experts in their respective fields. Some asserts that the academic profession may no longer be
valued if student-centered learning is widely adopted. Lecturers need to be aware that while the
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role of the lecturer is somewhat different in student-centered learning context, their roles are not
diminishing. Rather lecturer plays crucial roles in facilitating students to learn, guiding them
through the course or program component as active learners. They are not spoon-feeding or
transmitting information passively to the students. In fact, the academic profession will become
more valued with a higher emphasis being placed on students’ learning experiences because it
brings students in as part of the academic community, where research-led teaching can become
a reality and where feedback is more constructive in nature. To put it in a nutshell, student-
centered approach in teaching will not in any way undermines the teaching profession. On the
contrary, lecturers are playing vital roles in nurturing talents and contributing towards human
capital development.
Students have More Work
When students have to take account of their own learning activities, does this mean that
students have more work to do? It is important for all stakeholders to understand that student-
centered learning does not necessarily pose higher workload for students. Rather it requires a
reorganization of students’ study-time, focusing more on genuine learning activities rather than
memorization of information via rote learning. When students are becoming more competent
learners and thinkers, they can plan and manage their learning activities and solve learning
problems more efficiently, which eventually lead to more fruitful learning outcomes and are
equipped with lifelong learning skills.
Lectures have More Work
It is quite often the case that lecturers have a lot of preparatory work to do in order to make sure
that their students will be able to take notes during lectures, learn the content by hard, and pass
the assessments. However, in student-centered learning environment, students play equally if
not more important roles as the responsibility for learning have been transferred to them.
Accordingly, lecturers will have lesser ‘traditional’ work to do, such as preparing detailed lecture
notes and learning materials needed for students to pass the examination. In long term,
preparatory work will not increase and on the contrary, teaching at higher education will become
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more enjoyable and rewarding as students are capable of learning and constructing new
knowledge on their own.
Problem-Based Learning=Student-Centered Learning
There is a general assumption that Problem-based Learning (PBL) is the same as student-
centered learning. This is a misconception as student-centered learning is actually an umbrella
term under which PBL falls. PBL can be defined as a student-centered pedagogy in which
students collaboratively solve problems and then reflect upon their own learning experiences.
Other pedagogical approaches that are student-centered in nature include case studies, student
project, and so on. In other words, lecturers can utilize a range of pedagogical approaches to
promote student-centered learning and may not need to confine to PBL.
Not Suitable to All Disciplines
Some lecturers may feel that student-centered learning can only be applied in certain
disciplines. This is a misconception because student-centered learning is easily adaptable to all
subject matters and courses, though the practical manner in which it is implemented may differ.
Studies show that student can be the central of learning processes across disciplines (Hirumi,
2001). Some differences, however, do arise when teaching across different subject-disciplines,
with a notable distinction being between the humanities and the sciences (‘Student-Centered
Learning Toolkit’, 2010). Nevertheless, student-centered learning provides an underlying
learning philosophy which can be used across disciplines.
Students Learn Fewer Subject-Matter
Under the traditional method of teaching, students are constantly provided with facts, materials,
and information related to the course. When the learning paradigm is shifted to students, there
may be a misconception that students are learning lesser subject matter since the lecturers are
no longer transmitting as much information to the students. Moreover, students may be viewed
as having limited capacities to learn independently. Contradict to these views, students are
likely to learn more. They may know fewer repeatable facts but are likely to understand the
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content area better and are capable of solving the problems in a more effective and analytical
manner. This implies that students are equipped with transferrable skills such as problem
solving skill, critical and analytical skill as well as research skills that are useful for future
employment and lifelong learning rather than to regurgitate exact accounts of information im-
parted to them.
2.6 Advantages of Student-Centered Learning
Student-centered Learning offers benefits to both students and lecturers.
2.6.1 Benefits for Students
Student-centered learning has many advantages from the students’ point of view. Amongst the
major benefits are (1) Enhance Students’ Knowledge Retention and Motivation to Learn, (2)
Equipped Students with Transferrable and Lifelong Learning Skills, (3) Integrate Students into
Academic Community, (4) Improve Learning Outcome and (5) Due Consideration for Student’s
Needs
Activity 2
List three advantages of student-centered learning that you know or believe in:
(1)
(2)
______________________________________________________________________________
(3)
____________________________________________________________________________
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Enhance Students’ Knowledge Retention and Motivation to Learn
Knowledge retention differs according to the way in which the material is learned as revealed by
the Learning Pyramid in Figure 2.5. In general, studies demonstrated that active learning, such
as discussion, practical hands-on activities, and meaningful knowledge construction and
transfer such as the ability to develop new knowledge and to teach others have significantly
higher retention rate than the traditional lecture style of learning (‘Student-Centered Learning
Toolkit’, 2010). As emphasized by Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991), when students are
passive recipients of information during lectures, the acquisition of facts took precedence over
the development of higher cognitive processes, such as analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating.
As such, learning occurs at surface level and knowledge retention is at its minimal.
Nevertheless, students’ knowledge retention can be enhanced if active learning is promoted via
student-centered approach of teaching. In such manner, students will also be more motivated
to learn as they are exposed to alternative problem-solving strategies, engage more in
meaningful learning, are less fearful in generating own solutions or answers, and probably more
confident and persistent in facing learning challenges.
(Source: National Training Laboratories in ‘Student-Centered Learning Toolkit’, 2010: 8).
Figure 2.5: Learning Pyramid
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Equipped Students with Transferrable and Lifelong Learning Skills
One of the key benefits that students may gain when higher education adopts student-centered
approach in teaching and learning is greater opportunities to nurture and strengthen their
transferable skills. Transferrable skills can be defined as skills that are applicable to sectors and
at all levels, which include project management, leadership, communication, working in teams,
critical thinking, effective writing, information literacy, problem solving and reasoning skills
(Chadha, 2006) Transferable skills are widely applicable and are independent of disciplines.
These skills not only help individuals in their professional lives, also help them in their daily lives
while adapting knowledge to changing conditions (Morgil & Ural, 2006). Justice, Rice and
Warry (2008) emphasized that to develop transferable skills at higher education and to prepare
students for lifelong learning; the pedagogy must be characterized by active and student-
centered learning. The notion of transferable skills in tertiary education has been well
documented and continues to be an important feature in student’s development at
undergraduate and postgraduates’ levels. Students have to learn to take ownership of their own
learning process. Those who have experienced student-centered learning are more likely to be
independent and lifelong learners because they are equipped with transferable skills which
enable them to work effectively in their careers and lives in general. In other words, students will
be equipped with skills that make them perform more efficiently at work and enable them to
contribute extensively to the society in future (‘Student-Centered Learning Toolkit’, 2010).
Integrate Students’ into Academic Community
In student-centered learning environment, the instructional design is built and implemented in a
manner that allows and encourage students to integrate into the academic community. Students
play a more significant and active roles in the quest of knowledge construction when lecturer
acts as facilitator, rather than instructor. Students are no longer spoon-fed with information; they
are encouraged to think analytically and critically. As such, higher order thinking skills are
nurtured and gained earlier on. This allows research-led teaching to be realized more easily,
whereby lecturers are able to engage in meaningful discussion with the students. A feeling of
having one’s views valued can further increase the interaction and engagement of students in
learning activities that require them to expand their own horizon of knowledge (‘Student-
Centered Learning Toolkit’, 2010). Students’ active engagement in problem solving, decision
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making, investigative and research activities will encourage them to come up with their own
ideas and realistic solutions or presentations. During the learning processes, students also
involve in collaborative activities with other course mates, researchers, and academicians in the
area of study. Consequently, university students are learning to become researchers in their
respective field of study and are provided with more opportunities to be integrated into the
academic community even at the undergraduate level.
Improve Learning Outcomes
Literature reviews show that student-centered learning activities promote a number of positive
learning outcomes (Warren, 2003; Johnson, Johnson and Smith, 1998; Springer, Stanne &
Dovonan, 1999). According to Warren (2003), it could:
o Enhanced student participation and interaction.
o More willingness by students to express their ideas.
o Improved communication among students in culturally diverse classes.
o Better adjustment to university study (for international and UK students).
o A shift towards deep learning as a space is created for learners to test out new
concepts.
o Increased motivation, quality of discussion and level of analysis
Research shows that student-centered and collaborative learning activities have promising
learning outcomes, particularly amongst the science students. Bedgood, et al. (2010) for
instance, found that 83% (n=378) of the undergraduates in science program from the University
of Adelaide agreed or strongly agreed that working with other students in class time will be
important to their learning. Close to 80% (78%, n=42) of first year Veterinary Science students
from Charles Sturt University expressed similar views that student-centered class activities
encourage them to study more efficiently. These findings exemplify the strong interest of
students for collaborative learning and the positive learning outcomes that can be produced by
such approach (Table 2.1).
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Table 2.1: Impact on Learning Outcomes
Reference
Review of Studies
Learning Outcome
Johnson,
Johnson and
Smith (1998 )
Synthesized 168
studies between
1924-1997
• Improved academic achievement
• Improved quality of interpersonal
interactions
• Improved self-esteem
• Improved perceptions of greater social
support
Springer, Stanne,
and Dovonan
(1999 )
Synthesized 37
studies
• Improved academic achievement
• Improved student attitudes
• Improved retention in academic programs
(Source: Prince, 2004:4)
In short, student-centered learning provides students with wider opportunity to engage actively
with other members of the academic community particularly fellow course mates and
researchers in their field of study as well as lecturers who act as facilitator in the program which
ultimately lead to a number of positive learning outcomes.
Due Consideration for Student Needs
Inevitably, students have different needs due to their diverse backgrounds. Meeting students’
learning needs during the current phase of massification and globalization of higher education is
a challenging task for both lecturers and institution. However, diversity and difference are less
likely to be problematical and more likely to be valued if pedagogies that involve students as
active learners are adopted because such approach respect students’ views, experiences, and
differences (Bamber, Tett, Hosie, & Ducklin, 1997; Jones & Thomas, 2005). The current trend
towards student-centredness not only recognizes students’ differences in learning styles and
needs, but also places greater emphasis on understanding how students learn. In fact, student-
centered approach allows students to study in a more flexible manner (‘Student-Centered
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Learning Toolkit’, 2010). Learning does not confine to a given time or place in the way that
traditional learning has been. Students can engage with the learning materials according to their
own learning style and preferences. For example, some students learn better through trial and
error, some engage more with audiovisual materials, whereas others prefer reading, debate,
discussions, or practical experiences.
Student-centered approach of teaching encourages the use of various student-centered
teaching methods to fulfill students’ learning needs, challenge them cognitively, and enable
them to attain more positive learning outcomes (‘Student-Centered Learning Toolkit’, 2010). The
wide range of teaching methods that can be used to achieve the above mentioned purposes
include independent projects, group discussions, peer mentoring, debate, field trip, reflective
diaries, computer assisted learning, quizzes, role play, class presentation and so on (O’Neill &
McMohan, 2005). In fact, when lecturers are aware of the students’ background and needs,
they can organize teaching programs to facilitate their maximum participation in the learning
processes. For instance, Crosling, Heagney and Thomas (2009) highlight that lecturer may
consider student work and family responsibilities by scheduling assignments, test, and guest
lectures at times that suit students with work and family commitment.
2.6.2 Benefits for Lecturers
Student-centered learning has many advantages from the lecturers’ point of view. Amongst the
major benefits are (1) Act as Facilitator, (2) Manage the Growing and Increasingly Diverse
Student Population, (3) Promote Self-Improvement, and (4) More Rewarding Teaching
Experiences.
Act as Facilitator
The move to a more student-centered view of learning at higher education has required a
fundamental shift in the role of the lecturers. Lecturers are no longer seen as predominantly
dispenser of information or walking tape recorder, but rather as facilitator or manger of students’
learning. As mentioned by Omar Hasan Kasule (2007:1):
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“Medical education, for instance, like other disciplines has undergone a
tremendous transformation from being teacher-driven to being student-driven
and student-centered. The student is no longer a passive receiver of
information but an active participant in the search for and internalization
knowledge. This has forced a change in the role of the teacher to become a
facilitator of the learning process.”
This changing role of the lecturers is inline with constructivist approach to learning, whereby
knowledge is ‘constructed’ in the mind of the students and is constantly evolving. As such,
lecturers are expected to have lesser ‘traditional’ work to do, such as preparing detailed lecture
notes and learning materials needed for students to pass the examination. Accordingly, more
time can be allocated by the lecturers to supervise, mentor, and facilitate active learning
amongst students. As facilitators, lecturers can empower students to construct their own
knowledge, reflect on their work, and facilitate them to become independent learners and
researchers at higher education.
Manage the Growing and Increasingly Diverse Student Population
Student-centered learning is seen as one of the solutions to manage the massive expansion of
higher education (‘Student-Centered Learning Toolkit’, 2010). Since the liberalization and
massification of higher education in 1996, the delivery and provision of higher education in
Malaysia has experienced significant changes. According to Morshidi (2006), the increasing
demands for higher education in Malaysia have resulted in a varied range of course and degree
offerings through both the traditional and non-traditional pathways. As a result, the major
challenge facing the Malaysian higher education is to provide quality tertiary education to a
growing and increasingly diverse student population. The aims of providing quality education will
not be reached if the teaching and learning is not adapted to a diverse student portfolio.
Student-centered learning provides an alternative way for lecturers to manage the growing and
increasingly diverse student population while at the same time sustaining the quality of
education provided at universities. It is important for lecturers to realize that student-centered
learning does not only occur in small groups, but methods can also be developed and utilized to
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fulfill students’ diverse learning needs in large group (Warren, 2003; Crossing, Heagney &
Thomas, 2009), for instance:
o Collaborative learning groups (3–5 students) working on tasks during lecture
periods.
o Group presentations and interactive lectures featuring discussion of concepts
and application to practical exercises.
o Teaching via sessions that combine exposition and work on tasks in medium-
sized groups (about 20 students), instead of whole class lectures.
o Resource-based learning in project study groups (6–10 students), culminating in
a set of class
o Debates to exchange knowledge gained.
The utilization of information technology couple with student-centered approach via online and
distance education, for instance, may also help in managing the growing and increasingly
diverse student population at higher education.
Promote Self-Improvement
Practicing student-centered approach in teaching can promote lecturers’ self-improvement
(‘Student-Centered Learning Toolkit’, 2010), which include:
o Encourage lecturers to review and develop their courses and teaching methods
so as to improve both the content of their courses and their method of delivery.
o Obtain relevant and constructive feedback from more highly-engaged students,
which allow lecturers to continuously improve their teaching methods.
o Enhances lecturers’ flexibility in designing ways of running a course or a programme
component and in applying new ways of teaching or research.
o Offer a much higher level of professional development with regards to the development
of knowledge, skills and competences relevant both for personal development and
career advancement
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o Promote lecturers’ motivation and commitment for self-improvement through Continuous
and Professional Development (CPD) on student-centered teaching methods.
More Rewarding Teaching Experiences
Teaching at higher education will become more enjoyable and rewarding as students engage in
learning actively, able to construct new knowledge on their own, and are capable of attaining
more positive learning outcomes (Warren, 2003; Johnson, Johnson and Smith, 1998; Springer,
Stanne & Dovonan, 1999). Even though passive lecturing method permits a lot of information
and facts to be covered in a short period of time and as experts of the subject matter, lecturers
can present complicated concepts in a concise, simple, and interesting manner, a major
disadvantage of such method is that students learn passively. This shortcoming is agreed by
most educators and the approach is regarded as less effective than active learning. The
criticism is valid but do not invalidate lecturing.
All lecturers need to do is adopt innovative ways to improve lectures so that it involves students
actively in the learning processes (Omar Hasan Kasule, 2007). Apart from lectures, there are
also a variety of teaching methods that are student-centered in nature and have great potentials
to improve learning outcomes, such as group projects, discussions, peer mentoring, field trip,
reflective diaries, computer assisted learning, and so on (O’Neill & McMohan, 2005). In short,
whether it is lectures, project based or collaborative activities, the element of student-centered
approach in teaching will enhance students’ knowledge retention, motivation to learn, improve
learning outcomes, and help them to gain valuable skills as lifelong learners. For these reasons,
teaching experiences at higher education can be very rewarding as it not only improve the
quality of education, increase job satisfaction but also contribute towards the country’s human
capital development.
Figure 2.6 summarizes the key benefits of student-centered learning for students and lecturers.
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Figure 2.6: Benefits of Student-Centered Learning
Further Readings on Rationales and Benefits of Adopting Student-Centered Learning
• Bologna Handbook. website: http://www.bologna-handbook.com
• British Higher Education Academy website: http://www.heacademy.ac.uk
• Kember, D. (2008). Promoting Student-Centred Forms of Learning across an Entire University. In: Higher
Education, 58, 1–13.
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2.7 Student-Centered Pedagogy
Student-centered learning pedagogy is putting students first and focused on the student's
needs, abilities, interests, and learning styles with the teacher as a facilitator of learning. This
classroom teaching method acknowledges student voice as central to the learning experience
for every learner. Student-centred learning requires students to be active, responsible
participants in their own learning.
In terms of curriculum practice, the student has the choice in what they want to study and how
they are going to apply their newfound knowledge. Student learning processes are greatly
enhanced when they participate in deciding how they may demonstrate their competence in a
body of knowledge or the performance of skills (Ernie Stringer, 2008). This pedagogical
implication enables the student to establish his or her unique learning objectives. This aspect of
learning holds the learner accountable for production of knowledge that he or she is capable of
producing. In this stage of learning, the teacher evaluates the learner by providing honest and
timely feedback on individual progress. Building a rapport with students is an essential strategy
that educators could utilize in order to gauge student growth in a student-centred classroom.
Through effective communication skills, the teacher is able to address student needs, interests,
and overall engagement in the learning material. There are three basic principles of democratic
living, which he says are not yet established in our society in terms of education (James
Henderson, 1992). The three basic tenets, which he calls the 3S’s of teaching for democratic
living, are:
o Subject Learning- Students learn best from subject matter thoughtfully presented.
o Self-Learning- One must engage oneself in the generative process.
o Social Learning- Empathy is wealth in this regard, social interaction with diverse
others the target for generosity.
Through peer-to-peer interaction, collaborative thinking can lead to an abundance of knowledge.
According to Lev Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), students typically learn
vicariously through one another. Through a socio-cultural perspective on learning, scaffolding is
important when fostering independent thinking skills. Vygotsky proclaims, "Learning which is
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oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective from the
view point of the child's overall development. It does not aim for a new stage of the
developmental process but rather lags behind this process." In essence, instruction is designed
to access a developmental level that is measurable to the student’s current stage in
development.
Another aim of student centered pedagogy which is prevalent in higher education is developing
student to become more independent learners (Weimer, 2002). Specifically, the students are
expected to evolve from being unconfident, passive and dependent to more responsible,
perceived themselves had high self efficacy on their learning process and more autonomous. In
order to achieve the vision, therefore, the courses should be designed and arranged so that the
sequence they are gone through will act as catalyst for them to become more independent. As
the change occurs gradually, the process to become independent learner should be seen in four
stages as suggested by Grow (1991). He explained that students who are at the early stage
need an authority figure who able to give explicit instructions in the learning process. The
students in this early stage are still not self-directed and dependent, thus they respond well to
teachers who coach them. Those students should be exposed to identifiable and specific skills
where they are encourage to master those skills which have been set beyond what they think
they can do. Thus, educators should be prepared to do whatever they can to push the students
to succeed in their learning processes.
As the student achieves to the next stage, those students are assumed to be more ready to
begin goal setting for themselves. The educators should portray the sense of confidence and
enthusiasm during the teaching and learning process, so that the students can internalize those
teachers’ attitude and behavior in order to discover their own motivation by the end of this level.
As the students proceed to the third level, the students are supposed to be at intermediate level
of self-direction. At this stage, they are become more reflective on their learning process which
they had taken so far, and capable to be generalize those learning experiences as generic
learning strategies, and able to distinguish what are to be considered as effective or ineffective
learning strategies. The students at this level are also ready to cooperate with others while
involving in the learning task, thus, the educators should change their roles to become co-
learners in the group learning process. Here, educators act as facilitators who encourage the
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students to have more freedom in deciding the direction of their learning journeys. Eventually, at
the final stage, students will develop to become as self directed learners who able to set their
own goals and standards in the learning process. During the final stage,, the content of the
knowledge is not as important as the process of learning itself. That means the students will be
left on their own in the most of the learning process, and the educators will only intervene when
the students need their help. Nevertheless, the educators should be aware that aim of the
intervention is not to help them to meet the challenge, instead the educators are supposed to
empower the learner to meet the challenge.
2.8 Characteristics of Learners
Instruction begins when you, the teacher, learn from learner.
Put yourself in his place so that you may understand what he learns and the way he understands it.
(Kierkegaard quoted in Felder & Brent, 2005: 57)
Does higher education seem like foreign culture to learners? There are certain expectations of
higher education impose on learners as they register to courses and take classes. Learners
have also their expectations to the higher education. They are no longer children because they
have passed the stage and becoming adults. As young adults, they have different levels of
motivation, different attitudes about teaching and learning, different learning needs, different
learning maturity and different response to learning environments and instructional processes
(Felder & Brent, 2005). In the context of higher education, learners are expected to be self-
directed where they take an active role to plan, monitor and evaluate their education as well as
to take responsibility for decisions made. Educators are expected to guide and help them on
“how to learn” and “how to fish” rather than “spoon feed” them with the knowledge they have.
Learners are encouraged to paint their own meaning to what they have learnt and gained, so
that enables them to put knowledge acquired into practice. Educators should realize that they
are working with young adults and this fact should be taken into consideration while designing a
learning instruction in order to facilitate appropriate learning process for the young adults
according to their learning abilities. Thus, the more educators understand about their learner
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ability differences, the better options they have to address the diverse learning needs of all of
their learners during teaching and learning sessions. On top of that, by understanding learner
differences will enable educators to design instructions that will promote student-centered
learning.
This chapter will discuss on characteristics of adult learner, learning approaches and four
learning styles in relation to student centered learning. Through information provided, educators
should have better understanding about student learning abilities and will be able to recognize
their student differences; thus appropriate learning instructions can be designed to promote self-
directed learning among their learners.
2.8.1 Characteristics of Adult Learners
Learning is anything that involves students in doing things and
thinking about the things they are doing. (Bonwell & Eison)
Generally learners can be grouped into adult learner (andragogy) and child learner (pedagogy)
(Knowles et al., 2005; Mortimore, 1999). The word andragogy was derived from the Greek word
aner which means man not boy and agogus which means leading. While the term pedagogy
was originated from Greek word paid which means child. That is the reason andragogy and
pedagogy is commonly described as the art and science of teaching adults and children
respectively (Knowles et al., 2005; Mortimore, 1999). The Table 2.2 summarizes the
characteristics of adult and child learners.
Table 2.2: Comparison of Characteristics between Adult and Child Learners
Adult Learner
Child Learner
Decide for themselves what is important to be
learned.
Rely on others to decide what is important to
be learned.
Need to validate the information based on
their beliefs & experience.
Accept the important being presented at face
value.
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Expect what they are learning to be
immediately useful.
Expect what they are learning to be useful in
their long-term future.
Have much experience upon which to draw -
may have fixed viewpoints.
Have little or no experience upon which to
draw - are relatively clean slates.
Significant ability to serve as a
knowledgeable resource to trainers and
fellow learners.
Little ability to serve as a knowledgeable
resource to teacher or fellow classmates.
Adult learners are always known to be as independent learner and self-directed leaner (Knowles
et al., 2005; Yusoff & Rahim, 2010). They decide what important to learn and act as a resource
for learning whenever they are needed by other learners. Their learning are driven and affected
by the need to know something or to do something where they validate any information given to
them before accepting it. When they learn they relate their belief and experience upon their new
learning experience where they tend to immediately make use the learning experience to their
jobs. They tend to take active role in planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning. In
contrast, pedagogic learners are known to be as dependent learner and more teacher-directed
where they rely on others to decide what is important to be learnt (Knowles et al, 2005;
Mortimore, 1999; Yusoff & Rahim, 2010). Their learning is affected by desire to meet course
requirement and tend to be rot learners where they accept all information given to them at face
value without validating it. They have very limited knowledge and experience to relate upon their
learning where they expect their learning to be useful in long-term future; that is why they have
little ability to serve as resource learning to other learners.
The implications of the characteristics of adult and child learners are significant in considering i)
how students in training might most effectively engage in their own learning development and ii)
how teachers might most effectively facilitate learning of their students. Thus, teaching
techniques that encourage learners to be self-directed, to apply knowledge immediately in their
jobs, and to relate upon their experience and needs will facilitate their learning. It should be
noted that understanding of nature of learners will be advantages for educators to enhance
learning experience of the learners (Kolb, 2005; Dent & Harden, 2009; Newble et al., 2001).
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Educators may administer the six items of the adult learning inventory (Yusoff, 2011) to identify
whether their students are adult learners or child learners (Table 2.3) Below instruction should
be given to students before answering the item:
Activity 3
The Adult Learning Inventory describes the way you learn. Below are 6 sentences with a choice. Try to
recall some recent situations where you had to learn something new, perhaps in your job or at your
school. Then, using the columns provided, ticks appropriately according to how well each sentence fits
with you. Please use the rating below to rate the sentences:
Table 2.3: The six items of the adult learning inventory
No Item 1 2 3 4 5
1
I need to validate the information based on my beliefs and experiences.
2
I expect what I’m learning to be immediately useful.
3
I have much experience to relate upon my learning.
4
I don’t like to participate and involve in a discussion.
5
I have little or no experience to relate upon my learning.
6
I have little or no ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource to teachers and
fellow classmates.
Item 1, 2 & 3 represent statements for adult learners (α = 0.87, AVE = 0.69, CR=0.87).
Item 4, 5 & 6 represent statements for child learners (α = 0.86, AVE = 0.68, CR=0.87).
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2.8.2 Learning Approaches
Learning is an active and lifelong process of acquiring information through
various medium where the information are transformed and
translated into meaningful ideas that lead to formation of knowledge, skills, behavior and attitude.
(Yusoff, 2011:22)
The variation between students is almost never-ending because each one of them has very
unique characters that are strongly influenced by genetic makeup (Sheperd, 2007). Similar
phenomenon happens on students approach to learning where they tend to adopt certain ways
of learning that best fit with their belief, ability and capacity. Although each of students is unique,
but there are common behaviours being displayed which can be clustered together to form
meaningful concepts. Marton and Saljo (2005) have proposed three different approaches to
learning which are surface approach, strategic approach and deep approach. The Table 2.4
illustrates the differences of the three approaches.
Activity 3 (Continues)
Scoring system: X – Y = ………
(Score: 1 to 12 = adult learner; 0 = mixed; -1 to -12 = child learner)
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Total Mark (X)
Rating score
Item 4
Item 5
Item 6
Total Mark (Y)
Rating score
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Table 2.4: Comparison of three learning approaches (adapted from Yusoff & Rahim, 2010).
Deep
Strategic
Surface
1. Relating ideas
2. Using evidence
3. Interest in ideas and
monitoring
understanding
4. Intention to seek own
meaning to enhance
understanding.
1. Time manager
2. Systematic study
3. Alertness to assessment
systems
4. Monitoring study
5. Intention to attain highest
marks as possible.
1. Learn due to fear of
failure
2. Learn through
memorizing
3. Focus on minimal
requirement
4. Intention to pass with
minimal efforts.
Deep learners usually learn through understanding on subjects where their intention is to seek
own meaning on the subjects to enhance understanding and mastery (Biggs, 1987; Marton &
Saljo, 2005; Felder & Brent, 2005; Yusoff & Rahim, 2010). They love to validate information
given to them prior to accepting it through relating to previous knowledge and searching for
evidence. Their learning is driven by intrinsic motivation where they want to master the subjects
so that they can use it for good as well as to teach and share with others. They always
monitoring, updating and evaluating their understanding through self-directed and life-long
learning. It is worth noting that, studies have reported that high academic achievement and
performance can be predicted from students who adopt deep approach to learning either alone
Further Readings on Learning Approaches:
• Marton, F. and Säljö, R. (2005).Approaches to learning. In Marton, F., Hounsell, D. and Entwistle,
N., (eds.) The Experience of Learning: Implications for teaching and studying in higher education.
3rd (Internet) edition. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Centre for Teaching, Learning and
Assessment.
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or in combination with strategic approach (Boyle et al., 2003; Diseth, 2003; Chamorro-Premuzic
& Furnham, 2008).
Students who adopt strategic approach to learning commonly learn through systematic or smart
study where they are bound to the syllabus of course and their intention is to attain the highest
marks as possible (Biggs, 1987; Marton & Saljo, 2005; Felder & Brent, 2005; Yusoff & Rahim,
2010). They are usually competing with other learners to get top rank in the course and are
reluctant to share information with others. They stick to time and plan as well as monitor their
study progress to ensure every course objectives have been read and understood. Students
who adopt strategic approach in combination with deep approach tend to attain high academic
success Boyle et al., 2003; Diseth, 2003; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2008).
Students who adopt surface approach commonly learn through memorizing facts from the
books they read and from lectures they attended (Biggs, 1987; Marton & Saljo, 2005; Felder &
Brent, 2005; Yusoff & Rahim, 2010). Their learning driven by extrinsic motivation where they
learn due to fear of failure, they want to pass examination and get job. Their intention is just to
pass and getting thing done with minimal efforts. Most of the time they accept all the information
obtained from books and lecturers unquestioning. Studies have revealed that surface approach
to learning has consistently been found to negatively correlate with academic performance and
achievement (Boyle et al., 2003; Diseth, 2003; Diseth & Martinsen, 2003).
2.8.3 Learning Style
The art of changing brain: Enriching teaching by exploring biology of learning.
(Zull, 2002)
Kolb (1984, 2005) postulates theory of experiential learning by describing it as a cycle explicitly
incorporates and builds on the experiences from which learning is derived (Figure 2.7). He
theorizes the existent of four learning modes which are learning through concrete experience
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(i.e. definable experience), reflective observation (i.e. reflection), abstract conceptualization (i.e.
thinking on generalisability of concepts, theories or frameworks) and active
experimentation/testing (i.e. apply concepts to new situation). Kolb emphasizes these four
learning modes form to learning dimensions which are perception (concrete experience and
abstract conceptualization) and process (reflective observation and active
experimentation/testing) continuum of learning. Almost every individual utilizes each learning
mode to some extent but has a preferred learning mode (i.e. learning style) resulting in
tendency to learn either through experience, reflection, concepts or experimentation
Table 2.5: The Comparison of the Kolb’s Learning Styles
Process
continuum
Perception
continuum
Reflective Observation
(watching)
Active Experimentation (doing)
Concrete
Experience (feeling)
Diverging
View concrete situations from
many different points
Observe rather than take
action
Like to generate wide range of
ideas
Fond of brainstorming
sessions.
Imaginative ability and
sensitivity to feelings
When learning prefer working
in groups to gather
information, listening with an
open mind, and receiving
Accommodating
Learn primarily from hands-on
experience
Carry out plans and try new
and challenging experience
Tend to act on intuition rather
than on logical analysis
Rely heavily on people for
information than own technical
analysis
When learning prefer to work
with others to get assignments
done to set goals, to do field
work, and to test out different
approaches to complete a
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personal feedback
project
Abstract
Conceptualization
(thinking)
Assimilating
Can understand a wide range
of information and put it into
concise and logical form
Less focus on people and
more interested in abstract
ideas and concepts
Value a theory for its logical
soundness over practical
When learning prefer lectures,
readings, exploring analytical
models, and having time to
thinks things through
Converging
Find practical uses for ideas
and theories
Solve problems and make
decision based on finding
solutions to questions or
problems
Prefer technical tasks and
problems to social and
interpersonal issues
When learning prefer to
experiment with new ideas,
simulations, laboratory
assignments, and practical
applications
(Source: adapted from Yusoff & Rahim, 2010).
Activity 4
Based on the characteristics of the four learning styles, try to figure out your own learning styles.
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Kolb (1984, 2005) categories learning styles into diverging, assimilating, converging and
accommodating (Figure 2.7). Each of learning style has its own unique characteristics as
summarized in the Table 2.5.
Figure 2.7: Kolb’s learning styles (adapted from Yusoff & Rahim, 2010).
Figure 2.7: Learning Styles
Figure 2.7 illustrates that (1) concrete experiences come through the sensory cortex, (2)
reflective observation involves the temporal integrative cortex at the back, (3) creating
new abstract concepts occurs in the frontal integrative cortex, and (4) active testing
involves the motor brain. In other words, the learning cycle arises from the structure of the
brain (Zull, 2002).
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The implications of the Kolb’s learning styles are significant in considering how learners most
effectively engage in this experiential learning process and how teachers facilitate learning
activities or providing stimulus to enable learners to engage in the whole experiential cycle.
2.8.4 What Can Educators do to Encourage Students to Adopt Deep Approach to
Learning?
Leading by example is the most powerful way to influence learners to adopt deep approach to
learning. To facilitate application of information discussed in this chapter, the guidelines
provided in the Table 2.6 may be useful.
Further reading on Learning Styles
• Kolb, A. Y. (2005). The Kolb Learning Style Inventory. Version 3.1 2005 Technical Specifications.
Boston, MA: Hay Resource Direct.
• Yusoff, M. S. B., & Rahim, A. F. A. (2010). The Study Skills Workshop. MedEdPORTAL. Available
online at http://services.aamc.org/30/mededportal/servlet/s/segment/mededportal/
?subid=8010
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Table 2.6: Actions than can promote deep and surface approach to learning
Deep approach
Surface approach
Showing personal interest in the subject.
Conveying disinterest or even a negative
attitude to the material.
Bringing out the structure of the subject.
Presenting material so that it can be
perceived as a series of unrelated facts and
ideas.
Concentrating on and ensuring plenty of time
for key concepts.
Allowing student to be passive.
Confronting students’ misconceptions –
engaging student in active learning.
Assessing for independent facts.
Using assessments that require thought and
require ideas to be used together.
Rushing to cover too much material.
Relating new material what students already
know and understand.
Emphasizing coverage at the expense of
depth.
Allowing students to make mistakes without
penalty and rewarding effort.
Creating undue anxiety or low expectations of
success by discouraging statement or
excessive workload.
Being consistent and fair in assessing
declared intended learning outcomes and
hence establishing trust.
Having a short assessment cycle.
(Source: adapted from The Higher Education Academy, 2011).
Activity 5
As educators, what other actions you can do to promote deep approach to learning among your students?
Based on the characteristics of the four learning styles, try to figure out your own learning styles.
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The key message is to be effective educators, instructional designs should address the needs of
learners across the full spectrum of learning styles and approaches, to promote adoption of
deep approach to learning and to guide learners to develop higher levels of intellectual
development through self-directed learning (Felder & Brent, 2005). The more successful
educators design instructions that match with their learners’ preferences and needs, the more
likely the learners will learn effectively while they are in higher education centers and throughout
their careers (Felder & Brent, 2005).
If you tell me, I will listen. If you show me, I will see. If you let me experience (do), I will learn.
(Lao Tzu)
2.9 Characteristics of the Learning Environment
The strategic goal of transforming the learning institution into a student centered environment as
the means of delivering of services and programs to students. This will improve the university
ability to facilitate student learning, based on students developmental needs within the
educational mission. Simply put, a student-centered environment tailors all aspects of service
delivery and support to the needs of students. Lecturers are guided by what is best for the
students when helping students or making decisions. While committed to serving students'
needs, the lecturer’s goal is to reduce negative student experiences with bureaucracy and red
tape, and to replace them with services that students will recognize as efficient, empathetic,
responsive, and ultimately exceeding their expectations.
Constrained resources are not a barrier to becoming more students centered: being narrowly
compartmentalized as is often now the case. The supporting staff must not only be technically
competent, but also must be capable of providing high quality, personalized responsible service.
Technological advances must be leveraged to allow students a maximum number of choices as
to when, where, and how services are accessed, e.g., in person, by phone, on-line, etc. Working
with university students, one must strive for outcomes that are fair, prompt, responsible, user-
friendly, caring and leave them with the sense that we truly value the privilege of serving their
needs.
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This student-centered environment orientation is to create a student-centered learning
community, committed to excellence in experiential learning and assisting in the maturation of
students as whole individuals representing diverse backgrounds. The university has to create an
environment where learning takes place anywhere, at any time, in many forms and by diverse
means. A student-centered learning environment also enables students to be responsible for
and involved in their educations; it supports development of values and character in students by
making them active players in the academic learning enterprise.
A student-centered environment is focused on students needs, not on their wants. These needs
include a healthy learning environment that nurtures their personal growth, substantive out-of-
classroom activities that increase their learning to help them to obtain a high-quality education,
personal experience that leads to feeling connected, and service learning opportunities that
develop them as responsible citizens. Of course, we must remember that students' needs are
not monolithic, but vary among both individuals and groups of students. Educators must
consistently view and fulfill their responsibilities in terms of being conscious of, and seeking to
anticipate and elicit, student needs, which may be diverse.
The transition to a student-centered environment does not mean divorcing ourselves from the
essential and valuable aspects of the current way we do business; it does mean a fundamental
change in perspective and actions to keep students' needs constantly at the center of attention.
Recognize that there are many challenges associated with implementing this environment shift,
and it is not simply a matter of adopting a "customer is always right" stance. The student-
centered learning environment has been shown to be effective in higher education. In ensuring
the effectiveness of SCL, attention to creating specific environment is essential. Three important
characteristics are physical, authentic and social environment (Figure 2.8).
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Figure 2.8: Characteristics of Student-Centered Learning Environment
2.9.1 Physical Environment
The characteristics of physical environment are inter-related with the type of SCL pedagogy
applied. With the advance of information and communication technology, the usage of internet
in student-centered learning demands the computer and internet connection. To break the
traditional classroom setting, the availability of high speed wifi or broadband is one of the
physical environments that need to be provided.
In subject learning, students learn best from subject matter thoughtfully presented. For example,
in dissecting an animal specimen, the physical environment supports needed are conducive
laboratory setting, equipments accessibility and clear experiment instruction. Attention on
catering each student physical needs; such as providing appropriate number of specimen
shared per group will encourage learning progress because these students have the chance to
experience the experiment themselves. Besides, an appropriate assessment sheet is provided
to trigger self-assessment. Therefore, they themselves can evaluate their work and gauge their
own understanding at the end of the learning session.
The success of the physical environment support initiatives make the students enjoy a more
positive learning experience which will likely help them develop greater passion for learning and
lead to more success in their learning endeavors.
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2.9.2 Authentic Environment
In order to enhance the quality of student centered learning, it is suggested that the learning
environment should be aligned with the way learning is occurred in real life setting. There is a
need for the university educators to provide authentic learning environment for the students so
that when they are graduated they are able to cope with needs of a dynamic and change of
workforce (Herrington & Herrington, 2006). Nevertheless, it is quite challenging for the
educators to design purely “authentic” learning experiences, however, Smith (1987) in his
review of research related to simulations in the classroom concluded that the “physical fidelity”
of the simulation materials is less important than the extent to which the simulation promotes
“realistic problem-solving processes”. This is aligned with Herrington, Oliver and Reeves (2003)
which argued that the cognitive authenticity is more important than the physical authenticity in
designing authentic learning environments. One of the ways to provide authentic learning
environment is letting the students to learn by solving real-problem contexts. The problem
provides the purpose and motivation for learning. However, it is suggested that the problem
should provide a complex and ill defined learning situation with a large number of resources to
enable sustained examination by students from different perspectives (Brown et al., 1989).
Another way to enhance the authencity of the learning environment is by giving them a model of
how a real practitioner behaves in a real situation. Example of mechanisms to model the real
practitioner is a real situation is through internship program or case-based learning (Riesbeck,
1996). Students also should be given a chance to collaborate while completing the learning task
as this activity is really happen in the workplace. The collaborative learning activities should be
designed where more capable partners can support the learning through scaffolding and
coaching. The performances of the students should not be assessed only on the learning
outcome or product, but also should be integrated into the process of learning. Therefore,
students will perceive assessment itself as a tool for learning as the students will receive
ongoing feedback from the educators on how they should improve their learning strategies so
that they would able to achieve the learning outcomes which are targeted at the early stage of
the learning process. This scenario resembles the long life learning activity which is occurred
when the workers receive new task given by their employer.
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2.9.3 Social Environment
Social environment is referring to the following aspects of learning; focuses on what the child is
curious about learning, teaching strategies to accommodate individual needs intellectually,
emotionally and student's social needs are collaboration, communication and peer approval.
Since the focus is on individual students rather than whole class structures, teachers often offer
choices and adaptations within lessons. This is a role teachers must be comfortable with if they
are to implement a student-centred learning environment. To be considered a student-centred
learning environment it will be open, dynamic, trusting, respectful, and promote children's
subjective as well as objective learning styles. Students may collaborate in hands-on problems
and draw their own conclusions. This experiential learning involves the whole child -- their
emotions, thoughts, social skills, and intuition. The result is a person who is self confident and a
critical thinker.
Through peer-to-peer interaction, collaborative thinking can lead to an abundance of knowledge.
According to Lev Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), students typically learn
vicariously through one another. Through a socio-cultural perspective on learning, scaffolding is
important when fostering independent thinking skills. Vygotsky proclaims, "Learning which is
oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective from the
view point of the child's overall development. It does not aim for a new stage of the
developmental process but rather lags behind this process." In essence, instruction is designed
to access a developmental level that is measurable to the student’s current stage in
development.
Indicative of success in achieving a student centered environment are ideally, students and their
parents will recognize the commitment of the educators. As the educators are made to student's
well being, learning and growth. To some degree, this should be manifested by; positive
feedback in response to such instruments as all class, senior, and alumni surveys, decrease in
negative feedback, concrete measures such as fewer processing errors and shorter processing
and problem-resolution times, greater willingness to become involved in decision making, on the
part of students and, parents and line staff would also indicate true empowerment.
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2.10 Summary
There is currently a strong educational movement at higher education towards the Learning
Paradigm, which promote active learning amongst students. The urge for this paradigm change
was founded on the premise that students should be actively constructing their own knowledge
during tertiary education. For these reasons, the instructional practices at HEIs ought to be
characterized by innovative methods of teaching which emphasizes students as the key players
of learning and promotes their active participation at all stages of learning processes. In terms of
curriculum practice, students have the choice in what they want to study and how they are going
to apply their newfound knowledge. Ultimately, student centered pedagogy aims to develop
students into more independent learners. To be effective educators at higher education,
instructional designs should address the needs of students across the full spectrum of learning
styles and approaches, to promote the adoption of deep approach to learning and to guide them
in developing transferable and life long learning skills. The more successful lecturers design
instructions that match with their students’ preferences and needs, the more likely the students
will learn effectively while they are at HEIs and throughout their careers. In ensuring the
effectiveness of SCL, attention to creating specific environment is essential, thus, physical,
authentic and social environment characteristics have to be taken into account.
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