Wag the Blog: How Reliance on Traditional Media and the Internet Influence Credibility Perceptions of Weblogs Among Blog Users

Abstract

This study surveyed Weblog users online to investigate how credible they view blogs as compared to traditional media as well as other online sources. This study also explores the degree to which reliance on Weblogs as well as traditional and online media sources predicts credibility of Weblogs after controlling for demographic and political factors. Weblog users judged blogs as highly credible—more credible than traditional sources. They did, however, rate traditional sources as moderately credible. Weblog users rated blogs higher on depth of information than they did on fairness.

Full text

WAG
THE BLOG: HOW RELIANCE
ON TRADITIONAL
MEDIA
AND THE INTERNET
INFLUENCE
CREDIBILITY
PERCEPTIONS
OT WEBLOGS
AMONG
BLOG USERS
By Thomas
J.
Johnson and
Barbara
K. Kaye
This study suweyed
Weblog
users online
to
investigate how
credible
they
viezi' blogs as compared to traditional media as weil as other online
sources. This study
also explores the degree to
which
reliance on
Weblogs
as well as traditional and online media sources predicts credibility of
Weblogs
after controlling for
demographic
aud
political
factors.
Weblog
users judged blogs as highly credible—more credible thau traditional
sources. They did, however, rate traditional sources as moderately
credible. Weblog users rated blogs higher on depth of information than
they did 0)i fairness.
While the debate over whether the Internet as a whole should be
judged as a credible source of news and information has ebbed as more
users have tlocked to news sites sponsored by traditional media, the
question remains of how much faith users should place in certain online
components such as Weblogs (also known as blogs). Webiogs, diary-
style Websites that generaily offer observations and news listed chrono-
logically on the site as weil as commentary and recommended links,'
surged in popularity after the events of
9/11,-
Bloggers (those who create blogs)^ and traditional journalists"'
argue over how much faith
to
piace
in
messages posted on the blogosphere
(the blogging universe). But while several studies have examined
credibility of online media, scholars have paid little attention to how
credible users judge Weblogs. Metzger, Flanagin, Eyai, Lemiis, and
McCann argue tha
t
one weakness of online credibility studies
is
that they
examine
oi"ily
the Web and ignore other Internet components.^
Alternative sources of news and information, such as Weblogs,
have been ignored. However, their credibility deserves attention for
several reasons: First, they are
a
growing phenomenon, increasing from
an estimated 30,000 in 1998 to at least three million by the beginning of
2004.'''
Second, while the number of blog users is small (only 17% of
Internet users have ever visited
a
blog),''
their influence may exceed their
readership. Because many blog users are potiticatty interested and
active, they are wooed by tech-savvy potiticians. For
instance,
blog users
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may have given a boost to presidential hopeful Howard Dean.*^ Also,
many journalists consider blogs
a
trustworthy source of Information and
rely on them for information and story ideas.'' Blogs have been credited
for bringing to light stories ignored by the traditional media, such as
racist remarks by Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott that led to his
resignation.'"
This study surveyed Weblog users online to investigate tiow
credible they view blogs as compared to other sources. This study will
also explore how reliance on Weblogs, as well as traditional and online
media sources, predicts credibility of Weblogs.
Beginning in the 1940s, many researchers studied the impact of
the credibility of sources on interpersonal influence, examining what
cha
racteristics made a speaker persuasive. Similarly, researchers exam-
ined characteristics of persuasive messages. Studies of the credibility of
a mediimi, however, arose from concerns in
the
newspaper industry first
about the rising number of people turning to radio for news and then
about the number relying on television. The rise of the Internet has led
toahostof recent credibility studies comparing traditional sources with
this emerging medium."
Traditional
Media
aud
Credibility
Credibility research has focused almost entirely on mainstream
media, particularly newspapers.'^ Many of these studies were con-
ducted by news organizations that feared that falling credibility would
signal further decline in readership and advertising profits.'-*
Credibility of Nontraditional Media. Several studies have ex-
plored the impact of nontraditional media such as talk radio and late-
night talk shows in the last three presidential elections on
voters'''
and on
the campaign
itself'^
wtiite others have exptored the content of such
nontraditional media,"' While scant attention has been paid to how
credible voters find information in nontraditional media, anecdotal
evidence suggests that users judge them as more credibte than main-
stream media.
For
instance,
schola
rs
have noted that talk radio and talk television
emerged as forces in the 1992 presidential campaign because the public
was dissatisfied with media coverage. Users could talk directly to
candidates or to talk show hosts, rather than have information filtered
through the press,'' While traditional media attempt to balance cover-
age,
talk radio hosts openly attack both opposition candidates as well as
what they perceive as liberal media coverage.'" Political talk show hosts
present themselves as true authorities on politicat issues wtiile claiming
traditional media hide or lie about facts, a suspicion apparently held by
talk show listeners. Finally, listeners may trust the information they
receive from talk radio because they believe the hosts are more open
about their biases than traditional journalists who subtly interject their
views into their stories.'^
Early Internet
Users
and Credibility. Some of the earliest Internet
credibility studies were conducted before traditional media became
Nontradi-
tional Media
aud
Credibility
WAGTHLBU-IG
623

Weblog
Credibility
Traditional
Media Use
aud Weblog
Credibility
established in onlii"ie publishing. During the mid-1990s the Internet
was compared to a frontier outpost where discussion was "free, some-
times pointed, often blunt, and frequently rebellious."-" Critics sug-
gested several reasons why the Web
should
be judged as a less credible
source of information than traditional media: Anyone could post infor-
mation to the Web, and these sites created by indi\'iduals spouting
their views often appeared as credibte as those hosted by reliable
sources. Such sites lacked editoriat oversight and did not have the
professional and social pressures to provide accurate and unbiased
information.^' Also, the Internet was rife with rumors and misinforma-
tion, and severa! parody sites, which looked like official sites, sprouted
up on the Internet.^
However, the public, particularly Internet users, did not share
these fears. While some studies found that the Internet lagged behind
traditional media in terms of credibility,-^ most found Web information
just
as,
or
more,
credible.-' Many of these studies only examined Internet
users.
However, when studies compared users to nonusers, findings
indicated that those who relied on the Internet for news and information
were more likely to judge it as credible.-^
Clear lines have been drawn between blog users and traditional
journalists on the question of blog credibility. Critics advance the same
arguments made against the Internet in its earliest days. Anyone can
create a blog, and bloggers are not bound by ethical and professional
standards of trained journalists. Indeed, a leading blogger, Sean-Paul
Kelley of the Agonist, was accused of stealing information from a
subscription intelligenceserviceand posting
it to his
Web!og.-"Siniilarly,
bloggers are not bound by standarcis of objectivity; most have strong
views that they express openly. As Instapundit blogger Glenn Reynolds
says,
"A blog is a disclosure of the blogger's biases."-" Weblogs do not
undergo gatekeepijig or editing to cull misinformation, sharpen prose,
and ensure what is written is fair.-*^ Finally, many bioggers use pseud-
onyms such as Loco Parentis, Big Arm Woman, or No Watermelons,
making it difficult to judge the credibility of the information on their
site.^"
Blogs do rely, however, on peer review of other bloggers to point
out mistakes that can be easily and prominently corrected.^" Users may
find Webiogs more credible because they are independent rather than
controlled bycorporateiJiterests; bloggers may discuss issues traditional
media shy away from because they might hurt corporations.-''
Blogs
also
run stories from around the world that were unavailable or ignored by
traditional media.-*- Likepolitical talk radio
listeners,
then,
Weblog users
are likely to consider blogs a highly credible source of intormation.
Observers relate the rise
in
blogs to growing distrust and
d islike of
the traditional
media,-^-*
particularly after
9/11,
which saw the number
of
btogs increase due to the perception ttiat tradi tionat media coverage was
overly sympathetic to Arab nations and their peoples.-'"' Most bloggers
and their readers are conservative, viewing the media as liberal,'*-'' and
624
luUHNAUSM & M'lSS CoMWl

tend to see blogs as a new and better journalism that is opinionated,
independent, and personal,-''' While studies of traditional media suggest
that opinionated writing lowers credibility,•*' bioggers and blog
readers contend that Webtogs contain thoughtful analysis of the news
events missing from mainstream media.•'^ Bloggers and readers criticize
the media, and some sites, such as talkingpointsmemo.com,
buzzmachine.com, and asmailvictory.net, are devoted to critiquing me-
dia coverage. Bloggers and readers routinely fact check stories in tradi-
tional media and gieefuily point out errors.-*'*
Whiie bloggers and blog readers are critical of traditional media,
tiiey do not ignore them, instapundit's Reynolds notes that to be
a
critic
of the media means that you must pay attention to them. Because most
bloggers are not independent newsgatherers, they must rely heavily on
the Web for their content, and much of that comes from traditional
media. Also, btoggers often try to lend authority to their sites by provid-
ing links to traditional media sites.'"^'
Conversely, although journalists may perceive bloggers as
"waruiabe amateurs badly in need of some skills and editors," they
increasingly rely
on
blogs for story
tips,
information, and
access to
stories
from media throughout the world." Further, while many political blogs
are written by armchair observers spouting their
views,
many journalists
and some news organizations like MSNBC tiost tiieir own biogs.*^
Studies consistentty show that heavy media users judge
the
Internet
as higiiiy credibte. Indeed, traditionat media use in some studies is the
strongest predictor of Internet credibility."'-' Those who go online for
political news and information tend to be political junkies, iieavy users
of traditionat political sources of information such as CNN, Sunday
morning public affairs shows, and newsmagazines.''"' The Internet
supplements rather than replaces traditionat sources of potiticat infor-
mation."'^ Aiso, traditionat media users tend to be higtily media literate,
knowing what sources to trust and what to discard, and have learned
where to go online for credible news,"""
Studies of mainstream media suggest ttiat the more peopte rely on
ttie media for news and information, the more they will judge that
information as credible.''^ Similarly, people judge their preferred news
source as the most
credible.""**
Many studies examining Web credibility
also find that the more people go online the more credibte they rate the
information they find.
Greer*"
discovered thatamount of
time
online was
the strongest predictor of whether an ont ine medium would be judged
as credible. On the other hand, Johnson and
Kaye''"
discovered that for
botti potiticat and sports news, amount of Web use faited to predict
online credibility, a finding supported by others.'^' Johnson and Kaye
foutid that Internet users were not heavy users of traditional media and
speculated that because of their limited experience with traditional
media, they were not weil trained to judge which Internet sources are
credible.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that Internet use would predict
Weblog credibiiity. First, blog users are heavy Internet users,-'- Blog
Internet Use
aud Weblog
Credibility
: nn Bux:
625

users are likely to be media iiterate and know what sources they trust and
do not trust.
Blogs
With the exception of trust in the government, political variables
and Political have not proven strong predictors of online credibility. For instance,
.
. J Johnson and Kaye^^ foLind that political trtist was the second strongest
predictor of credibiiity of online newspaper and TV news, and strong
partisans tended to judge online media as believable.
Political attitudes may have little influence on online credibility
because studies suggest that online users, rather than being socially
isolated and apathetic, are politically interested'^"' and are more likely to
seek out information from the media than the general
public.'^"'
However,
researchers are split on whether they are more knowledgeable^ than the
average citizen. White trust in government initially was not a strong
predictor of credibility, it has emerged as a stronger influence as the
audience has become more mainstream and trust in government has
increased.^''
Political variables may have a limited effect on credibility judg-
ments of blog users because many are strong political activists. While
some Weblogs and blog readers lean toward the left, the blogospiiere is
predominately right of center, either conser\'ative or libertarian.'^''^ Blog
readers are also political junkies. Tlie American Domogrnphic survey
found that political sites were the second most visited type of Weblogs
behind personal or family blogs.'''^
Hlogs
ana studies of the Web offer conflicting findings about the influence
of
DeJnographics demographics on Web credibility. Earlier stud
ies
found that those who
judged the Internet as credible were, paradoxically, those who tended to
use the media the
least:
young females of lower education and income.''^'
Demographic influence, however, sometimes declined after controlling
for other factors.''' Some recent studies have also found fewer connec-
tions between demographics and credibility, particularly after control-
ling for other factors. Johnson and Kaye speculated that as the Web has
moved from being a bastion of young, white, wealthy, well-educated
males to one that is moredemographically mainstream, the influence of
demographics has deciined.''-
However, Flanagin and Metzger reported that men rated both
message and site credibility significantly higher than women.''^
Joimson and Kaye,*^ in a study of how oniine experience influenced
credibility judgments, found that demographics proved to be the stron-
gest predictor of credibility, with young men with lower education
rating the internet as less credible. The authors speculated that because
men had been online longer than women, spend more time online, and
engage in more activities, that experience may help them judge which
sites are credible and which ones are not. Demographics shouid predict
Weblog credibility because, like the Web in general during the n"iid-
1990s, the biogosphere is popuiated with younger wliite men of high
incomes.*"^
626
jauRNAU^M
&
MA'S
CoMVUNicAnoN
QuAPTT.m.Y

This study poses the following research questions:
RQl: TowhatdegreewillWeblogusersviewWeblogs
as a credible source of information?
RQ2:
Will Weblog users judge Weblogs as signifi-
cantly more credible than other online sources?
RQ3:
Will Weblog users judge Weblogs as signifi-
cantly more credibie than traditional sourcesof information?
RQ4:
Towhatdegreewillreiianceon Webiogs predict
Weblog credibiiity after controlling for demographics, po-
litical
attitudes,
interest and knowiedgeofnonpoli tical news,
as well as reliance on traditional and other online media?
Research
Questions
A
survey aimed at Weblog readers
was
posted online from
23
April
to 22 May
2003.
The survey was linked from 131 Weblogs of diverse
ideologies'^''and
14
Weblog-oriented bulletin boards/electronic mailing
tists.^^
Respondents atso teamed about the survey from announcements
sent to Weblog-oriented chat rooms and to bloggers who agreed to post
the survey
URL.
Additionally, a "snowball" technique was used where
respondents could automaticalty forward the survey to fettow btog
readers,''"
Generating a random sampte of Weblog users would be very
difficutt because there
is
no centrat registry of blog readers or any way to
identify them from Internet users who do not access Weblogs. Unlike
telephone and mail surveys, samples cannot be produced through
census lists or random digit-dialii"ig-type teclmiques sucti as random e-
mail generators.'''' Therefore, this study employs a convenience sample.
Atthougti thefindings cannot
be
generalized to Internet or Webtog users
as a whole, they do present a picture of the
3,747
survey respondents.
Dependent
Measures.
Media credibility is generally defined as the
worthiness of being believed, and it is often measured as a multidimen-
sional constructconsistingofbelie\'ability, accuracy, fairness, and depth
of information."" Respondents were asked to rate on a
5-point
scale
the degree of believability, fairness, accuracy, and depth of Webiogs.
The
5-point
scate ranged from "not at att" to "very" (believable, fair,
accurate, or in-depth). Scores were combined into a Weblog credibility
index (Cronbach's alpha = ,79).
Independent Measures.
Credibility
of
Traditional
and Onlhie
Sources.
Respondents were
asked to compare traditional and online media in terms of beiievability,
fairness, accuracy, and ciepth using the same
5-point
scaie. Respon-
dents marked their assessments of ti'aditionally delivered broadcast
television news, cable television news, newspapers, radio news, talk
radio,
and news magazines, and of the following online sources: broad-
cast television news sites, cable television news sites, newspaper sites.
Method
627

radio news sites, and news magazines sites. Scores were combined into
a credibility index for each traditional and online medium (alphas for
traditional media range from .87 to .92 and for online media from .83 to
.89).
Source
Rcliaiwe.
Past studies indicate that the credibility of a me-
dium or source of information is strongly related to reliance on a source.
Using
a
5-point
scaie ranging from "heavily rely on" to "don't rely a
tail,"
respondents assessed their levels of reliance on the same six traditional
media and five oniine sources.
Political
Attitudes. Respondents assessed their knowledge and
involvement in politics and in nonpolitical issues in relation to ti"ieir
Weblog use. Using a
5-point
scale ranging from "greatly increased"
to "greatiy decreased," respondents judged whether Weblogs influ-
enced their involvement in politics and their knowledge about political
and general news issues. Respondents also indicated their degree of in-
terest in politics, in general news, and in current events on a 0 to 10 scale.
Trust in the government was measured as a summated ijidex of
three items from the National Election Studies conducted by the Univer-
sity of Michigan: "Most of our leaders are devoted to service," "Politi-
cians never tell us what they really think," and "I don't tiilnk public
officials care much about what people like me think." The response
options for each attitude item ranged from "strongly disagree" (1) to
"strongly agree" (5). The polarity was reversed on the second and third
statements to create the index (alpha = .75).
Demographics.
Gender, age, income, and education data were also
coltected.
Data Analysis. First, frequencies were run on the Webtog, online
sources, and traditicmal media credibility indices. Second, paired Ntests
were calculated
to
compare the credibility of Weblogs to each online and
each traditionalty delivered mediimi. Lastty,hierarchicat regression was
conducted to examine whether retiance on Weblogs predicts credibility
of Weblogs after controlling for demograpiiics, political attitudes, gen-
eral news interest and knowledge, and reliance on traditional media and
online sources. The predictors were entered into the regression models
asblocks, with demographic variables entered first, followed by poli tical
and general news variables. Measures of reliance on traditional media
were entered third, followed bv reliance on online sources.
KesuitS
Respondent Profile. The online survey was completed by
3,747
respondents,"' Almost 9 out of 10 Weblog readers are white (89.3%),
and 76.5'X, are male. The respondents are highly educated, with 92.6'^
reporting some college or higher, and 41.8'I<> earning more than $65,001
per year.
Just over half
(52.5"/^))
credit Webiogs with increasing their levels
of
political invoivement. Almost 9 out of 10 claim that they have become
more knowledgeable about politics (87.3'''1O and about general news and
current events (88.7'^) since they started reading
Weblogs.
Almost three-
quarters of the respondents are very interested in politics (64.9%) and
general news and current events (67,8%), They are politically interested
b2o

•I
'.-T^^r
TABLE 1
Perceptions of Credibility and Depth of
Webiogs
and Traditional and Online Sources
Weblogs Believable
Not at ail/not very... 5.9
Somewhat,,. 34.5
Moderately/very.... 59,6
(Mean Scores as percentages)
Weblogs Fair Weblogs Accurate
(W=3,680) (N=3,679)
Not at all/not very,,, 22.7 Not at all/not very,. 10.4
Somewhat... 38-9 Somewhat... 39,8
Moderately/very.... 38.4 Moderately/very.,,, 49.8
Weblogs Depth
(N=3,663)
Not at all/not very...9.4
Somewhat,.. 18,4
Moderately/very..,. 72.2
Weblogs {W-3,659)
Not at all/not very.,.
Somewhat...
Moderately/very,...
Online Broadcast Television (N=3,518)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat...
Moderately/very,...
Online Cable Television
(JV=368)
Not at all/not very.-.
Somewhat...
Moderately/very....
Online Newspapers (N-3,574)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat.,,
Moderately/very....
Online News Magazines (N=3,398)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat..,
Moderately/very.,..
Online Radio News (N=3,154)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat,..
Moderately/very....
Credibility
(Mean Scores
as percentages)
03.5
22,9
73.6
29.0
50.2
20.8
16.3
46.3
47.4
15.8
41.5
42.7
18.2
45.8
36.0
26.7
58.7
14.6
Credibility
(Mean Scores
as percentages)
Broadcast Television News (iV=3,578)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat...
Moderately/very..,.
41.5
43.7
14.8
Cable Television News (W=3,55i)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat...
Moderately/very....
Newspapers (N=3,583)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat..,
Moderately/very,...
News Magazines (W=3,484)
Not at all/not very,..
Somewhat...
Moderately/very...
Radio News (N=3,392)
Not at all/not very...
Somewhat..,
Moderately/very....
Talk Radio (N=3,375)
Not at all/not very...
Somewhat,..
Moderately/very....
19.1
45.9
35.0
13,0
40,5
46,5
14.2
42,1
43,7
23,0
51,0
26,0
39.4
36.5
24,1
and knowledgeable, but oniy moderately trusting of government.
Slightly less than one-half (47%) report high to very high levels of trust
in the government,
30.9%
are moderately trustful, and
22.1%.
claim low
to very low degrees of trust.
Respondents have been online for just over
7
1/2 years, spending
about
9.1
hours per week interacting with bloggers, reading comments,
and following
links to
additional information, and have been doing so for
1 year and 9 months on average, which coincides with the post 9/11
popularity surge of
Weblogs.
Additionally,
64.5%
seek information from
629

what they consider conservative or very conservative Weblogs, whereas
only 16.3% turn to liberal or very liberal Weblogs, and the remaining
20,2"/i>
look for more moderate information. The demographic profile of
the respondents and the types of Weblogs they visit closely mirror
Weblog reader profiles reported by others."-
Credibility of
Online
and Traditional Sources.
Weblogs.
RQl asks aboutthe credibility ofWeblogs. Aimost three-
quarters
(73.6%)
of Webiog readers view Weblogs
as
moderately
to
very
credible and only
3.5%
consider them "not at all" or "not very credible"
(Table
1).
When the credibiiity index is broken into its four components
(believable, fair, accurate, depth), depth of information emerges as a
Weblog's strongest attribute; 72.2'}o of respondents thinly of Weblogs as
"moderately" to "very" in-depth sources of information. Weblogs are
judged moderately to very believable by 59.6'Ki. Blog users seem to
acknowledge that accuracy of Weblogs may be questionable; 50.2'/u
consider them "somewhat" or "not very" accurate. Additionally, re-
spondents seem aware of Weblog biases with 61.6'/o claiming that
Webiogs are "somewhat" or "not \'ery" fair.
Online Media
Sites.
Weblog readers rated online newspapers the
most credible ofonline media, although
all
onlinesources were generally
thought of as only "somewhat" credible. However, only 42.7% rate
online newspapers as "moderately" or "very" credible. Online radio
news
si tes
and broadcast television sites were judged as the least cred ible
with
26.7%
and 29.0'!{i, respectively, considering them as "not very" or
"not at
al!
credibie."
Traditional
Media.
Traditional media do not fare much better.
Printed newspapers and news magazines had the highest percentage
of
respondents rating them as moderately to very credible sources,
46.5"/o
and
43.7'!''..,
respectively; however, both had an almost equal percentage
rating them as "somewhat" credible. Generally, Weblog users view
traditional media as only "somewhat" credible.
Weblogs Compared to Online Media Sites. RQ2 asked whether
respondents view Weblogs as more credible (M=14.3) than otiier
online soiu'ces. Paired sample /-tests were used for comparisons.
Weblogs were more credible than any other online source: online
broadcast television (/=54.5, d.f.^3,496, /?<.OO1), online cable television
news ((=38,0, d.f.=3,539, /K.OOI), online newspapers (/=28.6, d.f,=3,548,
p<.001), online news magazines (/=34.7, d.f.=3,376, /x.OOl), and online
radio news (/=52,4, d,f.=3,332, ^x.OOl). Online broadcast television
and online radio news have the lowest mean (M-10.3, M=10.4, respec-
tively) credibility scores, whereas online newspapers had the highest
(M=12.0).
Weblogs Compared to Traditional Media. RQ3 involved comparing
Weblogs
to
traditionally delivered media, Weblogs were judged signifi-
cantly more credible than any traditional medium: broadcast television
newsV=63.5,
d.f,=3,549,;'<.0Q
1),
cable
television news (f=39,9,
d.f.=3,521,
^<,001),
newspapers
(1=25.2,
d.f.=3,554,/!<.001), news magazines (f=27.9,
d.f.=3,455,
/K.OOI),
radio news (f^44.9, d.f.=3,366,
p<.Om),
and talk radio
(f^61.2,d.f.=3,352,;j<.001). Broadcast television (M=9.4) and over-the-air
talk radio (M=9.8) are the two least credible traditional sources and
JOUKNAUSM& MAS!:
CoftlMUNICrKTION
QilAKTLKLY

FIGURE 1
Credibility of Traditionally Delivered Information Sources vs. Online Counterparts
16.0
14.0
12.0
10,0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2,0
0.0
.#•
Source
newspapers (M-ii.Ji} and newsmagazmes [M^ll.2) the most credible
(Figure 1).
Predictors of Weblog Credibility. RQ4 asks whether Weblog
credibility can be predicted by Weblog reliance after controlling for
reliance on traditional media and other online sources, and political
attitudes, general news interest and knowledge, and demographics.
Even after controlling for other variables, reliance on Weblogs is a
strong positive and significant predictor of perceptions of Weblog cred-
ibility (Table 2). The more users rely on Weblogs, the higher their
assessments of
credibility.
Reliance on Webiogs explains between
12,7'/LI
and 14.6"XJ of the perceptions of Webtog credibility.
Reliance on five of the six traditional media and on tlie online
sources also significantly, but weakly, predicts Webiog credibility; how-
ever, all but two of those relationships were negative, i^eiiance on
traditional media accounts for an additional
.1'%)-
1.8'/oof
the variance,
and reliance on online sources for an additional 1%.
Political involvement, political knowledge, politicai interest, and
generai news knowledge are weak, but consistent, predictors of Weblog
credibility, but general news interest
is
not. Trust in government is aiso
a weak, but significant, predictor. Tbe political and generai news
variables, however, explain
a
greater percentage of
the
variability (about
'\5%)
than do the online and traditional reliance measures and about the
sameamountas the Weblog reliance
variables.
None of the demographic
variables predicts Weblog credibility.
Reliance on Broadcast Television and Online Broadcast Television
Websites.
Perceptions of Weblog credibility are significantly, but nega-
tively and weakly, predicted by reliance on broadcast television
news Cf[11,3370] - 64,44, /x.OOl) and their online counterparts
631

TABLE 2
Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Reliance
Variables
as
Predictors
of Weblog Credibility
f'redictor Variables Weblog Weblog Weblog Weblog Weblog Weblog
Credibility Credibility Credibility Credibility Credibility Credibility
Demographics
Gender
Age
lid II cation
Income
.03
.01
-.02
.03
,03
,01
-.02
,03
.03
.00
-,00
.03
.02
.02
-,02
.03
.03
.01
-.01
.03
.02
.01
-.02
.03
R- .006
Political Measures
Political Involvement
.06'"*
Political Knowledge
,11*"
General News Knowledge
,06"**
Political Interest
,04*
General News Interest
.01
Trust
,06*"
R' ,156
R-Change
,150'*
Reliiince Tr.iditional Media
Broadcast TV News
Gable TV News
Newspapers
Radio
Talk Radio
News Magazine.s
R-
R- Chnnge
Reliance Online Media
-.05'*
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
,174
,018'
Online Broadcast
TV
News
Online Gable
TV
News
Oniine Newspapers
Online Radio
Online News Magazines
Reliance
on
Weblogs
R-
K^Glnnge
Adjusted
R
Significance
-.07**-
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
,178
,004"
,40*'*
.305
.127"
.302
.000
.006
.006
,006
.006
,006
.05**
.12*"
.06'"
.05"
,00
.06"'
.156
.150"*
N/A
.05"
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
.156
,000
N/A
-.06'--
N/A
N/A
N/A
.160
.004'"
.41"*
,29S
.138"*
.295
.000
.05"
.12***
.05**
.05"
.02
.06*'*
,154
.148'**
N/A
N/A
-.04'
N/A
N/A
N/A
.164
.010***
N/A
N/A
-.i2**-
N/A
N/A
.175
.011**'
.41'"
.310
,146***
.307
,000
.05"
.11*"
.07**"
.04"
.00
.06**'
.155
.149*"
N/A
N/A
N/A
-.00
N/A
N/A
.156
.001*
N/A
N/A
N/A
-.06"'
N/A
,161
.005***
.41-**
.2^7
.136'"
.293
.000
.05**
,11"*
.06***
,04*
,00
,05**
.155
.149'"
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
.09'"
N/A
.161
,006***
N/A
N/A
N/A
-,08'"
N/A
.171
.010*"*
,40*"
,303
.132"*
.300
.000
.05**
,11"'
,06***
.05*'
.00
.06***
.155
.149***
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
-,04*
.156
.001'
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
-,05**
,157
.001'
.41"'
,298
.141*"
.295
.000
{F[12,3369] = 60,76, ;K.OO1). The less Weblog users rely on broadcast
television news and broadcast news Websites (/i--.O5,
p<.01;
b--.O7,
;j<.001),
the more they rely on Weblogs and, tbus, the higher they rate
Weblog credibility.
632
&
MJ\SS

ReliancconCableTelevisionNewsandOnlineCableTelevision
Websites.
Reliance on cable television news significantly, but weakly, predicts
credibility of Weblogs (F|l
1,3374]
= 56.85, /x.OOl) (/'=.Q5, ;K.O1). The
more a Weblog reader relies on cable television news the higher the
credibility ofWeblogs. Conversely,
less
reliance on cable television news
sites leads to perceptions of Weblog credibility
(b=~.O6,
p<.Ql).
Those
Weblog readers who view Weblogs as credible are more likely to watch
cable television news than to connect to cable television news online
(F[12,3373]=
53,49,
;><,00J).
Reliance
on
Newspapers
ami Online
Newspapers.
Reliance on both
printed and online newspapers predicts Weblog credibility (F[n,3381]
=
60.40,
/J<,001;
(F|12,33801
=
59.70,
/K.OOI),
respectively. Less reliance on
newspapers
(/'=-.O4,
;?<.O5)
and their online sites
(b=-.l2,
p<.001) leads to
higher Webkig credibility.
Reliance on Radio
Nezvs,
Talk
Radio,
and Radio Nezvs
Sites.
Over-the-
air talk radio is a significant and positive predictor
(i7=.O9,
p<.OQl).
The
greater the reliance on talk radio, the higher the Weblog credibility.
Online radio news, on the other hand, is a significant but negative
predictor{/'--.08,/;<.001), Weblog users who rely on talk radio but not on
onlineradio Websites for news and information are more likely
to
judge
Weblogs as highly credible (f [12,3362] =
57.91,
p<.00]). Reliance on
broadcast radio news
is the
only medium, traditional or online, that
is
not
a significant predictor.
Relianceon Nezi's Magazinesand OnliiwNews
Magazines.
Reliance
on
both print and online news magazines significantly, but negatively and
weakly, predicts Weblog credibility
(b=-.O4,
p<.05;
b=-.O5,
p<.01,
respec-
tively).
Weblog readers with low levels of reliance on news magazines
are more likely to rate Webiogs as highly credible (F[12,3371] =
52.51,
This
study surveyed Weblog users online
to
discover how credible
they viewed blogs and how judgments of Weblog credibility compare to
traditional and online media sources. This study also explored the
degree to which reliance on Weblogs, as well as traditional and online
media sources, predicts Weblog credibility.
Almost three-quarters of respondents view Weblogs as moder-
ately to very credible and only 3.5% rate them not at all or not very
credible. An important reason users say they rely on blogs is because
they provide more depth and more thoughtful analysis than
is
available
in other
media.''-'
On the other hand, fewer than four in ten thought blogs
were fair. However, while fairness may be considered a hallmark of
traditional journalism, bias is likely seen as a virtue by blog users. The
majority rate themselves
as
conservative and almost two-thirds said they
sought information from conservative or very conservative sites. Blog
readers are seeking out information to support their views and are likely
to consider conservative information they receive from blogs as highly
credible.
Users view blogs as a new and better form of journalism than the
mainstream media, one that
is
opinionated, analytical, independent, and
633

personal.'''* Not surprisingly, then, Weblog users judged blogs as
significantly more credible than other media. However, this does not
mean that bloggers do not consider some mainstream media credible.
The plurality considered both online and traditional newspapers, tradi-
tional news magazines, and online cable television news as moderately
to very credible and both online news magazines and traditional cable
television news also recorcied moderate credibility scores. These ratings
for print media and cable television were similar
to
those found
in a
study
of politically interested Internet users.''^ The moderate scores for print
media and cable news may reflect
bloggers'
and blog readers' paradoxi-
cal attitude toward traditional media. They may distrust the media, but
bloggers link to media sites and pay attention to media content, even if
only to hunt for mistakes and look for what they consider bias.
Weblog reliance was the only strong predictor of Weblog credibil-
ity. These results parallel studies of traditional media thnt the more one
uses a medium, the more credible one judges it.'*" Amount of reliance
may also be a strong predictor of Weblog credibility because media
consumers determine the credibility of a source by using various cues
such as reputation of the medium and style of delivery.^ For newbies,
Weblogs may not appear credible. Most are a series of short journal
entries with links to other information; they do not
look
like traditional
media. Furthermore, thepersonal, opinionated writing style that attracts
blog users may put off some newcomers used to the more balanced,
disinterested writing
style
of traditional media.
Finally,
whiie traditional
media claim tobe nonbiascd, most news Weblogs make no apologies for
being conservative, liberal, or libertarian. Visiting blog^ of a different
political stripe than one's own may be particularly off putting fora new
user. But as the user finds
a
blog with views matching
his
or her own and
adjusts to the style of reporting, subsequent greater use of the blog may
mean he or she will judge it credible.
Past studies have found that reliance on traditional media consis-
tently is the strongest predictor of online credibility. This study found
that both online and traditional media reliance were weak predictors of
Weblog credibility. More important, most relationships were negative,
meaning that those who rely little on traditional media are more likely to
view blogs as credible.
Past studies have found that the internet has served as a supple-
ment to traditional information for news and information.'" Internet
users are news junkies who judge online and traditional sources as
equally credible and rely on both to survey the news environment.
However, blog users distrust traditional media and see Weblogs as a
viable alternative.
However, the more blog readers use talk radio, the more credible
they view Weblogs, even though blog users did not rate talk radio as
highly
credible,
hi many
ways,
Weblogs are online versions of talk radio.
Talk show listeners can talk directly to talk show hosts or guests;"''
Weblog users can either
e-mail
the blog host directly or post comments
to the blog. Both blogs and talk radio are dominated by conservative
hosts who openly attack political opponents and what they perceive as
liberal press coverage.^" Blog users may trust information they receive
634

from Weblogs because they believe the hosts do not hide their biases.^'
Similarly, while blog readers praise Weblogs for their depth of coverage,
talk radio also is applauded by its users for depth.*^^ While early studies
suggested that talk radio listeners were socially isolated and politically
alienated,"-* later studies presented talk radio listeners as politically
interested and active, with high levels of political involvement and
political knowledge,^* but low levels of trust in government."-^ This
study's Weblog users also were politically interested, invoived, active,
and knowledgeable, but with only moderate trust in government. Fur-
thermore, these variables positively, though weakly, predicted credibil-
ity ofWeblogs.
Weblog credibility was also positively, though weakly, predicted
by cable television use. Blog users who tire of the so-called liberal
leanings of broadcast news may be taking shelter
in
cable networks such
as Fox who have aligned themselves on the right end of the political
spectrum."''
The study has limitations, ofcourse. Reaching the small popula-
tion of Internet users who have visited blogs is a challenge because
traditional methodsof data collection do not readily apply
to
the Internet.
Though posting a siir\'ey online is recognized as an effective method of
collecting data, limitations arise from the lack of random selection. This
study relied on a self-selected convenience sampie, and, therefore, re-
sults cannot be generaiized to the Internet as a whole or even to blog
users.
As Babbie noted, however, in situations where random probabil-
ity sampling is not possible, nonprobability sampling is acceptable.''"
The Internet
is
conducive
to
purposive sampling,
as
sLibsets
witi-iin
the larger population of users can be identified and solicited through
announcements posted on message boards, sent out to special mailing
lists,
and through hyperlinks posted on key online sites, as employed
here.**"
Careful use of this type of purposive sampling generates results
that may be representative of
a
specific subset of Internet users, but not
the larger population.""* Still, the demographic profile of the Weblog
readers wiio responded to this study and the types of Webiogs they \'isit
closely mirror the Weblog reader profiles reported by others.™
This study suggested that demographically, Weblog users re-
sembled early Internet users: white males with high incomes and high
levels of education. Past research indicates that
as
Internet users became
more representative of the demographic mainstream, credibility scores
for online and traditional media
rose.
Future studies could find if Webiog
users follow a similar trend, or whether blog readers remain a distinct
group of hiternet users who maintain their dislike and distrust of the
traditional media.
NOTES
1.
Barb Palser, "journalistic Blogging,"
American journalism Review
24
(July/August
2002):
58;
Catherine
Seipp,
"Online
Uprising,"/\/J/!T/<77H
journalism
Rcviczi'
24 (June
2002):
42-47.
2,
Anick Jesdanun, "In Online Logs, Web Authors Personalize At-
WAC.IIIFBI.IX:
635

tacks.
Retaliation,"T/ic
Florida
Times-iluion, http://www.Jacksonville,
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"Weblogs Offer Forum for Attack Reactions," USA Today, http://
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ber
2001.
3.
Maureen Ryan, "Blogs'RiseStymiesOld Media,"
C/;/mx"
•'"''''"""''
http://www.chicago,tribune.com,
17
April
2003,
4.
Hope Cristol, "News in the Digital Age,"
Futurist
36 (September
2002):
8-9; Blake Carver, "What Would Dewey Do? Librarians Grapple
with Internet,"
Library journal
128 (winter 2003): 30-32; Seipp, "Online
Uprising."
5.
Miriam
j.
Metzger, Andrew J, Flanagin, Keren Eyal, Daisy 1^.
Lemus, and Robert McCann, "Credibility for the 21st Century: Integrat-
ing Perspectives on Source, Message and Media Credibility in the Con-
temporary Media Environment," in
Comnnuiication Yearbook
27, ed.
Pamela
J
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NJ:
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7.
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&
American Life Project, "Internet Activities." At
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5%
of Internet users had visited blogs (David
Whelan, "ln
a Fog
About Blogs,"/4;Mf//f(7;;
D(';;;(\i^'ra/)/jic';
25
[July/August
2003]:
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Lee Rainie, Susannah Fox, and'Deborah Fallows, "The
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Views," available at http://www.pewinternet.org/reports.
8. Ryan, "Blogs' Rise Stymies."
9. Scott Rosenberg, "Much Ado About Blogging," http://
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2003;
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10.
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http://www.usatoday.com/webguide/internctlife, 8July2003;Pejman
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11.
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12.
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636

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23.
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25.
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27.
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28.
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29.
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31.
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34.
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35.
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A
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41.
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Mass Communication
&
Society
6 (winter
2003):
11-28.
50.
Thomas.
J.
Johnson and Barbara K. Kaye, "The World Wide Web
of Sports: A Patli Model Examining How Online Gratifications and
Reliance Predict Credibility of Online Sports Information (paper pre-
sented at the annual meeting of AEjMC, Kansas City, August 2003);
Johnson and Kaye, "Webelievability."
51.
Kiousis, "Public Trust or Mistrust?"
52.
Levy, "Will the Blogs Kill Old Media?"
53.
Jolinson and Kaye, "Webelievability."
54.
Thomas J. Johnson and Barbara K. Kaye, "A Boost or Bust for
Democracy?: How the
Web
Influenced Political Attitudes and Behaviors
in the
1996
and
2000
Presidential Elections,"
Harvard international journal
of
Press/Politics
8 (summer 2003): 9-34; Thomas P. Boyle, "Web and
Traditional Media Use in the2000 Presidential Election (paper presented
at the annual meeting of the AEJMC, Washington, DC, August 2001);
Erik P. Bucy, Paul D'Angelo, and John E. Newhagen, "The Engaged
Electorate: New Media Use as Political Participation," in
The Electronic
Election Perspectives on 1996 Campaign Communication, ed. Lynda Lee
Kaid and Dianne G. Bystrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ-
ates),
335-47; Thomas J. Johnson and Barbara K. Kaye, "A Vehicle for
Engagement or a Haven for the Disaffected?: Internet Use, Political
Alienation and Voter Participation," in
Engaging the
Public:
Hozv Coz'erih
ment and the Media Can Reiiwigorate American
Democraci/,
ed, Thomas J.
Johnson, Carol E. Hays, and Scott P. Hays (Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield, 1998), 123-35; Thomas J. Johnson and Barbara K, Kaye,
"Democracy's Rebirth or Demise? The Influence of the Internet on
Political
Attitudes,"
in It's
Shoiv
Time!Media,
Politics,
and
Popular
Culture,
ed.
David
A.
Schultz
(New
York:
Peter
Lang,
2000),
209-228.
55.
Kevui
A
Hill
and
John
E.
Hughes,
Cyberpolitics:
Citizen Actiznsm
hi
WAami.Bur.
639

tiie Age
ofthe
Internet
(Laniiam, MD: Rowman & Littlefield,
1998);
John
Katz, "The Digital Citizen,"
Wired.
December 1997, 274-75.
56.
David Tewksbury and Scott L. Alhaus, "Differences in Knowl-
edge Acquisition among Readers of the Paper and Online Versions of
a
National Newspaper,"
journalism
& Mass
Coiinnunication Quarterly
77
(autumn
2000):
457-79.
57. Johnson and Kaye, "WebeliL'\'ability."
58.
John
Leo,
"A Blog's Bark has a
Bite,"
U.S.
Nezvs & World
Report,
13
May 2002,
48;
Steve Levy, "Living in the Blog-osphere,"
Newsweek,
26
August 2002,
42-25;
Seipp, "Online Uprising."
59.
Wheian, "In a Fog About Blogs."
60.
Johnson and Kaye, "Cruising is Believing?"
61.
Johnson and Kaye, "Using is Believing."
62.
Johnson and Kaye, "Webelievability."
63.
Andrew
J.
Flanagin and Miriam
J.
Metzger, "Tlie Perceived Cred-
ibility of Personal Web Page Information as Influenced by the Sex of the
Source,"
Computers
in
Human Behavior
19
(2003):
6S3-701.
64.
Thomas J. Johnson and Barbara K, Kaye, "For Whom the Web
Toils:
How Internet Experience Predicts Web Reliance and Credibility,"
Atlantic journal of Communication
12
(1,
2004):
19-45,
65.
"Reader Demographics," http://www.andrewsuilivan.com;
Wheian, "hi
a Fog
About
Blogs";
Rainie,
Fox and Fallows, "The Internet
and the Iraq War,"
66.
Weblogs - 2020hindsight, Ackackackcom, Across Atlantic,
Africapundit, Agonist, Alphecca, Altercation, Alternet, Amish Tecli
Support,Amishblogmo,AndrewOlmsted, AndrewSuIlivan,Apostablog,
Atlanticblogcom, Atriosblogspotcom, Bag & Baggage, Balloon Juice,
Baseball Musings, Behoid,blogspot, Biasbiogfodder, BlissfulKnowledge,
Blogdex, Bloglogic, Blogosphere, Blogs Of War, Give Blogs4god,
Blogtporg/K, Boingboingnet, BryonScott, Buck Stops Here, Cnn,com,
Coid Fury, ComeOn, CoranteOnBlogging, Corantec, Corner On NRO,
Counterrevolutionary,CraigsChamp,Crblogspot,CriticalMass, CutOn
Bias,
Daily Dish, Daily Pundit, Daniel Drezner, Davespickscom,
Daypopcom,Dead ParrotSociety, Dean Esmay, DocSearls,Docweblogs,
DrudgeReport, Erablognet, Erin
O'Connor,
Ever Changing Select,
Eyndenloo, Fark, Fat Guy, FreeRepublic, Geek-Chick, Glenn Reynolds,
Goatsec, Greenfield, HanlonVision, Hierogrammate, HighClcar, Hoder,
HomeiessGuy,HoosierReview, HPANA,HLuinet, idleType, lhodercoin,
Instapundit, JdLasica,JD New Media Musings, Jeff Cooper, Jessica'sWell,
JoanneJacobs,JonahGoidberg,JoshClaybourne,Journalsp,Jsnotesblogs,
Leftcoastblog, Leuschke, LGF, Light Of Reason, Like A Hooligan's, LA
Livejounial, Lucianne, Matwyglesias.com, Mediaticblog, Melblogger,
Metafilter, Metapop, Midwest Conservative, MouseMiisings, MSNBC,
National Review, Newsweek,com. No. 2, Pencil, Ogloboc, OnBias,
Parduedur, Pattern Recognition, Popdex, Post-Atomic, Poweriine,
RachaelLucas, RealCIearPolitics, Rebecca Blood, Resurrections,
Ritingonwall, Rjwest.com, Sassafrass, Seaofkitt, Shellen.com, Siiflay,
Hraka, Slate, Slings and Arrows, SouthKnoxBubba, Suzanna Cornett,
Tacitus, Tapped, Tim Blair, Uncorrelated,com, Unqualified Offering,
Volokh Conspiracy, Warblogs, Winds Of Change, Zogbyblogspot.com.
640
joiiRNAiiiM
&
MASS
CoMMuMc-sn

67.
Bulletin Boards/Electronic Mailing Lists
-
Bloggingcommunity®
Yahoo, Colorado Bloggers, Comp.Dcom.Telecom, Dfwblogs, Lds-
PoIl@Yahoogroups.Com, Pinoybloggers, Salon Blogs Group,
Telecomdigest, Theblosxom,Val-L, Webiogdeveloperusergroup,
Weblogemailgroup, Weblogusersgroup, Yahoogroups-SyndicS
68.
EarlBabbie,Sjfrffi/Rcsa7rc/iMt'f/itirfs(Belmont:Wadsworth,2001).
69.
Barbara K. Kaye and Thomas J, Johnson, "Taming the Cyber
Frontier: Techniques for Improving Online Surveys,"
Social Science
C('f»-
;MiftTRa'/ra'17(fali
1999):
323-37;
James Witte and Philip
E,
N. Howard,
"The Future of Polling: Relational hiference and the Development of
Internet Sur\'ey Instruments," in
Navigating Public
Opiiiioii:
Polis,
Policy
and the
Future of
American
Democracy,
ed, Jeff
Manza,
F.
Loniax Cook, and
Benjamin I. Page (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
70.
CecilieGazianoand Kristin McGrath, "Measuring the Concept
of
Credibiiity," journalism Quarterly 63 (autumn 1986): 451-62; Philip
Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Develop-
ing an Index,"
journalism Quarterly 65
(fall
1988):
567-74;
John Newhagen
and Clifford Nass, "Differential Criteria for Evaluating Credibility of
Newspapers and TV News,"
journalism Quarterly
66 (summer 1989):
277-84.
71.
Thesurvey'sfirstquestion asked respondents
to
enter their
e-mail
addresses; 3,311 (88.4%) complied. The respondents'
e-mail
addresses
together with their Internet Protocol (IP) addresses (programmed to
appear on every completed survey) wore used to delete duplicated
surveys. Additionally, after sending the completed survey a Web page
would immediately appear thanking the respondents for their participa-
tion and verifying that the survey had been sent so respondents would
not retransmit the survey.
72.
Rainie, Fox, and Fallows, "The Internet and the Iraq War"; Levy,
"Living in the Blog-osphere"; Seipp, "Online Uprising."
73.
Lasica, "Weblogs"; Ryan, "Blogs' Rise Stymies."
74.
Wall, "'Blogs over Baghdad."
75.
Johnson and Kaye, "Webelievability."
76.
Austin and Dong, "Source v. Content Effects"; Wanta and Hu,
"The Effects of Credibility"; Johnson and Kaye, "Using is Believing";
Johnson and Kaye, "Cruising is Believing?"
77. Tewksbury and Althaus, "Differences in Knowledge Acquisi-
tion"; Flanagin and Metzger, "Perceptions of Internet Information Cred-
ibility,"
78.
Kaye and Johnson, "From Here to Obscurity?"
79.
Page,
Who Deliberates?
80.
Katz, "The Plugged-in Voter"; Owen, "Talk Radio and Evalua-
tions of President Clinton,"
81.
Davis, "Understanding Broadcast Political Talk."
82.
Owen, "Talk Radio and Evaluations of President Clinton."
83.
C. Richard Hofstetter, Mark C, Donovan, Melville R. Klauber,
Alexandra Cole, Carolyn J. Huie, and Toshiyuki Yuasa, "Political Talk
Radio: A Stereotype Reconsidered,
"Politieal Research Quarterly A7
(June
1994):
467-79.
84.
Johnson, Braima, and Sothirajah, "Doing the Traditional Media

Sidestep"; James B. Lemert, "The Audience for Candidate'Talk Show,'"
in The
Politics
of Disenchantment, ed, William L. Rosenberg and James M.
Bernstein (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1996), 73-100; Stephen Earl
Bennett, "Political Talk Radio Shows' Impact on Democratic Citizen-
ship,"
in Engaging the
Public:
How Government and the Media
Can
Reinvigo-
mftMf»(T/b7j;D[')i;(jr)V!(.-i/,ed. Thomas J.Johnson, Carol E. Hays, and Scott
P.
Hays (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1998), 111-
21;
Hofstetter et a!., "Political Talk Radio."
85.
Barry A, Hollander, "Fuel to the Fire: Talk Radio and theGamson
Hypothesis," Political Communication 14 (July 1997): 355-70.
86.
Pefer Johnson, "Fox News Enjoys New View-From the Top,"
USA Today, 5 April 2002, sec, A, p, 1, 2.
87.
Babbie, Survey
Research
Methods.
88.
Kaye and Johnson, "Taming the Cyber Frontier,"
89.
Babbie, Survey
Research
Metiiods.
90.
Rainie, Fox, and Fallows, "The Internet and the Iraq War"; Levy,
"Living in the Blog-osphere"; Seipp, "Online Uprising."
642
JOLIRK.MJSM
&
MASf CtlMWIt^lCAIICN
QUAKTEKW