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Nutrition, Anabolism, and the Wound Healing
Process: An Overview
Robert H. Demling, MD
Harvard Medical School, Burn and Trauma Center, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA
Correspondence: rhdemling@partners.org
Published February 3, 2009
Objective: To develop a clear, concise, and up-to-date treatise on the role of anabolism
from nutrition in wound healing. Special emphasis was to be placed on the effect of
the stress response to wounding and its effect. Methods: A compilation of both the
most important and most recent reports in the literature was used to also develop the
review. The review was divided into sections to emphasize specific nutrition concepts of
importance. Results: General and specific concepts were developed from this material.
Topics included body composition and lean body mass, principles of macronutritional
utilization, the stress response to wounding, nutritional assessment, nutritional support,
and use of anabolic agents. Conclusions: We found that nutrition is a critical component
in all the wound healing processes. The stress response to injury and any preexistent
protein-energy malnutrition will alter this response, impeding healing and leading to
potential severe morbidity. A decrease in lean body mass is of particular concern as
this component is responsible for all protein synthesis necessary for healing. Nutritional
assessment and support needs to be well orchestrated and precise. The use of anabolic
agents can significantly increase overall lean mass synthesis and directly or indirectly
improves healing by increasing protein synthesis.
Optimum nutrition is well recognized to be a key factor in maintaining all phases
of wound healing. There are 2 processes that can complicate healing. One is activation
of the stress response to injury, and the second is the development of any protein-energy
malnutrition (PEM).
Any significant wound leads to a hypermetabolic and catabolic state, and nutritional
needs are significantly increased. The healing wound depends on adequate nutrient flow
(Fig 1). Of particular concern is the presence of any PEM, PEM being defined as a deficiency
of energy and protein intake to meet bodily demands. PEM in the presence of a wound leads
to the loss of lean body mass (LBM) or protein stores, which will in and of itself impede
the healing process. Early aggressive nutrient and micronutritional feeding is essential to
control and prevent this process from developing. PEM is commonly seen in the chronic
wound population, especially the elderly, disabled, or chronically ill populations where
chronic wounds tend to develop.
1–5
Hunter, in 1954, followed by Culbertson and Moore, identified the fact that a wound be-
ing a threat to human existence takes preference for the available nutrients to heal, especially
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Figure 1. Balance between adequacy of macronutrients and net anabolism and catabolism and
its impact on wound healing.
amino acids, at the expense of the host LBM.
6–8
This process leads to an autocannibalism
of available LBM to obtain the necessary amino acids for the required protein synthesis in
the wound. If inadequate intake is present to keep up with needs, then PEM can develop. If
inadequate glucose is available for the healing wound, proteins will break down into amino
acids and through the alanine shunt lead to glucose synthesis by the liver. However, with
severe losses of LBM, the host takes preference over the wound.
9–13
This entire process is the result of the activation of the “stress response” to injury
or wounding with its hormonal imbalance favoring body protein catabolism for substrate,
needed for protein synthesis. There is also increased metabolic or calorie demand.
9–13
There is a fundamental difference between the adequate intake seen in the unstressed
patient and one where trauma or infection has activated the host stress response.
14,15
Starva-
tion alone produces a self-protective hormonal environment, which spares LBM with more
than 90% of calories obtained from fat.
14–16
To optimize healing, a substrate that is more dependent on intake than on the bodily
breakdown of protein needs to be available. Chronic wounds are more complicated because
the biology of the healing process is significantly altered. However, a stress response is
activated with any wound and any existing PEM will accentuate the already poor healing
process.
17–19
For the above reasons, one cannot dissociate the normal process of healing
from the nutritional status.
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Table 1. Conditions associated with development of protein-energy malnutrition
Catabolic illness, “the stress response,” eg, trauma, surgery, wounds, infection, corticosteroids
Involuntary weight loss exceeding 10% of ideal, for any reason
Chronic illnesses, eg, diabetes, cancer, mental impairment, arthritis, renal failure
Wounds, especially chronic
Increase in nutritional losses; open wounds, enteral fistulas
Intestinal-tract diseases impairing absorption
BODY COMPOSITION AND LBM
Components of body composition
To better understand the impact or erosion of LBM and the normal or abnormal utilization of
protein and fat for fuel, a general understanding of normal body composition is required
19–
21
(Table 1).
Body composition can be divided into a fat and a fat-free component or LBM. LBM
contains all of the body’s protein content and water content, making up 75% of the normal
body weight. Every protein molecule has a role in maintaining body homeostasis. Loss of
any body protein is deleterious. The majority of the protein in the LBM is in the skeletal
muscle mass. LBM is 50% to 60% muscle mass by weight.
It is the loss of body protein, not fat loss, that produces the complications caused by
involuntary weight loss. Protein makes up the critical cell structure in muscle, viscera, red
cells, and connective tissue. Enzymes that direct metabolism and antibodies that maintain
immune functions are also proteins. Skin is composed primarily of the protein collagen.
Protein synthesis is essential for any tissue repair. Therefore, LBM is highly metabolically
active and necessary for survival.
There are only 40,000 calories in the LBM compartment in a 70-kg individual; each
gram of protein generates 4 calories (Fig 2). It is not possible to burn more than 50%
of LBM.
22
Fat mass comprises about 25% of body composition. For all intents, the fat
compartment is a calorie reservoir where day-to-day excess calories are stored and fat is
removed when demands need to be met. There are, however, some necessary essential fats,
which make up a small fraction of this compartment.
For the most part, fat is not responsible for any essential metabolic activity. This energy
reservoir contains about 110,000 calories stored, as 1 g of fat generates 10 calories (Fig 2).
There are a number of body adaptations that attempt to maintain normal LBM or body
protein (Table 2).
23
There is an ongoing homeostatic drive to preserve LBM as a self-protective process
since lost protein is deleterious. However, activation of the stress response, caused by a
wound, will block these adaptive responses and body protein will be burned for fuel.
6–9
Measuring body composition (common approaches)
Involuntary weight loss is a marker of potential problems, and weight restoration is a poten-
tial solution. However, the real key diagnostic information is the status of body composition
(Table 3). Since normal body composition for the individual of concern is not known prior
to the insult, a host of normalized tables and equations, with an assumed normal value,
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Figure 2. Body composition is divided into lean
mass containing all the protein in the body plus
water and fat mass composed mainly of a fat store,
for a deposition of excess energy.
Table 2. What maintains lean mass
Intense genetic drive to maintain essential protein stores
Anabolic hormones that stimulate protein synthesis
Resistance exercise
Adequate protein intake to meet the demands
are used. Therefore, the actual alteration of body composition caused by an insult or poor
nutrition (or usually both) is not known. The complications, for example, the weakness seen
in the patient, as well as the presence of a catabolic state that will lead to LBM loss, are
often the best clinical markers. Of the available methods (Table 3), skin-fold thickness and
bioelective impendence are valuable if taken sequentially over time, but some form of base-
line is needed; on the other hand, nitrogen balance provides direct information as to whether
the patient was catabolic or anabolic on the measurement day, and how catabolic.
22–28
Loss of LBM
Loss of any LBM is deleterious as there are no spare proteins. The loss of LBM, relative to
normal, corresponds with major complications. A loss of more than 15% of total will impair
wound healing, the greater the loss, the more the healing deficit. A loss of 30% or more leads
to the development of spontaneous wounds such as pressure ulcers, and wound dehiscence
at a late stage. Death occurs with 40% LBM loss, usually from pneumonia (Table 4).
22
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Table 3. Methods routinely available to assess body composition
Precision
(coefficient
Method Description Advantage Disadvantage of variation), %
Measurement of
skin-fold
thickness
Thickness of
subcutaneous
Easily performed
with portable
equipment
Possibility of error
and interobserver
variability in
measurement
5–10
Bioimpedance
analysis
Low-level current
is introduced, and
measurements of
impedance are
used to calculate
fat and fat-free
mass
Easily performed
with portable
equipment, used
to calculate body
cell mass
Results will be af-
fected by hydration
<5
Nitrogen balance Measurement of
nitrogen intake
minus urinary
nitrogen loss to
determine net
nitrogen gain or
loss
Easy to perform,
indicates a real
time evaluation
of lean body
mass
Not totally reliable,
as there are other
nitrogen losses
besides urine
10–15
Table 4. Complications relative to loss of lean body mass
∗
Lean body mass Complications (related to Associated,
(% loss of total)
∗
lost lean mass) mortality, %
10 Impaired immunity, increased infection 10
20 Decreased healing, weakness, infection, thinning of skin 30
30 Too weak to sit, pressure sores develop pneumonia, no healing 50
40 Death, usually from pneumonia 100
∗
Assuming no preexisting loss.
This table assumes no preexisting involuntary weight loss.
17,18
Someone with PEM
will always have a preexisting loss, which needs to be added as part of total. One can assume
that with any stress-induced PEM, LBM loss is about half of the involuntary weight loss.
The relationship between LBM and wound healing is based on the manner of utilization of
available protein for either the wound or maintaining the overall LBM compartment (Fig 3).
Wound closure is an important genetically determined drive for survival. With a loss
of less than 20% of LBM, the wound takes priority for the protein for healing. With a loss
of 20%, there is equal competition for the protein between the wound and the restoration
of LBM, so the healing rate will slow down. With a loss of 30% or more, where risk to
survival is high, the LBM takes complete priority for protein intake. The wound essentially
stops healing till LBM is restored at least partially.
6–8
Body compositional changes before and after a wound, therefore, have a major impact
on healing irrespective of the local wound care. In addition, nutritional support needs to
be increased in both calories and protein (1.5 g/kg body weight) if there is a preexisting
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Figure 3. With a loss of lean mass less than 10%, the wound takes priority over
the available protein substrate. As lean mass decreases, more consumed protein is
used to restore LBM, with less being available to the wound. Wound healing rate
decreases until lean mass is restored. With a loss of lean mass exceeding 30% of total,
spontaneous wounds can develop due to the thinning of skin from lost collagen.
Figure 4. Lean mass loss 20% of the total: Clean but poorly
healing acute wound responding to LBM loss.
deficit, as would be present with any previous PEM. The rate of healing is directly related
to the rate of restoration of body composition (Fig 3). Wound healing is directly related to
the degree of LBM loss (Figs 4–7).
29
PRINCIPLES OF MACRONUTRIENT UTILIZATION
(ADAPTIVE METABOLISM)
Before discussing the principles of nutritional support for healing, it is important to un-
derstand the normal utilization of nutrients and the normal metabolic pathways to energy
production and protein synthesis, which maintain the LBM compartment.
30–37
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Figure 5. Lean mass loss 25% the total: thinning of skin with
loss of collagen as LBM decreases.
Figure 6. Lean mass loss 25% to 30% of the total: dehiscence
stump closure now with open nonhealing wound.
Understanding the metabolic concept of macronutrient nutrient partitioning into an
energy and protein compartment and methods to optimize an efficient nutrient channeling
into either energy production or protein synthesis is the first step to understanding the
nutritional support principles. In addition, the role of anabolic agents becomes clearer when
considering their role as agents channeling protein substrate in protein synthesis.
In general, normal metabolism is directed by hormones that adjust when needed to and
alter energy production to meet needs and also to restore daily protein balance through the
natural tissue synthesis and breakdown pathways.
30,31,34–37
Energy pathway
Normally, the energy pathway is fueled almost completely by carbohydrates and fat.
31–33
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Figure 7. Lean mass loss 30% of the total: sponta-
neous pressure ulcer on the sacrum.
Protein pathway
Protein when consumed is metabolized into amino acids and peptides. With normal anabolic
hormone activity, nearly all of the protein by-products are used for protein synthesis, not
for energy. Only 5% is typically used for energy. However, energy is required for the protein
synthesis process (Fig 8).
34–
37
With starvation, there is preservation of LBM compartment, as the majority of the
calories come from the fat mass and only about 5% from protein.
16,33
Metabolic rate and
energy demands are decreased, cortisol levels (catabolic) decrease, and human growth
hormone (HGH) levels (anabolic) increase (Fig 9).
THE “STRESS RESPONSE” TO WOUNDING
The host response to severe illness or infection is an amplification of the fright-flight
reaction.
11,12,38–40
The insult leads to the release of inflammatory mediators that activate a
very abnormal (Table 5) hormonal response, led by a marked increase in catecholamines
and other hormones that produce a hypermetabolic-catabolic state.
38–41
An entire spectrum of abnormalities can be seen after injury and inflammation due to
degrees of the manifestation of the host “stress response” to a body wound. If uncontrolled,
the stress response can progress with loss of body protein and impaired wound healing.
The once protective response then becomes autodestructive, and intense autocannibalism
(catabolism for fuel) occurs with rapid loss of LBM
38–41
(Fig 10).
Controlling the degree of ongoing injury requires both controlling the host response
and at the same time supporting the metabolic needs to avoid further deterioration. How-
ever, catabolism still outweighs anabolism as the catabolic hormones predominate and the
anabolic hormones, growth hormone, and testosterone are still decreased. Massive protein
depletion can occur in days to weeks after a severe injury with wounds until the wound has
been closed and the stress response has been removed.
14,38–44
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Figure 8. Macronutrients enter the metabolic pathways directly by hormones. Carbohydrates and
fats enter the energy system or are stored as fat, while more than 90% of consumed protein enters
the protein synthesis process. Normal skin prevents any energy drain through a wound.
NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT
The maintenance of optimum nutrition in the presence of a wound or PEM is a multifactorial
process. Assessment has the following objectives (Tables 5–8).
31,45
ASSESSING THE NUTRITIONAL NEEDS
To optimize substrate flow to the healing wound, an assessment of required intake is made.
There are many present values, which have been scientifically defined over the past 3 decades
(Table 7).
There are a number of specific processes that need to be completed before the calories
and protein intake can be determined. Assessment of nutritional needs can be divided into
the following 3 components
46
–48
(Tables 6 and 8):
r
Energy or calorie requirements
r
Protein requirements
r
Micronutrient requirements
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Figure 9. Starvation mode: protection of LBM. Hormone adaptation increases fat use for fuel with
energy demands being decreased overall. A minimal amount of gluconeogenesis occurs to only
maintain glucose to obligate users. LBM is in large part preserved.
Table 5. Major metabolic abnormalities with response to injury “stress response”
Increased catabolic hormones (cortisol and catechols)
Decreased anabolic hormones (human growth hormone and testosterone)
Marked increase in metabolic rate
Sustained increase in body temperature
Marked increase in glucose demands and liver gluconeogenesis
Rapid skeletal muscle breakdown with amino acid use as an energy source (counter to normal
nutrient channeling)
Lack of ketosis, indicating that fat is not the major calorie source
Unresponsiveness of catabolism to nutrient intake
Calculation of energy needs
Daily energy expenditures (calories used) can be calculated or directly measured.
49–52
Calculation is usually the preferred approach for the outpatient as the requirement for direct
measurement is often available only in an acute care setting. Direct measurement using the
method of indirect calorimetry is the most precise approach.
51,52
The first step in calculating energy expenditure is to determine the basal metabolic
rate (BMR) using predictive equations.
49–52
This value reflects the energy to maintain
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Figure 10. There is an overall increase in energy demands. Glucose production by the liver is
markedly increased because of a hormonally driven process by amino acids from reabsorbed lean
body mass. There is a net catabolic state. Energy demands are not selectively obtained from the fat
deposit. Excess energy production is converted into excess body heat released through the skin. There
is no protection of lean mass during this process.
Table 6. Weight versus basal metabolic requirement
Body weight, kg 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Normal basal metabolic rate, kcal/d 1310 1410 1600 1600 1700 1780 1870
Table 7. Objectives of nutritional assessment
Control the catabolic state
Restore sufficient macronutrient intake to meet current energy and protein needs
Increase energy intake to about 50% above daily needs, restore adequate calories to respond to wounding
or to begin the process of weight and lean mass gain
Increase protein intake to 2 times the recommended daily allowance (0.8 g/kg/d), ie, to 1.5 g/kg/d to allow
for restoration of wound healing and any lost lean body mass
Increase anabolic stimulation to direct the substrate from protein intake into protein synthesis
Avoid replacement of lost lean mass with fat gain
Utilize exercise (mainly resistance exercise) to increase the bodies anabolic drive to maintain and more
rapidly regain lean mass
Consider use of exogenous anabolic hormones to increase net protein synthesis
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Table 8. Calculation of energy expenditure (calories)
Determine BMR
Determine activity level as a fractional increase from BMR
Estimate stress factor (caused by wound)
Energy = BMR × stress factor × activity factor
BMR indicates basal metabolic rate.
Table 9. Calculation of stress factors
Stress insult Stress factor
Minor injury 1.2
Minor surgery 1.2
Clean wound 1.2
Bone fracture
Infected wound 1.5
Major trauma
Severe burn
homeostasis at rest shortly after awakening and in a fasting state for 12 to 18 hours
49–54
(Table 6).
Usually, the basal or resting energy expenditure is about 25 kcal/kg ideal body weight
for the young adult and about 20 kcal/kg for the elderly. Requirements for the injured or ill
patient are usually 30% to 50% higher.
49–54
Malnourished patients, who already have a deficit and have lost weight, require a 50%
increase over calculated maintenance calories (energy).
47,55
–57
The second step is to adjust the BMR for the added energy caused by the “stress” from
injury and wounds.
47,52
–
57
This value, expressed as a present increase over the BMR, is
an estimate of the value found for a number of bodily insults. The metabolic rate (energy
demands) increases 20% after elective surgery and 100% after a severe burn.
47,48,52
–57
A
wound, an infection, or a traumatic injury will fall between these 2 extremes. One simple
formula for defining the stress factor is described below (Table 9). The stress factor is the
multiplier of the BMR.
44,45,48
The relative increase in the BMR has been defined for a
number of disease processes. The data have been converted into a stress factor increase in
the BMR (Table 9).
The third step is to determine the physical activity level of the patient. Physical
activity is added by multiplying by an activity factor: for patients out of bed, 1.2 and for
active exercise, 1.5 or more. Thus, the energy requirements can be calculated as follows:
Energy expenditure = BMR × stress factor × activity factor
48
Malnourished patients who already have a deficit and have lost weight require a 50%
increase over calculated maintenance calories (energy).
Indirect calorimetry
The reference standard for measuring energy expenditure in the clinical setting is indirect
calorimetry. Indirect calorimetry is a technique that measures oxygen consumption and
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Table 10. Protein requirements
Condition Daily needs, g/kg/d
Normal 0.8
Stress Response 1.5–2
Correct protein-energy malnutrition 1.5
Presence of wound 1.5
Restore lost weight 1.5
Elderly 1.2–1.5
carbon dioxide production to calculate resting energy expenditure since 99% of oxygen is
used for energy production. Oxygen used can be converted into calories required.
51,52
Protein requirements
After determining caloric (energy) requirements, protein requirements are assessed. A
healthy adult requires about 0.8 g of protein per kilogram of body weight per day or about
60 to 70 g of protein to maintain homeostasis, that is, tissue synthesis equals tissue break-
down. Stressed patients need more protein, in the range of 1.5 g of protein per kilogram of
body weight per day.
47,48,58
–63
The increased needs stem from both increased demands for
protein synthesis and increased losses of amino acids from the abnormal protein synthesis
channeling where protein substrate is also used for fuel. Urinary nitrogen losses increase
after injury and illness, with an increase in the degree of stress. Nitrogen content is used as
a marker for protein (6.25 g of protein is equal to1gofnitrogen). Nitrogen balance studies,
such as a 24-hour urinary urea nitrogen measurement, that compare nitrogen intake with
nitrogen excretion can be helpful in determining needs by at least matching losses with
intake. Nutritionally depleted but nonstressed patients, especially the elderly, also require
1.5 g/kg/day to restore the lost body protein.
59–63
Stressed, depleted patients usually cannot
metabolize more than 1.5 g/kg/day of protein unless an anabolic agent is added, which can
override the catabolic stimulus. The required protein intake for a number of clinical states
has been defined and can be used as estimates (Table 10). Simply, aging increases protein
requirements to avoid sarcopenia.
Micronutrient support
Micronutrients are compounds found in small quantities in all tissues. They are essential for
cellular function and, therefore, for survival. It is becoming increasingly clear that marked
deficiencies in key micronutrients occur during the severe stress response or with any su-
perimposed PEM as a result of increased losses, increased consumption during metabolism,
and inadequate replacement.
64–68
Because micronutrients are essential for cellular function,
a deficiency further amplifies stress, metabolic derangements, and ongoing catabolism.
The micronutrients include organic compounds (vitamins) and inorganic compounds
(trace minerals). These compounds are both utilized and excreted at a more rapid rate after
injury, leading to well-documented deficiencies. However, because measurement of levels
is difficult, if not impossible, prevention of a deficiency is accomplished only by provid-
ing increased intake. Deficiency states can lead to severe morbidity. Specific properties of
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Table 11. Essential micronutrients for wound healing
Vitamins
Vitamin A Stimulant for onset of wound healing process
Stimulant of epithelialization and fibroblast deposition of collagen
Vitamin C Necessary for collagen synthesis
Minerals
Zinc Cofactor for collagen and other wound protein synthesis
Copper Cofacter for connective tissue production
Collagen cross-linking
Manganese Collagen and ground substance synthesis
these important molecules will be described later. Although the doses of the various mi-
cronutrients required to manage wound stress are not well defined, a dose of 5 to 10 times
the recommended daily allowance is recommended until wound stress is resolved and the
wound has healed.
47,64
–
68
There are specific micronutrients required for wound healing.
Replacement in sufficient amounts is essential (Table 11).
NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT: THE PROCESS
Macronutrient distribution
Once the assessment is complete and the nutrient needs in terms of calories and protein intake
are made, macro- and micronutrients are provided. Macronutrients include carbohydrate,
fat and protein. In the presence of a large traumatic wound or a burn, the stress response has
been activated requiring an increase in calories for energy and protein for protein synthesis.
The breakdown for feeding a catabolic state is described as follows.
Approximately 55% to 60% of total calories should be delivered as complex carbohy-
drates instead of simple sugars. Each gram of carbohydrate generates 3.3 kcal. Excess carbo-
hydrates will lead to hyperglycemia, a major complication resulting in impeded healing and
immune dysfunction. Maximum glucose utilization is considered to be 7 μg/kg/min.
48,57
Approximately 20% to 25% of calories should be provided by fat, but not more than
2 g/kg/day. Values in excess will likely not be cleared from serum. Triglyceride levels should
be kept below 250 mg/dL. Fat provides 10 kcal/g.
Because normal protein preservation in LBM is not maintained with a wound stress
response, approximately 20% to 25% of total calories need to be provided as protein.
Inadequate intake will not prevent protein use for calories, as LBM becomes the source.
Carbohydrates and wound healing
As described, calories are needed to supply the energy needed to heal and carbohydrates
are the key source of energy through lactate use. Skin cells are dependent on glucose for
energy. In patients with diabetes, careful control of glucose intake, with adequate insulin,
is essential to optimizing healing rate.
Carbohydrates have also been shown to be important for a wound unrelated to energy
production. These carbohydrate factors include structural lubricant, transport, immunologic,
hormonal, and enzymatic functions. Carbohydrates are a key component of glucoproteins,
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Table 12. Carbohydrate
role in the wound
Energy production
Lubricant matrix
Transport
Immunologic
Hormonal
Enzymatic
which is a key element in the healing wound used for its structure and communicative
properties. Carbohydrates have also been found to be a key factor in the activity of the
enzymes hexokinase and citrate synthase used for wound-repair reactions.
69–72
Cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation is regulated by cell-surface carbohydrates
including B-4-glycosylated carbohydrate chains.
72
Glucose is also used for inflammatory
cell activity leading to the removal of bacteria and of necrotic material (Table 12).
73
Lactate is a metabolic byproduct of glucose. This 2-carbon compound appears to
have many important wound healing effects. The increase in wound lactate is required
for the release of macrophage angiogenesis factor. Lactate stimulates collagen synthesis by
fibroblasts and is an important activator of the genetic expression of many healing pathways
in addition to its role as an energy source.
74,75
Fats and wound healing
Fats are unique in that they function both as a source of energy and also as signaling
molecules. It is important to recognize that the composition of cell membrane basically
reflects dietary fatty acid consumption. Cell membrane composition affects cell-function-
influencing enzyme absorption such as protein kinase C and a variety of genes. White
adipose tissue is a source of proinflammatory fat metabolism and is one of the key regulators
of wound inflammation and healing.
76–84
Fats are broken down into free fatty acids and then packaged into chylomicron absorp-
tion and transportation to the body for energy or storage. The essential fatty acids must be
consumed in the diet. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are used for cell membrane production
while saturated fatty acids are often used for fuel.
77–80
The oxidative stress typical in the
inflamed wound can lead to membrane alteration by a process called lipid peroxidation,
which can alter wound cell function. In addition, circulating by-products can have a nega-
tive affect by stimulating wound cell death or apoptosis, while other lipid by-products such
as leptins protect the cell.
77–80
It is clear, however, that adequate fat, whether consumed or obtained from the fat
depot by lipase activity, is essential to wound healing of both acute and chronic wounds.
The first role is to provide adequate energy to the wound. The second role is to provide the
substrate for the many roles of fat by-products, especially the components of free fatty acids
on wound cell function, wound inflammation, and wound cell proliferation. At present, it
would appear that a dietary intake containing high levels of monosaturated fatty acids and
omega-3 polysaturated fatty acids is ideal. Lipid components are responsible for tissue
growth and wound remodeling including collagen and extracellular matrix production.
84–91
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It can be seen that fat and its derived lipid products are an extremely diverse class of
molecules, which includes fatty acids and all their metabolic derivatives. Fats are a major
source of energy in addition to its role as various signaling molecules.
80–91
Protein and wound healing
It is well recognized that protein is required for wound healing and a protein deficiency
retards healing in both acute and chronic wounds.
57,59,63,87
–
97
This fact is particularly evident
in chronic pressure ulcers and acute burn injury. Dipeptides and polypeptides have been
shown to have a wound healing activity. Several amino acids, such as leucine, glutamine,
and arginine, all have anabolic activity. It has been shown that there is a greater protein
accretion with orally fed protein, which becomes a hydrolysate than parenteral protein,
which consists of total breakdown into amino acids.
The renewal of the skin involves 2 components: cell proliferation, mostly fibroblasts
and protein synthesis, mainly collagen from the fibroblasts. Both components require protein
substrates.
89,93
After injury, both metabolic processes are accelerated to repair the wound.
In a severely injured patient, with a wound, the metabolic process for healing must occur in
the presence of a hypermetabolic catabolic state.
47,48,57,59–62
This state will cause a protein
malnutrition very rapidly if a high protein intake is not rapidly initiated. However, an injured
man can use only a certain amount of protein. Also, severely burned adults can assimilate
only 1.5 g/kg/day into the LBM, additional protein will only be used as a fuel source, unless
anabolic activity is increased.
It has been found that in a major injury, skin is in a negative protein status identical to the
net whole-body loss of protein.
90–92
Use of an anabolic stimulus like insulin and provision
of an adequate amino acid supply can control this deleterious process.
89–93
Modulation of
anabolic factors will not only improve the whole-body protein balance but will also increase
the skin protein metabolism.
89–93
Positive skin-protein synthesis will accelerate the wound
healing process.
Glutamine
Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the body and accounts for 60% of the
intracellular amino acid pool.
98
This amino acid is considered to be conditionally essential
as a deficiency can occur rapidly after injury. Glutamine is used as an energy source after
the stress response as it is released from cells to undergo glucose conversion in the liver
for use as energy.
98,99
In addition, glutamine is the primary fuel source for rapidly dividing
cells like epithelial cells during healing.
Glutamine has potent antioxidant activity, being a component of the intracellular glu-
tathione system. It also has direct immunological function by stimulating lymphocyte pro-
liferation through its use as energy. Glutamine has anticatabolic and anabolic properties
also and is the rate-limiting agent for new protein synthesis (Table 13).
Because of its many roles in the wound, it is of particular concern when there is a rapid
fall in both intracellular and extracellular glutamine levels, to a deficiency state, in the pres-
ence of a major wound. Replacement using a glutamine dose of 0.3 to 0.4 g/kg/day is com-
monly performed after a major burn.
100,101
Of interest is that glutamine delivery at this level
has been shown to increase survival after major burns.
100,101
Glutamine supplementation in
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Table 13. Properties of glutamine
1. Anabolic, anticatabolic
2. Stimulates human growth hormone release
3. Acts as Antioxidant
4. Direct fuel for rapidly dividing cells
5. Immune stimulant
6. Shuttle for ammonia
7. Synthesis for purine and pyrimidines
Table 14. Zinc properties
Cofactor for many protein synthesis pathways and DNA synthesis collagen production
Stimulates reepithelialization
Cofactor matrix metalloproteinase activity
Cofactor superoxide dismutase and glutathione with antioxidant activity
Augments immune function
and of itself has not been shown to dramatically impact the wound. However, it does appear
to decrease wound infection and it does improve healing in experimental studies.
102–104
Glutamine intake of 2 g or more does increase HGH release, which has potent anabolic
activity. In general, it is clear that glutamine does assist in restoration and maintenance of
LBM and that property in and of itself will improve healing.
Excess glutamine provision is deleterious. Since this amino acid has 2 nitrogens and is
metabolized into ammonia, excess will increase the risk of increased ammonia levels and
azotemia. This process is more prominent in the elderly population where added glutamine
exceeds the metabolic pathways for glutamine use and excess is, therefore, metabolized.
Zinc
Zinc is a cofactor for RNA and DNA polymerase and is, therefore, involved with DNA syn-
thesis, protein synthesis, and cell proliferation. Zinc is a key cofactor for matrix metallopro-
teinase activity and is also involved in immune function and collagen synthesis. Zinc is also
a cofactor for superoxide dismutase, an antioxidant (Table 14). After wounding, there is a re-
distribution of body zinc with wound levels increasing and levels in normal skin decreasing.
The hypermetabolic state leads to a marked increase in urinary loss of zinc, and a
risk for a zinc deficiency state has adverse effects on the healing process including a
decrease in epithelial rate, wound strength, and decreased collagen strength. Restoration of
the expected zinc deficiency state is usually performed by oral provision of zinc sulfate 220
mg tid.
105,106–109
There are data that would indicate that correction of a zinc deficiency is beneficial
while zinc supplementation over and above replacement has no added benefit in wound
healing. However, zinc supplementation is a common approach to managing wounds.
Arginine
Arginine is another conditionally essential amino acid whose level decreases after major
trauma and wounds.
97,110–112
Arginine has been shown to stimulate immune function and is
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Table 15. Arginine effects
Precursor of proline in collagen
Precursor for nitric oxide
Increases hydroxy proline production
Stimulates release of wound anabolic hormones insulin, insulin like growth factors, and human
growth factors
Local immune stimulant for lymphocytes
A conditionally essential amino acid
Table 16. Anticatabolic and anabolic micronutrient support
Amino acids
Glutamine Decreases net nitrogen loss
Increases net muscle protein synthesis
Nitrogen carrier
Stimulates human growth hormone release
Arginine Decreases net nitrogen loss
Antioxidants
Vitamins A, C, E, B; Decreases net oxidant-induced protein degradation
carotene, Zn, Cu, Se
Protein synthesis cofactors
Zn, Cu, Mg, Improve protein synthesis pathways
vitamin B complex
used for a variety of components of healing including a proline precursor. Its role in wound
healing itself has not been clearly defined, although large doses have been shown to increase
tissue collagen content. High doses also stimulate the release of HGH. It has recently been
shown that the healing effect is not due to nitric oxide synthesis.
97,104,111–113
Other micronutrient support
Micronutrients are required for cofactors in energy production and protein synthesis. Since
energy demands are increased, cofactor needs are also increased.
105
–109,114
–138
The various
micronutrients and their roles and estimated requirements are presented for the presence of
a large wound. The key vitamins for energy are the B complex and vitamin C, water-soluble
vitamins that need to be replaced daily
105,114–122
(Table 15).
The micronutrients involved in energy production are described. Vitamin B complex is
a prominent factor. Zinc is very prominent as it is a cofactor for a large number of enzymes
involved in DNA synthesis and is protein synthesis.
105,107,114
The micronutrients required for anabolic and anticatabolic activity and protein syn-
thesis are described in Table 16.
∗
These elements have properties considered to be directly
involved with protein synthesis and as cell protectors through potent antioxidant properties.
Oxidants are a major source of cell toxicity with wound inflammation, and antioxidant
activity is essential for the wound healing process to continue. Vitamin C and glutathione,
∗
References 94–103, 110–112, 114, 118, 123–127, 139–141.
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Table 17. Micronutrient support of the hypermetabolic state: energy production
Vitamin B complex Daily dose
Thiamine Oxidation reduction reactions 10–100 mg
Riboflavin Oxidative phosphorylation for adenosine triphosphate 10 mg
production
Niacin Electron transfer reactions for energy production 150 mg
Vitamin B
6
Transamination for glucose production and breakdown 10–15 mg
Folate One carbon transfer reaction required for all macronutrient 0.4–1 mg
metabolism
Vitamin B
12
Coenzyme A reactions for all nutrient use 50 μg
Vitamin C Carnitine production for fatty acid metabolism 500 mg to 2 g
Minerals
Selenium Cofactor for fat metabolism 100–150 μg
Copper Cofactor for cytochrome oxidase for energy production 1–2 mg
Zinc Cofactor for DNA, RNA, and polymerase for protein synthesis 4–10 μg
Amino acids
Glutamine Nitrogen shuttle for glucose amino acid breakdown, 10–20 g
urea production, direct source of cell energy
products of glutamine, are water-soluble antioxidants. (Table 17) Other vitamins and min-
erals with antioxidants activity are described in Table 16.
There are now well-recognized micronutrients that are necessary for anabolic activity
and that can actually improve net protein synthesis (Table 17). These components include
the amino acids glutamine and arginine already described. A variety of vitamins and mi-
crominerals are also involved in this process.
Increased anabolic and wound healing benefits have also been shown for the condi-
tionally essential amino acids, glutamine, and arginine. Both of these amino acids charac-
teristically decrease with activation of the stress response leading to a deficiency state well
recognized to impede protein synthesis and overall anabolism.
∗
Replacement therapy has
been shown in both circumstances to increase net anabolism.
The trace elements that have clear healing properties include zinc, copper, and se-
lenium. Copper is a key factor for overall homeostasis. It is necessary for a cofactor for
antioxidant activity to control oxidant stress, assisting in energy formation in the respiratory
chain at cytochrome c. In addition, copper is used for collagen and elastin cross-linking.
By 10 days after severe injury serum, copper levels are decreased. It is probably an increase
in the acute-phase protein ceruloplasmin that leaks into the tissues taking copper with it.
Copper replacement therapy is often performed after major wounds like burns. Typically, 1
to 2 mg of copper is provided.
105,114
Manganese is associated with various enzymes in the Krebs Cycle and is also involved
with protein metabolism. It also activates lipoprotein lipase and also protein synthesis.
Manganese, Mn, is also a cofactor for the antioxidant superoxide dismutase and also for
metalloproteinase activity in the wound. A deficiency state after severe trauma or in the
presence of a large burn is yet to be documented. Maintenance dosing is 0.3 to 0.5 mg daily.
∗
References 97–103, 110–112, 139–141.
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Table 18. Anabolic hormone activity
Increased anabolism Direct wound effect
Insulin Yes Unclear
Human growth hormone Yes Unclear
Insulin-like growth factor-1 Yes Yes
Testosterone Yes No
Anabolic steroids Yes Yes
Selenium is required for the glutathione system to work, glutathione being the major
intracellular antioxidant. Management of the wound-inflammation-induced oxidant stress
is a key component of cell protection during the healing process. Selenium is excreted in
increased amounts in the urine after major injury.
108
Muscle contains almost half the total body selenium. Myositis coupled with myocar-
diopathy is seen clinically with selenium deficiency. Replacement is common after burns
and severe trauma including wounds, at a daily dose of 100 to 150 mg.
ANABOLIC HORMONE ADJUNCTIVE THERAPY TO NUTRITION
As described, there are a number of key hormones involved with energy production,
catabolism, and anabolism, all directly or indirectly affecting wound healing. The stress
response to injury leads to a maladaptive hormone response, producing an increase in the
catabolic hormones and a decrease in anabolic hormones, growth hormones, and testos-
terone. The altered stress hormonal environment can lead to both a significant increase in
catabolism, or tissue breakdown, and a decrease in the overall anabolic activity.
9,10
It is now well recognized that the hormonal environment, so critical to wound healing,
can be beneficially modified.
108,109,130–138
In general, restoration or improvement in net
protein synthesis and, therefore, in wound healing, is the result of 2 hormonal processes.
The first is an attenuation of the catabolic hormonal response, and the second is an increase
in overall anabolic activity, recognizing that adequate nutrition is being provided. Any
hormonal manipulation that decreases the rate of catabolism would appear to be beneficial
for wound healing. Blocking the cortisol response would seem to be intuitively beneficial
and, as stated, growth hormone and testosterone analogues decrease the catabolic response
to cortisol.
A number of clinical studies have demonstrated the ability of exogenous delivery of
anabolic hormones to increase net nitrogen retention and overall protein synthesis. Wound
healing has also been reported to be improved.
∗
However, it remains unclear as to how much
of the wound healing is the result of an overall systemic anabolic effect, or whether there is
a direct effect on wound healing. Anabolic hormones for which data are available are listed
in Table 18.
In subsequent sections, individual anabolic hormones will be discussed, including
HGH, insulin-like growth factor (IGF), insulin, testosterone, and testosterone analogues,
also known as anabolic steroids.
∗
References 108, 109, 130–138, 142–154.
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Table 19. Metabolic effects of human growth hormone
Increases cell uptake of amino acids
Increases nitrogen retention
Increases protein synthesis
Decreases cortisol receptor activity
Increases releases of Insulin-like growth factor-1
Increases insulin requirements
Increases fat oxidation for fuel, decreasing fat stores
Increases metabolic rate (10%–15%)
Produces insulin resistance, often leading to hyperglycemia
HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE
HGH is a potent endogenous anabolic hormone produced by the pituitary gland. HGH levels
are at there highest during the growth spurt, decreasing with increasing age. Starvation and
intense exercise are 2 potent stimuli, while acute or chronic injury or illness suppresses
HGH release, especially in the elderly. The amino acids glutamine and arginine, when given
in large doses, have been shown to increase HGH release.
HGH has a number of metabolic effects (Table 19). The most prominent is its anabolic
effect. HGH increases the influx and decreases the efflux of amino acids into the cell. Cell
proliferation is accentuated, as are overall protein synthesis and new tissue growth. HGH
also stimulates IGF-1 production by the liver, and some of the anabolism seen with HGH
is that produced by IGF-1, another anabolic agent.
134–138,142
The effect on increasing fat metabolism is beneficial in that fat is preferentially used
for energy production, and amino acids are preserved for use in protein synthesis. Recent
data indicate that insulin provides some of the anabolic effect of HGH therapy. At present,
the issue as to the specific anabolic effects attributed to HGH versus that of IGF-1 and
insulin remains unresolved.
Clinical studies have in large part focused on the systemic anabolic and anticatabolic
actions of HGH. Populations in which HGH has been shown to be beneficial include severe
burn and trauma. Increases in LBM, muscle strength, and immune function have been
documented in its clinical use. Increase of anabolic activity requires implementation of a
high-protein, high-energy diet.
136–138,142–144
Significant complications can occur with the use of HGH. The anti-insulin effects are
problematic in that glucose is less efficiently used for fuel and increased plasma glucose
levels are known to be deleterious.
In summary, use of HGH in conjunction with adequate nutrition and protein intake
clearly results in increased anabolic activity and will positively impact wound healing by
increasing protein synthesis in catabolic populations.
Insulin-like growth factor-1
IGF-1 is a large polypeptide that has hormone-like properties. The IGF-1, also known
as somatomedin-C, has metabolic and anabolic properties similar to insulin. Practically
speaking, this agent is not as much used for its clinical wound healing effect or anabolic
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activity as HGH or IGF. The main source is the liver, where IGF synthesis is initiated by
HGH. Decreased levels are noted with a major body insult.
144,146
Metabolic properties include increased protein synthesis, a decrease in blood glucose,
and an attenuation of stress-induced hypermetabolism, the latter 2 properties being quite
different from HGH. The attenuation of stress-induced hypermetabolism is a favorable
property of IGF-1. The major complication is hypoglycemia.
Insulin
The hormone insulin is known to have anabolic activities in addition to its effect on glucose
and fat metabolism. In a catabolic state, exogenous insulin administration has been shown to
decrease proteolysis in addition to increasing protein synthesis.
137,138,142
–144
The anabolic
activity appears to mainly affect the muscle and skin protein in the LBM compartment.
An increase in circulating amino acids produced by wound amino acid intake increases the
anabolic and anticatabolic effect in both normal adults and populations in a catabolic state.
A number of clinical trials,
137,138,142
–
144
mainly in burn patients, have demonstrated the
stimulation of protein synthesis, decreased protein degradation, and a net nitrogen uptake,
especially in skeletal muscle. The positive insulin effect on protein synthesis decreases with
aging. There are much less data on the actions of insulin on wound healing over and above
its systemic anabolic effect. The main complication is hypoglycemia.
Testosterone analogues
Testosterone is a necessary androgen for maintaining LBM and wound healing. A deficiency
leads to catabolism and impaired healing. The use of large doses exogenously has increased
net protein synthesis, but a direct effect on wound healing has not yet been demonstrated.
In general, it has relatively weak anabolic and wound healing properties.
Anabolic steroids refer to the class of drugs produced by modification of
testosterone.
143
–154
These drugs were developed to take clinical advantage of the anabolic
effects of testosterone while decreasing androgenic side effects of the naturally occurring
molecule. The mechanisms of action of testosterone analogues are through activation of the
androgenic receptors found in highest concentration in myocytes and skin fibroblasts. Some
populations of epithelial cells also contain these receptors. Stimulation leads to a decrease
in efflux of amino acids and an increase in influx into the cell. A decrease in fat mass is
also seen because of the preferential use of fat for fuel. There are no metabolic effects on
glucose production.
All anabolic steroids increase overall protein synthesis and new-tissue formation, as
evidenced by an increase in skin thickness and muscle formation. All these agents also
have anticatabolic activity decreasing the protein degradation caused by cortisol and other
catabolic stimuli. In addition, all anabolic steroids have some androgenic or masculinizing
effects.
The anabolic steroid oxandrolone happens to have the greatest anabolic and least an-
drogenic side effects in the class of anabolic steroids.
147–149
Most of the recent studies on
anabolic steroids and LBM have used the anabolic steroid oxandrolone. Oxandrolone has
potent anabolic activity, up to 13 times that of methyltestosterone. In addition, its andro-
genic effect is considerably less than testosterone, minimizing this complication common
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Table 20. Clinical effect of anabolic steroids
Attenuate the catabolic stimulus during the “stress response”
More rapid restoration of lost lean mass
Restore normal nutrient partitioning
Improved healing of chronic wounds with restoration of lost lean mass
to other testosterone derivatives. The increased anabolic activity and decreased androgenic
(masculinizing) activity markedly increase its clinical value. Oxandrolone is given orally,
with 99% bioavailability. It is protein bound on plasma with a biologic life of 9 hours
149
(Table 20).
The anabolic steroids, especially oxandrolone, have been successfully used in the
trauma and burn patient population to both decrease LBM loss in the acute phase of injury
as well as more rapidly restore the lost LBM in the recovery phase. Demonstrated in several
studies is an increase in the healing of chronic wounds. However, significant LBM gains
were also present.
153,154
It is important to point out that in all of the clinical trials where LBM gains were
reported, a high-protein diet was used. In most studies, a protein intake of 1.2 to 1.5 g/kg/day
was used. The effects of anabolic steroids on wound healing appear to be, in a large part, due
to a general stimulation of overall anabolic activity. However, there is increasing evidence
of a direct stimulation of all phases of wound healing by these agents.
153,154
The mechanism of improved wound healing with the use of anabolic steroids is not
yet defined. Stimulation of androgenic receptors on wound fibroblasts may well lead to a
local release of growth factors.
CONCLUSION
Nutritional status is extremely important in wound healing, especially the major wounds. A
common nutritional deficiency state is PEM, either that produced by the “stress” response
to wounding or a preexisting state.
155–169
Maintenance of anabolism and controlling catabolism is critical to optimizing the
healing process. Increased protein intake is required to keep up with catabolic losses and
allow wound healing anabolic activity. Micronutrients, carbohydrates, and fat are used
predominately as fuel, but each has direct wound effects essential for healing. Protein as a
micronutrient is inappropriately used for fuel after injury, so intake needs to be increased to
allow for protein synthesis. There are also specific actions of protein by-products impeding
the healing process.
Micronutrients are often ignored, but, as described, there are many essential metabolic
pathways depending on the vitamins and minerals. Select amino acids such as glutamine
are also essential. Of importance is the fact that increased losses of many micronutrients
occur in the presence of a wound. In addition, increased daily requirements are needed
to keep up with an increase in demands during the postinjury hypermetabolic state. Also,
supplementation of compounds such as glutamine has not only been shown to improve
wound and immune states but also to decrease trauma- and burn-induced mortality.
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Finally, controlling catabolism by producing anabolism by agents, many being en-
dogenous, has been shown in the presence of adequate protein intake to increase net body
anabolism, which, in turn, will improve overall protein synthesis including the wound.
Anabolic hormones are necessary to maintain the increased protein synthesis required
for maintaining LBM, including wound healing, in conjunction with the presence of ade-
quate protein intake. However, endogenous levels of these hormones are decreased in acute
and chronic illness and with increasing age, especially in the presence of a large wound.
Because the lost LBM caused by the stress response, aging, and malnutrition retards wound
healing, the ideal use of these agents is to more effectively restore anabolic activity. There are
also data that indicate a direct wound healing stimulating effect for some of these hormones.
Recognition of all these principles will optimize the wound healing effects of nutritional
support.
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