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Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
Europe’s Journal of Psychology 1/2011, pp. 17-39
www.ejop.org
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs as
determinants of burnout among physical education teachers
André Brouwers
Welko Tomic
Huibrecht Boluijt
The Open University, Heerlen, The Netherlands
Abstract
The aim of the present study, which involved 311 Physical Education (PE) teachers in
Dutch schools, was to examine the relationships between job demands, job control,
social support and perceived self-efficacy on the one hand and teacher burnout on the
other. Based on Karasek’s Demands-Control-Support model (1990), it was expected that
perceived stringent job demands in combination with perceived lack of control on the
job and perceived lack of social support from colleagues, principals and managers
could so affect teachers’ health that they were likely to suffer from enhanced levels of
burnout. Our study partly confirmed results based on the Karasek model. It was also
expected that the number of domain-determined self-efficacy beliefs concerning the
influence teachers had on job demands would affect their level of burnout. However,
this supposition was not supported. Perceived job control was found to have a
moderating effect on the relationship between perceived job demands on the one
hand and the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization dimensions of burnout on the
other. Colleague support had a moderating effect on the relationship between job
demands and the personal accomplishment dimension of burnout, whereas managerial
support had a moderating effect on self-efficacy beliefs concerning teachers’ influence
on job demands and personal accomplishment. The study further revealed that PE
teachers run a greater risk of falling victim to burnout as they grow older. Implications for
future studies are discussed.
Keywords: burnout, P.E. teachers, self-efficacy, job demands-control-support model.
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
18
Burnout has been identified as one particular type of chronic response to the
cumulative, long-term negative impact of work stresses (Blase, 1982). In a general
sense there is agreement that burnout is a multi-dimensional construct. These
dimensions are inter-related, but at the same time they are independent entities.
Maslach and Jackson (1986) state that burnout is a syndrome of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment
which can occur among individuals who work with people in some capacity.
Individuals who are burned out appear to lack emotional resources and suffer a high
degree of depersonalization. They are unable to list more than a scant few personal
accomplishments.
One specific category of human service professionals who appear to be vulnerable
to burnout are teachers. In 1998, 38% of the 4800 employees who were declared
unfit for work in the Netherlands were teachers (Magnée, 2000). Figures published by
the Dutch Industrial Insurance Administration Office show that psychological
complaints together with complaints concerning the loco-motor apparatus are the
main causes for full or partial disablement (Smulders, 1995). These findings are in line
with research showing that a significant number of teachers consider leaving their
job and feel fed up with their work (Berkhout, Zijl & Van Praag, 1998; Friedman &
Farber, 1992). American and British studies reveal that many teachers quit their jobs
(Farber, 1991; Merseth, 1992), or, if they do not, experience much stress (Borg, 1990).
However, there has been little research into burnout among secondary school
teachers who teach the same subject (homogeneous groups of teachers). Indeed,
the opposite is true: teacher burnout is examined among heterogeneous groups of
teachers, irrespective of the subject they teach.
An exception to this rule is the study carried out by Hodge, Jupp and Taylor (1994) on
burnout among music and mathematics teachers. Another example is a study on
physical strain among physical education (P. E.) teachers (De Vries, Beune, Simons
and Thijsen, 2000). Unfortunately, it is doubtful whether the method they used in their
study can reveal the exact determinants of burnout among teachers of specific
school subjects. When attempting to explain burnout, it is plausible that workload
and amount of control are variables that differ considerably from one group of
subject teachers to the next. The activities students are engaged in during their
lessons, the way they interact, the way the teacher supervises and coaches the
students, the time the teacher spends on preparing lessons and marking papers, and
the way the classroom is organized all differ considerably from subject to subject. In
order to be able to express sound opinions on a specific category of teachers, we
think burnout studies involving teachers in general should be complemented by
studies involving teachers who all teach the same subject. In addition, we also
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
19
intend to compare the various groups of subject teachers with one another with
respect to burnout.
The current study was conducted among Physical Education (PE) teachers. Burnout
is a phenomenon of dramatic importance in education in general, and PE teachers
are also at risk for burnout prematurely. Rakovac and Heimer (2008) studied 479 PE
teachers and found that 62.8% reported health disturbances. Some complaints were
related to mental health factors. PE teachers without health impairments reported
being satisfied with their work conditions, interpersonal relationships, students’
behavior, relationships with supervisors and rewards (Rakovac & Heimer, 2008).
PE teachers have received little attention in the burnout literature. After consulting
databanks such as PsycINFO, ERIC, and Current Contents, we found just a few
studies examining determinants of burnout among PE teachers systematically.
Psychological, social and bureaucratic factors correlated significantly with burnout
(Smith & Leng, 2003). Exactly the same association with burnout was reported with
regard to the average class size of special education students (Fejgin, Talmor, &
Erlich, 2005), and job satisfaction (Koustelios & Tsigilis, 2005). With regard to Job
Demand Control model factors, Lee (2004) found that role ambiguity, work overload
and role conflict were positively associated with one burnout dimension, i.e.
emotional exhaustion, whereas peer support was positively associated with the
personal accomplishment dimension. Unlike Lee (2004), Fejgin, Talmor, and Erlich
(2005) found that PE teachers’ personal resources and workload did not significantly
correlate with burnout (Fejgin, Ephraty, & Ben-Sira, 1995).
Looking at the present knowledge of determinants of burnout among PE teachers
and some conflicting results regarding this issue, it is very important to further
investigate how PE teachers experience their work. In comparison with teachers of
other subjects, some striking differences are the skills that students have to be taught
and the way lessons are organized. In PE lessons, for example, students are trained to
optimize their physical ability, to cooperate with others when performing physical
activities, and to control their emotions in competition situations. A PE teacher has to
cope with students who may be boisterous, noisy, and intractable. The teacher’s
voice is a very important instrument. Sometimes he or she has to be lenient and
approachable and at other times very strict, e.g. to avoid risk and undesirable
physical contact. At the end of the day, the teacher may be physically and
mentally exhausted. PE teachers teach their lessons in a gym or on the sports field.
Although they do not have to mark papers, they do have to mark the students’
achievements. The main problem is the PE teacher’s position on the school team: PE
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
20
lessons do not contribute to the students’ academic achievements, which are
considered to be of primary importance for their future careers. PE teachers may
become frustrated by having their lessons systematically undervalued by colleagues,
principals, and parents.
Social support, workload, and control
A number of studies have found that perceived lack of social support from
colleagues, i.e. a lack of friendship and assistance, may be an important element in
teacher burnout (Brownell & Pajares, 1997; Burke, Greenglass, & Schwarzer, 1996;
Burke, Shearer, & Deszca, 1984; Dignam & West, 1988; Punch & Tuettemann, 1990;
Ross, Altmaier, & Russell, 1989; Schwab, Jackson, & Schuler, 1984). Social support
from colleagues and principals helps prevent emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization and a perceived lack of personal accomplishment. A statement
like “some stressors from the workplace may never be overcome by individual
efforts…” shows the importance of social support in this respect (Glass & McKnight,
1996). The level of support can be assessed by measuring the discrepancy between
a person's need for emotional support and the amount and intensity of the
supportive interactions that someone actually experiences (Van Sonderen, 1991).
Studies on the subject show that a perceived lack of social support is more important
than support that is actually received, in that its negative effects override the
positive ones (Bacharach, Bainberger, & Mitchell, 1990; Brissie, Hoover-Dempsey, &
Bassler, 1988; Burke & Greenglass, 1989a, 1993; Burke et al., 1996; Jackson et al., 1986;
Kuzsman & Schnall, 1987; Russell et al., 1987; Travers & Cooper, 1993; Zabel & Zabel,
1982).
In the present study we examined workload, level of job control, and social support
as determinants of burnout among PE teachers. These variables, which are
presented in the Karasek (1990) model, turned out to be important explanatory
factors for the degree of burnout. Studies on this subject showed that the more
serious the degree of burnout was among teachers, the more taxing their tasks were
(job demands), the less job control they experienced, and the less support they
seemed to get from colleagues and principals. Concurring with Karasek’s model,
these studies also revealed that job demands showed a stronger correlation with
burnout when job control was reduced. Therefore, it was hypothesized that job
control as well as support from colleagues and school leaders moderate the
relationship between job demand and burnout.
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
21
Self-efficacy
Bandura (1997, p. 3) defines self-efficacy as “…the beliefs in one’s capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”.
The courses of action over which a person can exercise control are manifold; they
may be concerned not only with actions, but with motivation, thought, and
emotions as well. The consequences are also numerous and involve someone’s
ability to cope with misfortunes or to become aware of thought patterns that
obstruct or stimulate intended actions. Self-efficacy is also related to stress (Bandura,
1997; Vrugt, 1997) and the feelings of depression (Kanfer & Zeiss, 1983; Kavanagh,
1992) that someone experiences when dealing with taxing environmental demands.
Self-efficacy beliefs are domain and task specific (Bandura, 1997; Tschannen-Moran
& Woolfolk Hoy, 2002; Woodruff & Cashman, 1993).
The present study also examined the relationship between self-efficacy and burnout.
The variable “self-efficacy beliefs” can be viewed as an important addition to the
Karasek model in studies on burnout. Whereas job demands, job control, and social
support are job-related characteristics as perceived by the respondent himself, self-
efficacy beliefs may reveal how effectively a teacher copes with these job
characteristics. As job demands in particular play an important role in explaining
teacher burnout, the self-efficacy beliefs in our study have been specified according
to the job demands domain, i.e., self-efficacy beliefs influencing the teacher’s
perceived job demands. This specification led us to our first assumption: self-efficacy
beliefs in the job-demands domain will explain part of the variance in burnout
among teachers that is not explained by the job demands-control-support variables.
Our second assumption was that the specified self-efficacy beliefs about influencing
job demands will show stronger associations with burnout the more support teachers
get from the school management.
Therefore, it was hypothesized that self-efficacy
beliefs in the job-demands domain moderates the relationship between job
demand and burnout.
PE teachers who feel they have the support of the school management will be more
inclined to try to improve their work situation by raising objections to job demands
they dislike. However, it is to be expected that only those teachers who strongly
believe that they are able to influence their job demands will approach the school
management on this subject. Teachers who doubt their capabilities in this respect
will probably not find it easy to take their troubles to the school management, even
though the school management would provide them with support. Therefore, it was
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
22
hypothesized that school management support moderates the relationship between
self-efficacy beliefs in the job-demands domain and burnout.
Method
Participants
The participants of the present study were PE teachers employed in general
secondary education in the Netherlands. The total number of PE teachers was 4594,
3262 (71%) of them male and 1332 (29%) of them female (Centrale Financiën
Instellingen, 2007). By kind permission of The Association of Physical Education
Teachers, we obtained a random sample of 500 PE teachers who were employed in
general secondary schools.
In order to match the male/female distribution in the population, for a random
sample of 500 PE teachers approximately 355 males and 145 females are required.
Therefore, to prepare a list of 500 teachers, every ninth male and female teacher
was selected. All teachers were eligible for the study. In order to try and raise the
response rate, we followed suggestions made by Green and Hutchinson (1996): we
provided respondents with postage-paid envelopes, sent the questionnaires directly
to the respondents, told the respondents to contact us at any time if necessary, and
kept the questionnaire fairly short. As we approached 500 teachers and had 311
responses, the response rate was 62%, which Babbie (1995) finds adequate for
surveys and which is also in accordance with the findings of Asch, Jedrziewski, and
Christakis (1997).
A total of 311 completed questionnaires were returned. The sample consisted of 94
female (30.2%) and 217 male teachers (69.8%). The average age of the teachers
was 41.19 years (SD = 11.05), ranging from 21 to 63 years old. The mean number of
years that the subjects had taught gym was 18.85 (SD = 11.29), ranging from 1 to 39.
The mean number of weekly hours spent teaching gym was 20.26 (SD = 7.05). There
was no significant difference between the 311 respondents and the total population
of PE teachers on the variable age: t(469) = 1.33, p = > .05. The same result applied
to gender: χ²(1) = .04, p = >.05.
In order to try and raise the response rate, we followed suggestions made by Green
and Hutchinson (1996): we provided respondents with postage-paid envelopes, sent
the questionnaires directly to the respondents, told the respondents to contact us at
any time if necessary, and kept the questionnaire fairly short.
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
23
As we approached 500 teachers and had 311 responses, the response rate was 62%,
which Babbie (1995) finds adequate for surveys and which is also in accordance
with the findings of Asch, Jedrziewski, and Christakis (1997).
Measures
Burnout. The Dutch version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory for teachers (MBI-NL-Ed;
Schaufeli & Van Horn, 1995) was used to assess the PE teachers’ burnout level. The
instrument consists of twenty items, and is divided into three sub-scales: (1) emotional
exhaustion (EE; 8 items), (2) depersonalization (DP; 5 items) and (3) personal
accomplishment (PA; 7 items). Teachers could assign a score ranging from “never”
to “always” on a 7-point scale. It is assumed that teachers suffer from burnout when
their scores on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization are high, and their
scores on personal accomplishment are low. Examples of items indicating emotional
exhaustion are: “At the end of the working day I feel empty” and “I feel tired when I
get up in the morning, facing a new working day again”. The maximum score is 48.
Examples of depersonalization items are: “I have the feeling that I treat some
students in an impersonal way” and “I don't really care what will become of my
students”. The maximum score is 30. Examples of items indicating personal
accomplishment: are "When I have finished my instruction, I look back on it full of
satisfaction" and "I have the feeling I achieve many things of great value in this job".
The maximum score is 42. The three-factor structure of the Dutch version of the
Maslach Burnout Inventory for teachers was investigated with confirmatory factor
analysis (Schaufeli, Daamen, & Van Mierlo, 1994).
Job demands. Job demands were measured on six items derived from a Dutch
questionnaire on organizational stress (Vragenlijst Organisatiestress-Doetinchem,
VOS-D; Bergers, Marcelissen & De Wolff, 1986). The items were adapted to the
teaching profession. Teachers could assign a score ranging from “seldom” to “very
often” on a 5-point Likert scale. Examples of items are: “I have times when I (1) think
that the total amount of work is too great, (2) feel that I have to work extra hard, and
(3) feel I have onerous responsibilities in addition to teaching”. The maximum score is
30. In a study on organizational characteristics, work characteristics, and
relationships with psychological work reactions in a Dutch nursing sample, Tummers,
et al. (2006) found a Cronbach’s Alpha of .83 (N = 379).
Control. Control was measured on six items derived from the Maastricht Autonomy
Questionnaire (MAQ); De Jonge, Landeweerd & Van Breukelen, 1994), an instrument
for measuring autonomy or control in work situations. The items were adapted to the
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
24
teaching profession. Our respondents could assign a score ranging from “very little”
to “very much” on a 5-point Likert scale. Examples of items are: “I think that my job
gives me the opportunity (1) to determine my working objectives myself, (2) to
determine the teaching activities myself, (3) to personally determine which activities I
will perform”. The maximum score is 30. In a Dutch study on the relationships
between job characteristics and psychological well-being, De Jonge, et al. (2001)
used this scale and found a Cronbach’s Alpha of .81 (N = 261).
Colleague and School Management Support. Colleague and school management
support were measured using items taken from the Emotional Support Subscale of
the Social Support List – Discrepancies (SSL–D; Van Sonderen, 1991). We used six
items to measure colleague support and the same six items for school management
support. These items measure the extent to which teachers feel a discrepancy
between their need for supportive interactions with colleagues and school
managers on the one hand and the amount and intensity of supportive interaction
actually offered to them on the other. The items were measured on a 4-point scale
with a response format ranging from 1 to 4: “This never happens; This doesn’t happen
often enough; This happens fairly often; This happens too much.” Since none of the
participants in the present study chose the category “This happens fairly often; This
happens too much” on any item of this scale, it was not necessary to test curvilinear
relationships with other measured variables. The maximum score is 24. In a Dutch
study of the relationship between social support and well-being, Van Sonderen and
Ormel (1997) used this scale and found a Cronbach’s Alpha of .90 (N = 304).
Self-Efficacy related to Influencing Job Demands. We measured self-efficacy beliefs
related to teachers’ influence on job demands with an instrument developed
especially for this study, consisting of six items. The same formulations for measuring
job demands were used, with teachers being asked to rate the extent to which they
feel able to influence particular demands. The items were scored on a 6-point scale
running from “totally disagree” to “completely agree”. High scores on the items are
indicative of strong self-efficacy beliefs. Examples of items are: “I am able to
influence my work in such a way that I can (1) decrease the expected work pace,
(2) reduce the instances when I have to work extra hard, (3) avoid having to take on
too many responsibilities besides teaching”. The maximum score is 30.
Procedure
The questionnaires were mailed to the home addresses of randomly selected PE
teachers. In the accompanying letter, we explained the purpose of the study and
asked the teachers to participate by filling out the self-report questionnaires and
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
25
sending them back anonymously and individually in postage-paid envelopes. To
ensure a high response rate, the teachers were sent a written reminder asking them
to return the completed forms anonymously in the postage-paid envelopes. We also
used telephone reminders, since according to Asch et al. (1997), telephone
reminders are associated with higher response rates.
Results
In order to be able to determine whether the five variables predicting burnout -i.e.
job demands, job control, colleague support, school management support, and self-
efficacy beliefs about influencing job demands- reflect five factors, we conducted a
confirmatory factor analysis using the AMOS 6.1 computer program. A five-factor
model was formulated in which the items that were supposed to measure the same
variable (i.e., job demands) were loaded on one factor. To decide whether the five-
factor model fit the data, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was used, as research
findings show that it is relatively independent of the sample size taken at random
(Bentler, 1990). When the value of CFI turned out to be higher than Bentler and
Bonett’s (1980) recommended criterion of .90, we assumed that the model could not
be significantly improved. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed that
the five-factor model fit the data quite well (null model:
χ
2
(435) = 4404.40; five-factor
model:
χ
2
(395) = 713.35, CFI = .92).
Table 1 shows the standardized regression coefficients of the five-factor model that
can be interpreted as factor loadings. The lowest value of the standardized
regression coefficients was .43, which implies that the items loaded well on the
factors in question.
After scaling, the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations were computed
(see Table 2). Reliability analysis resulted in Cronbach’s Alphas of .91 for emotional
exhaustion, .74 for depersonalization, .83 for personal accomplishment, .80 for job
demands, .81 for control, .88 for colleague support, .92 for school management
support, and .79 for self-efficacy beliefs about influencing job demands. The results of
the reliability analysis show that only Cronbach's Alpha of the depersonalization
subscale does not meet Nunnally and Bernstein’s (1994) criterion of .80 (1978); the
other scales are quite reliable.
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
Table 1. Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Items of the Independent Variables.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Factors
Item No. Item 1 2 3 4 5
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Job Demands
I have times when I
7. think the total amount of work is too great. .80 -- -- -- --
1. find the expected work pace too fast. .72 -- -- -- --
2. feel I have to work extra hard. .69 -- -- -- --
3. have to work on various tasks simultaneously. .62 -- -- -- --
14. feel I have onerous responsibilities in addition to teaching. .58 -- -- -- --
4. would like more moments when I could take it easy. .47 -- -- -- --
Autonomy / Control
I think that my job gives me the opportunity to
3. determine my working objectives myself. -- .78 -- -- --
11. determine teaching activities myself. -- .70 -- -- --
4. determine the sequence of duties myself. -- .69 -- -- --
10. personally determine which activities I will perform. -- .62 -- -- --
1. choose my own way of working. -- .67 -- -- --
5. assess the quality of the results myself. -- .43 -- -- --
Colleague Support
This never happens; This doesn’t happen often enough;
This happens fairly often;
This happens too much; my colleagues
5. encourage me. -- -- .82 -- --
3. give me a push in the right direction. -- -- .79 -- --
1. support me. -- -- .75 -- --
2. revive me or cheer me up. -- -- .71 -- --
6. help me clarify my problems. -- -- .70 -- --
4. give me good advice. -- -- .70 -- --
School Management Support
This never happens; This doesn’t happen often enough;
This happens fairly often;
This happens too much; the school management
26
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
27
11. encourages me. -- -- -- .85 --
9. gives me a push in the right direction -- -- -- .85 --
10. gives me good advice. -- -- -- .83 --
8. revives me or cheers me up. -- -- -- .80 --
7. supports me. -- -- -- .77 --
12. helps me clarify my problems. -- -- -- .77 --
Self-Efficacy Beliefs about Influencing Job demands
I am able to influence my work in such a way that I can
1. reduce the expected work pace. -- -- -- -- .71
2. reduce the instances when I have to work extra hard. -- -- -- -- .69
4. build in moments during which I can take it easy. -- -- -- -- .63
7. avoid having too much work to do. -- -- -- -- .61
14. avoid taking on too many responsibilities besides teaching. -- -- -- -- .53
3. avoid being compelled to work on various tasks simultaneously. -- -- -- -- .53
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations of the Variables and Correlations Between the Variables.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Sex -- -- --
2. Age 43.18 11.05 -.27** --
3. Years of Teaching Gym 20.26 7.05 -.21** -.13* --
4. Job Demands 2.84 .74 .03 .20** -.09 --
5. Control 3.46 .67 .00 -.14* .11* -.25** --
6. Colleague Support 2.57 .50 -.09 -.02 -.01 -.19** .05 --
7. School Management Support 2.16 .52 -.08 -.05 -.02 -.25** .08 .42** --
8. Self-Efficacy about Influencing
Job demands 2.78 .64 -.14* -.06 .06 -.48** .42** .18** .23** --
9. Emotional Exhaustion 16.96 9.22 .08 .24** -.07 .64** -.31** -.37** -.32** -.42** --
10. Depersonalization 6.25 4.14 -.07 .15** .02 .36** -.16** -.35** -.21** -.22** .58** --
11. Personal Accomplishment 27.96 5.80 -.06 -.15** .05 -.14* .25** .17** .11 .22** -.39** -.49**
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: * < .05; ** < .01.
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
The correlation analyses (see Table 2) showed that the older PE teachers are, the
higher they score on job demands (r = .20, p < .01) and the lower on job control; r = -
.14, p < .05). The stronger the self-efficacy beliefs reported by the PE teachers about
influencing job demands, (1) the lower the extent of perceived job demands (r = -
.48, p < .01), (2) the more opportunities they felt they had to control their work (r =
.42, p < .01), and (3) the more support they got from their colleagues and school
managers (r = .18, p < .01; r = .23, p < .01, respectively). The more job demands PE
teachers experienced, the more likely they were to report (1) having fewer
opportunities to control their work (r = -.25, p < .01), and (2) having less support from
their colleagues as well as from their school managers (r = -.19, p < .01; r = -.25, p <
.01, respectively).
Hierarchical regression analyses were carried out in order to investigate to what
extent job demands, job control, colleague and managerial support and self-
efficacy beliefs, as well as the product variables job demands x control, job
demands x colleague support, job demands x school management support, job
demands x self-efficacy beliefs, and self-efficacy beliefs x school management
support, would explain their burnout level. In order to obtain beta-coefficients that
were comparable with each other, we centered the variables job demands, job
control, colleague and managerial support, and self-efficacy beliefs prior to the
regression analyses. Furthermore, the variables gender, age, and the number of
years of teaching experience were statistically controlled for. With each burnout
dimension as a dependent variable, these control variables were added to the
regression equation in step 1, followed by job demands, job control, colleague and
managerial support and self-efficacy beliefs in step 2 and the product variables in
step 3.
28
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
Table 3. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the Predicting Variables of Emotional Exhaustion,
Depersonalization and Personal Accomplishment.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Emotional Exhaustion
Depersonalization Personal Accomplishment
-------------------- ----------------- ------------------------
Predicting Variable B Beta ∆R2 B Beta ∆R2 B Beta ∆R2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Step 1 .08** .03 .04*
Sex .20 .08* -.15 -.08 -.14 -.08
Age .00 .12** .00 .04 -.01 -.14*
Years of Teaching Gymnastics .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .00
Step 2 .44** .21** .08**
Job Demands .77 .49** .30 .27** .00 .02
Control -.23 -.13** .00 -.05 .21 .17**
Colleague Support -.45 -.20** -.43 -.26** .18 .11
School Management Support -.15 -.08 .00 -.03 .00 .03
Self-Efficacy about Influencing Workload .00 -.04 .00 .01 .14 .11
Step 3 .02 .04* .03
Job demands x Control -.22 -.10* -.24 -.16** .00 -.03
Job demands x Colleague Support -.14 -.05 -.21 -.10 .30 .14*
Job demands x School Management Support .00 -.01 .00 .05 -.11 -.07
Job demands x Self-Efficacy Influence
Job demands .00 -.02 .00 -.04 .11 .07
Self-Efficacy Influence Job demands x
School Management Support -.18 -.07 -.11 -.06 .29 .16*
F-Total for the Equation 25.37** 8.15** 3.90**
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01.
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
2
9
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
Emotional exhaustion
The results of the hierarchical regression analyses (Table 3) revealed that both age
and gender showed a significant and positive correlation with the burnout
dimension emotional exhaustion (
β
= .12, p < .01). Of the variables added in step 2,
only job demands (
β
= .49, p < .01), job control (
β
= -.13, p < .01) and colleague
support (
β
= -.20, p < .01) were significantly related to emotional exhaustion. Of all
the product variables that were incorporated in step 3 of the regression equation,
only job demands x job control appeared to be significantly related to emotional
exhaustion (
β
= -.10, p < .05). This means that the correlation between job demands
and emotional exhaustion was lower the more teachers felt they could determine
the way they worked (job control).
Depersonalization
The variance in the depersonalization dimension of burnout was only significantly
explained by job demands (
β
= .27, p < .01), colleague support (
β
= -.26, p < .01) and
the product variable job demands x control (
β
= -.16, p < .01). High levels of
depersonalization were related to higher incidences of job demands and higher
levels of perceived lack of social support. The correlation between job demands
and depersonalization was also shown to be stronger the more teachers felt they
could determine the way they worked.
Personal Accomplishment
Only age (
β
= -.14, p < .05), job control (
β
= .17, p < .01) and the product variables
job demands x colleague support (
β
= .14, p < .05) and self-efficacy beliefs x school
management support (
β
= .16, p < .05) were significantly related to the personal
accomplishment dimension of burnout. Personal accomplishment was higher the
more teachers felt they could determine the way they worked. The teachers’ scores
on personal accomplishment were also higher the younger they were.
As for interactions, job control showed itself to be a moderator for the relationship
between job demands on the one hand and emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization on the other; colleague support was a moderator in the
correlation between job demands and personal accomplishment, whereas school
management support was a moderator in the correlation between self-efficacy
beliefs about influencing the job and personal accomplishment.
The total variance that could be explained by the predicting variables used in step
1, 2 and 3 was 54% for emotional exhaustion, 28% for depersonalization and 15% for
personal accomplishment.
30
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
31
Discussion
Our study, which examined burnout among PE teachers, showed that each of the
components of the Karasek JDCS-model -job demands, job control, and colleague
support- explained a rather significant part of the variance on at least two burnout
dimensions. Especially noticeable was the variance on the variable job demands
and the dimension of emotional exhaustion (Table 3 shows that .49 x .49 = 24% of the
variance was explained). Furthermore, it is rather striking that job demands showed
no significant correlation with personal accomplishment. The reason might be found
in the fact that job demands had a direct influence on emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization and might have had an indirect influence through emotional
exhaustion on personal accomplishment. We found support for this supposition in Lee
and Ashforth (1993).
The results also showed that the predicting variables explained a relatively high
percentage of the variance on emotional exhaustion and a relatively low
percentage for personal accomplishment. Obviously, personal accomplishment is a
concept relatively unrelated to emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, as
perceived by Walkey and Green (1992). As research suggests that personal
accomplishment diminishes first when burnout develops, further research could focus
on factors that are connected with this concept. According to Van Dierendonck,
Schaufeli, and Buunk (2001), it is only when personal accomplishment has declined
that depersonalization and emotional exhaustion develop.
Regression analysis also showed (Table 3) that school management support and self-
efficacy beliefs, although significantly related to two dimensions of burnout (Table 2),
did not explain any additional part of the variance on the burnout dimensions unless
they interacted with either job demands, job control, or colleague support. The
reason might be the location in which PE teachers give lessons, where they have less
frequent social contact with colleagues and managers, which they consequently
value more and consider more important. Moreover, important issues that arise in
explaining the onset of burnout, e.g. classroom discipline and lack of academic
achievement (Brouwers & Tomic, 1999; Martin, 1997), are of an entirely different
nature when it comes to P. E. lessons. Future studies could examine whether self-
efficacy beliefs in domains different from job demands will explain part of the
variance in PE teachers’ burnout.
School management support and self-efficacy beliefs with respect to job demands,
however, appeared to interact in the relationship with personal accomplishment.
Job demands, job control, social support and self-efficacy beliefs
32
The importance of control as a moderator in the relationship between job demands
and emotional exhaustion and between job demands and depersonalization was
confirmed, whereas it was found not to be important in the relationship between job
demands and personal accomplishment.
Table 3 also showed that colleague support is only an important moderator in the
relationship between job demands and personal accomplishment and not in the
relationship between job demands and emotional exhaustion or depersonalization.
The importance of school management support as a moderator in the relationship
between self-efficacy beliefs about influencing job demands and the dimensions of
burnout was affirmed for personal accomplishment only, and not for
depersonalization and emotional exhaustion (in other words our hypothesis was
confirmed for personal accomplishment only). Our results reveal that the P. E.
teacher’s age may be of some importance in explaining burnout. It may be that as
they grow older, PE teachers suffer more physical complaints than other teachers.
These complaints might have negative consequences for their emotional wellbeing
and their ideas about personal competence. Feelings of loss, e.g. the idea of having
lost youthful agility and suppleness, might be at the basis of these negative self-
evaluations.
A potential limitation of our correlation design is that the causation of our findings
could run in the opposite direction. Therefore, we must look at its practical
implications in a more careful and nuanced way. A possible intervention aimed at
prevention of burnout, could be a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) training
program, supplemented with cognitive elements aimed to help teachers reflect on
strategies to cope with the demands of life and work. Studies have shown that the
MBSR-program can help to diminish psychosomatic symptoms among a broad
spectrum of people working in a number of different occupations (Chang et al.,
2004; Shapiro, Astin, Bishop, & Cordova, 2005). In a pilot study Napoli (2004) showed
that teachers who followed the MBSR-program improved in their abilities to deal with
conflict and anxiety, whereby they were less prone to experience a chronic stress
level, eventually resulting in burnout. Originally, the MBSR-program was an eight-
week training course consisting of two and a half hour sessions that focus on learning
how to relax attentively (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Later, the program was supplemented
with cognitive techniques to suit patients suffering from depression (Teasdale, Segal,
& Williams, 1995). Since job demands may have a significant impact on feelings of
psychological well-being, it is important to extend the MBSR-program with cognitive
elements which take issues regarding work load and the coping with this specific
kind of stressors into account. Such a program could be a meaningful part of the
Europe’s Journal of Psychology
33
curriculum for student teachers as well as a module intended to promote the
professional development of PE teachers.
Our study is probably one of the first to examine burnout among a specific category
of subject teachers. As stressors relating to burnout seem to differ from profession to
profession, it is not too far-fetched to assume that stressors within one wide-ranging
professional group such as teachers might differ from one subject to the next.
Examining specific categories of subject teachers may not only reveal relationships
between stressors and burnout, but also offer insight into remedies that could
provide specific help in relieving the consequences of burnout. Furthermore,
examining specific categories of subject teachers may make it possible to compare
the working conditions of the various categories of teachers: is it indeed true that
some categories of teachers are assigned more and heavier tasks than teachers in
other categories? Reliable findings in this regard could prevent overburdening of
teachers, which often leads to negative stress reactions and burnout. This is what
burnout research should in fact be all about: helping to create healthy work
environments for professionals that enable them to perform their duties in peak
condition, without falling victim to avoidable diseases. Prevention is the magic word
and will help save millions in social welfare payments and promote personal
wellbeing for thousands.
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About the authors:
André Brouwers is currently at the Open University of the Netherlands, Department of
Psychology. He has published widely in the field of occupational and organizational
psychology, in particular on burnout. His current work centers on coaching and
mindfulness research.
E-mail: andre.brouwers@ou.nl
Welko Tomic is currently at the Open University of the Netherlands, Department of
Psychology. He has published extensively on issues related to teacher behavior,
transfer, and burnout. His current work focuses on creativity research, existential
fulfillment, work engagement and psychosocial disorders. E-mail: welko.tomic@ou.nl
Huibrecht Boluijt is a former physical education teacher with a master degree in
psychology. Currently, he is a reintegration business owner.
