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Directed Diffusion: A Scalable and Robust Communication Paradigm for Sensor Networks
Abstract
Advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small and cheap nodes capable of sensing, communication and computation. Networks of such nodes can coordinate to perform distributed sensing of environmental phenomena. In this paper, we explore the directed diusion paradigm for such coordination. Directed diusion is datacentric in that all communication is for named data. All nodes in a directed diusion-based network are applicationaware. This enables diusion to achieve energy savings by selecting empirically good paths and by caching and processing data in-network. We explore and evaluate the use of directed diusion for a simple remote-surveillance sensor network. 1 Introduction In the near future, advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small and cheap nodes capable of wireless communication and signicant computation. The addition of sensing capability to such devices will make distributed microsensing|an activity in which a collection of ...
... The data query routing algorithm provides routes based on users. Directed Diffusion (DD) is a typical data-centric query routing algorithm in a flat structure [12]. Its core is to adopt a directional transmission mechanism. ...
... That is, the time interval from the interruption to the next task. It is defined as (12). ...
... Under the same condition, traditional Directed Diffusion (DD) algorithm [12], the Improved Directed Diffusion (IDD) routing algorithm [13], the Passive Clustering Directed Diffusion (PCDD) routing algorithm [14] and the proposed Data Query Routing Algorithm with Cluster Bridge (DQCB) algorithm are simulated. Fig. 7 shows the relationship between network running time and the flooding amount of interest packets at interest diffusion stage. ...
... The scheme proposed uses two different polynomial pools: a static and dynamic polynomial pool [7]. The polynomial from movable polynomial group is utilized to create authentication with mobile device and the sensor node. ...
... Accessing these addresses which will facilitate the mobile (M) sinks(S) network to access the sensor(S) network (N) to collect data. Therefore, the attacker must collect at minimum one polynomial using the mobile pool in order to access the network and collect sensor [7] information. Polynomials [4][5] [6] [15] from the pool of static polynomial are utilized to concur the authorization and key verification between the static access node and the sensor node. ...
Main problem is when setting up Wireless(W)-Sensor(S)-Network(N) intended for node communication arises for security. Discussed here is a three-tier architecture with two polynomial pools containing wireless routers, key generation center and few access points which are also sensor nodes that can be mobile devices that intend to get better security. The crucial feature of three tier architecture authentication, where communication between WN to access(A) point(P) is established from AP to the sensor node, resulted by pair(P)wise(W) key(K) pre-distribution (PD) methodology and the nodes are authenticated utilizing polynomial keys and Paillier cryptosystem algorithm. Presently, the WN attacks the duplication, such as seeing the nodes in the network. In the event that a nasty node is found and if you want to send packets within the network, you need to store many of keys from both pools for validation. But because there are no sufficient keys available and therefore can't communicate with other nodes in the network. This paper describes an effective contrivance for accomplishing security between node communications by formulating three-level security architecture.
... Many researchers have been suggested to utilize aspects/attributes from outside of the underlying topology and based on specific application to implement low level addressing/naming [19]. Authors of [16,20] have been conducted their efficient routing algorithms based on designed strategy followed in [19]. However, the address algorithms based on aspects/attribute design philosophy are recognized the need of a global network address per sensor device. ...
... Thus, aspects/attributes like location of sensor device location and/or data reading of sensor are utilized to identify BS/sink sensor device. These aspects/attributes are participating to construct routing algorithm as described in [20]. ...
Applications of Wireless Sensor devices are widely used by
various monitoring sections such as environmental monitoring, industrial
sensing, habitatmodeling, healthcare and enemy movement detection systems.
Researchers were found that 16 bytes packet size (payload) requires Media
Access Control (MAC) and globally unique network addresses overheads as
more as the payload itself which is not reasonable in most situations. The
approach of using a unique address isn’t preferable for most Wireless Sensor
Networks (WSNs) applications as well. Based on the mentioned drawbacks,
the current work aims to fill the existing gap in the field area by providing
two strategies. First, name/address solutions that assign unique addresses
locally to clustered topology-based sensor devices, reutilized in a spatial
manner, and reduce name/address size by a noticeable amount of 2.9 based
on conducted simulation test. Second, name/address solutions that assign
reutilizing of names/addresses to location-unaware spanning-tree topology
in an event-driven WSNs case (that is providing minimal low latencies
and delivering addressing packet in an efficient manner). Also, to decline
the approach of needing both addresses (MAC and network) separately, it
discloses how in a spatial manner to reutilize locally unique sensor device
name approach and could be utilized in both contexts and providing an
energy-efficient protocol for location unawareness clustered based WSNs.
In comparison, an experimental simulation test performed and given the
addresses solution with less overhead in the header and 62 percent fair
payload efficiency that outperforms 34 percent less effective globally unique
addresses. Furthermore, the proposed work provides addresses uniqueness
for network-level without using network-wide Duplicate Address Detection
(DAD) algorithm. Consequently, the current study provides a roadmap for
addressing/naming scheme to help researchers in this field of study. In general,
some assumptions were taken during the work phases of this study such as
number of Cluster Head (CH) nodes is 6% of entire sensor nodes, location
unawareness for entire sensor network and 4 bits per node address spacewhich
considered as the limitation of the study.
... • directed diffusion routing [163,162]; ...
... In directed diffusion [163,162] an interest message will be send by a sink node and disseminated in the network. The interest message describes the desired data. ...
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of physical objects that can be discovered, monitored, controlled, or interacted with by electronic devices that communicate over various networking interfaces and eventually can be connected to the wider Internet. [Guinard and Trifa, 2016]. IoT devices are equipped with sensors and/or actuators and may be constrained in terms of memory, computational power, network bandwidth, and energy. Interoperability can help to manage such heterogeneous devices. Interoperability is the ability of different types of systems to work together smoothly. There are four levels of interoperability: physical, network and transport, integration, and data. The data interoperability is subdivided into syntactic and semantic data. Semantic data describes the meaning of data and the common understanding of vocabulary e.g. with the help of dictionaries, taxonomies, ontologies. To achieve interoperability, semantic interoperability is necessary. Many organizations and companies are working on standards and solutions for interoperability in the IoT. However, the commercial solutions produce a vendor lock-in. They focus on centralized approaches such as cloud-based solutions. This thesis proposes a decentralized approach namely Edge Computing. Edge Computing is based on the concepts of mesh networking and distributed processing. This approach has an advantage that information collection and processing are placed closer to the sources of this information. The goals are to reduce traffic, latency, and to be robust against a lossy or failed Internet connection. We see management of IoT devices from the network configuration management perspective. This thesis proposes a framework for network configuration management of heterogeneous, constrained IoT devices by using semantic descriptions for interoperability. The MYNO framework is an acronym for MQTT, YANG, NETCONF and Ontology. The NETCONF protocol is the IETF standard for network configuration management. The MQTT protocol is the de-facto standard in the IoT. We picked up the idea of the NETCONF-MQTT bridge, originally proposed by Scheffler and Bonneß[2017], and extended it with semantic device descriptions. These device descriptions provide a description of the device capabilities. They are based on the oneM2M Base ontology and formalized by the Semantic Web Standards. The novel approach is using a ontology-based device description directly on a constrained device in combination with the MQTT protocol. The bridge was extended in order to query such descriptions. Using a semantic annotation, we achieved that the device capabilities are self-descriptive, machine readable and re-usable. The concept of a Virtual Device was introduced and implemented, based on semantic device descriptions. A Virtual Device aggregates the capabilities of all devices at the edge network and contributes therefore to the scalability. Thus, it is possible to control all devices via a single RPC call. The model-driven NETCONF Web-Client is generated automatically from this YANG model which is generated by the bridge based on the semantic device description. The Web-Client provides a user-friendly interface, offers RPC calls and displays sensor values. We demonstrate the feasibility of this approach in different use cases: sensor and actuator scenarios, as well as event configuration and triggering. The semantic approach results in increased memory overhead. Therefore, we evaluated CBOR and RDF HDT for optimization of ontology-based device descriptions for use on constrained devices. The evaluation shows that CBOR is not suitable for long strings and RDF HDT is a promising candidate but is still a W3C Member Submission. Finally, we used an optimized JSON-LD format for the syntax of the device descriptions. One of the security tasks of network management is the distribution of firmware updates. The MYNO Update Protocol (MUP) was developed and evaluated on constrained devices CC2538dk and 6LoWPAN. The MYNO update process is focused on freshness and authenticity of the firmware. The evaluation shows that it is challenging but feasible to bring the firmware updates to constrained devices using MQTT. As a new requirement for the next MQTT version, we propose to add a slicing feature for the better support of constrained devices. The MQTT broker should slice data to the maximum packet size specified by the device and transfer it slice-by-slice. For the performance and scalability evaluation of MYNO framework, we setup the High Precision Agriculture demonstrator with 10 ESP-32 NodeMCU boards at the edge of the network. The ESP-32 NodeMCU boards, connected by WLAN, were equipped with six sensors and two actuators. The performance evaluation shows that the processing of ontology-based descriptions on a Raspberry Pi 3B with the RDFLib is a challenging task regarding computational power. Nevertheless, it is feasible because it must be done only once per device during the discovery process. The MYNO framework was tested with heterogeneous devices such as CC2538dk from Texas Instruments, Arduino Yún Rev 3, and ESP-32 NodeMCU, and IP-based networks such as 6LoWPAN and WLAN. Summarizing, with the MYNO framework we could show that the semantic approach on constrained devices is feasible in the IoT.
... Several protocols in the case of flat routing have been developed [119]. Among these protocols, we can quote, Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN) [99,100], Directed Diffusion (DD) [101], Rumour Routing (RR) [102], Minimum Cost Forwarding Algorithm (MCFA) [103]. ii. ...
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the recent technology intended to facilitate the daily life of humans by providing the power to connect, control and automate objects in the physical world. In this logic, the IoT helps to improve our way of producing and working in various areas (e.g. agriculture, industry, healthcare, transportation etc). Basically, an IoT network comprises physical devices, equipped with sensors and transmitters, that are interconnected with each other and/or connected to the Internet. Its main objective is to gather and transmit data to a storage system such as a server or cloud to enable processing and analysis, ultimately facilitating rapid decision‐making or enhancements to the user experience. In the realm of Connected Objects, an effective IoT data collection system plays a vital role by providing several benefits, such as real‐time data monitoring, enhanced decision‐making, increased operational efficiency etc. However, because of the resource limitations linked to connected objects, such as low memory and battery, or even single‐use devices etc. IoT data collecting presents several challenges including scalability, security, interoperability, flexibility etc. for both researchers and companies. The authors categorise current IoT data collection techniques and perform a comparative evaluation of these methods based on the topics analysed and elaborated by the authors. In addition, a comprehensive analysis of recent advances in IoT data collection is provided, highlighting different data types and sources, transmission protocols from connected sensors to a storage platform (server or cloud), the IoT data collection framework, and principles for streamlining the collection process. Finally, the most important research questions and future prospects for the effective collection of IoT data are summarised.
... To specify the properties of data sensor-ids is not used because number of such nodes are huge, so attribute-based naming is used as data is requested through queries. SPIN (Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation) [11,12], Directed Diffusion [13], Rumour Routing [14], Gradient-Based Routing [15] are some of the flat-based routing protocols. 2) Hierarchical-based Routing Protocol: hierarchicalbased routing protocols are used to perform energy efficient routing in WSNs. ...
... WSN are used in many applications in our everyday life, including, but not limited to forest monitoring, critical infrastructures, connected homes, smart cities, agriculture, etc. [13,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]. That being said, one of the biggest challenges is the routing problem which consists to route collected items to their final destination. ...
Wireless sensors networks (WSN) become more popular in recent years. For their efficient use, it is necessary to define energy-efficient routing protocols. In WSN, it sometimes arrives that some sensors have items that belong or not to them. The aim being to send each item to its real destination. This problem is known as the permutation routing problem. Some sensors may fail during the routing process. These particular cases must not prevent the operation of routing as a whole. Thus, it becomes important to ensure the fault-tolerance of the routing mechanism. In this paper we propose an energy-efficient and fault-tolerant permutation routing protocol for WSN. The proposed PEFTOSPRO protocol is realized in four stages. Firstly, we partition the sensors in cliques within which Cluster Heads (CH) are elected. Secondly, we achieve the hierarchical clustering of CH. Thirdly, we route items to their belonging cliques. And finally, we route each item to it real destination within all the cliques. We use the wake and sleep technique and the fault-tolerance in the data routing process in order to save the sensors’ energy. Simulations show that the wake and sleep technique and the fault tolerance management during the data routing process help to save the sensors’ energy, and by doing so, prolong the lifetime of the WSN. PEFTOSPRO is a suited protocol to solve the permutation routing problem in a multi-hop environment for wireless sensor networks, because it ensures that sensors efficiently use their energy and takes into account the fault tolerance.
... In addition, WSNs are helpful for checking and following purposes in unavailable and hostile conditions, in which human mediation does not or cannot happen. Checking purposes include observation of concoction vapors and gaseous tension observation; tracking purposes include human tracking and animal tracking [7]. Security of computer networks has become a primary concern; the cloud has exposed network technologies to different invasive activities, leading to intense failure. ...
In the past decade, traditional networks have been utilized to transfer data between more than one node. The primary problem related to formal networks is their stable essence, which makes them incapable of meeting the requirements of nodes recently inserted into the network. Thus, formal networks are substituted by a Software Defined Network (SDN). The latter can be utilized to construct a structure for intensive data applications like big data. In this paper, a comparative investigation of Deep Neural Network (DNN) and Machine Learning (ML) techniques that uses various feature selection techniques is undertaken. The ML techniques employed in this approach are decision tree (DT), Naïve Bayes (NB), Support Vector Machine (SVM). The proposed approach is tested experimentally and evaluated using an available NSL–KDD dataset. This dataset includes 41 features and 148,517 samples. To evaluate the techniques, several estimation measurements are calculated. The results prove that DT is the most accurate and effective approach. Furthermore, the evaluation measurements indicate the efficacy of the presented approach compared to earlier studies.
... The WSN is involved in numerous problems, while starting the communication between sensor nodes [8][9][10][11][12]. The sensor nodes are dynamic and hence they move from place to place. ...
Computers are connected through a network. Wireless sensor nodes are used in sensor networks to keep tabs on their surroundings. The building components of a network are sensor nodes. Processors, transceiver and memory are all onboard as well as a power supply. A WSN is a network of devices. Lifespan, data collection, and security are WSN parameters. Wireless sensors' low cost and quick deployment make them ideal for real-time applications. WSN's key problem is long-term energy supply. Energy resource, energy harvesting, topology, and effective routing may extend network lifespan. WSN energy is improved using an efficient manner. The recommended technique relies heavily on grouping and selecting the best possible path. The energy levels of the sensor nodes decide the cluster leader. Chikoo search algorithm selects the best path. This algorithm saves more energy than others. Optimum search ideas identify optimal sink location. Based on the network's energy dissipation and distribution, this technique finds the ideal location for all sinks to improve the network's lifespan and move with intelligent sink placement.
... The animal those are equipped with the sensors are easily tracked in the wide spread wild area [4]. WSN has changed the network communication field drastically because the major manufacturing industries are running continuously and required highly monitoring 24 hours so the sensor network works efficiently and effectively [5]. In enhancement in the recent hardware technologies with the introducing micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) [6]. ...
Wireless sensor network (WSN) is widely acceptable communication network where human-intervention is less. Another prominent factors are cheap in cost and covers huge area of field for communication. WSN as name suggests sensor nodes are present which communicate to the neighboring node to form a network. These nodes are communicate via radio signals and equipped with battery which is one of most challenge in these networks. The battery consumption is depend on weather where sensors are deployed, routing protocols etc. To reduce the battery at routing level various quality of services (QoS) parameters are available to measure the performance of the network. To overcome this problem, many routing protocol has been proposed. In this paper, we considered two energy efficient protocols i.e. LEACH and Sub-cluster LEACH protocols. For provision of better performance of network Levenberg-Marquardt neural network (LMNN) and Moth-Flame optimisation both are implemented one by one. QoS parameters considered to measure the performance are energy efficiency, end-to-end delay, Throughput and Packet delivery ratio (PDR). After implementation, simulation results show that Sub-cluster LEACH with MFO is outperforms among other algorithms.Along with this, second part of paper considered to anomaly detection based on machine learning algorithms such as SVM, KNN and LR. NSLKDD dataset is considered and than proposed the anomaly detection method.Simulation results shows that proposed method with SVM provide better results among others.
... All nodes are handled equally in flat-based routing and have the same functionality i.e. no leader/head node concept exists. Example of flat-based protocols are Direct propagation [7], Directed diffusion [8], SPIN [9]. Some of the nodes in Hierarchical routing are leader/head nodes. ...
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is an increasingly growing field, due to its enormous applications. In WSNs, energy conservation is the most important design challenge. In WSNs, unequal clustering can be classified as the best data transmission method that saves energy, where the size of the cluster changes in proportion to the cluster head’s (CH’s) distance from the base station (BS), so as to prevent energy holes/hot-spots from being formed. We have developed GA-UCR in this paper, a “Genetic Algorithm based Unequal Clustering and Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks”. For CH election, genetic algorithm (GA) has been utilized with three fitness functions- remaining energy of CH nodes, distance between CH and BS/sink, and inter-cluster separation. For inter-cluster multi-hopping, to route the data towards BS, again GA is utilized due to the NP-Hard nature of the problem, with three fitness functions-residual/remaining energy of next hop nodes, CH to next hop node distance and number of hops. Simulation outcomes and analysis show that with reference to energy consumption, network lifetime and scalability, the proposed algorithm exceeds the existing algorithms such as Direct propagation, LEACH, TL-LEACH, GCA, EAERP and GAECH.
... The BS sends queries to certain regions and wait for data from the sensors located in the selected regions. Some of the routing protocols are Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN) [7,8], Directed Diffusion [9], Rumour Routing [10], Gradient-Based Routing [11]. ...
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consists of large number of sensors deployed in regions required by the applications to collect information about the surrounding environment. WSNs are highly vulnerable to security attacks at various levels due to their distributed nature, multi-hop data forwarding, and open wireless medium. A clustering-based routing protocol LEACH is a successful protocol for routing in WSNs as well as evenly utilizing energy of sensor nodes since all sensor nodes have limited source of energy. However, LEACH protocol also has some flaws which can attract attackers and they can cause serious damage either physically or it can also steal information from the network. Due to this reason security is the main problem of LEACH protocol and many secure versions of this protocol have been designed to make it resilient against insider as well as outsider attackers. In this paper, we discuss some of the threats in WSNs along with various kinds of attacks as well as mechanism to deal with such threats. Furthermore, we discuss LEACH protocol and its extensions, various techniques used to define secure LEACH which can protect network from entering intruders. Lastly, we compare some secure LEACH schemes like cryptographic-based or trust-based scheme.
... A number of different strategies for multi-hop routing including minimum distance and minimum-hop routing have been presented in the literature [10]. Energy-aware routing is closely related to directed diffusion routing [12]. In this, the source sends a data packet travelling along the route with the minimum number of hops while consuming energy. ...
Turkish Journal of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation ( TJPR )
https://www.turkjphysiotherrehabil.org/pub/pdf/321/32-1-3148.pdf
... Directed diffusion [13]-does an initial limited data flooding and sets up reverse gradients to reinforce the best path. It results in high quality paths, but requires an initial flooding for exploration. ...
Sensor networks, composed of large amount of micro-sensors, are considered promising, both in academic research and in real life applications. To ensure highly efficient communications between event observers and sensor network users, new infrastructures and algorithms are being developed. This paper describes Artery, a novel architecture that delivers queries and data between multiple observers and multiple mobile users. Simulation results show that Artery outperforms some major data dissemination algorithms.
... A routing protocol for gathering information and dissemination in wireless sensor networks was proposed and named as directed diffusion [ 23 ]. In this technique, nodes in the network will interact among them by exchanging messages in a localised interaction © Springer Nature with limited network area. ...
... Intanagonwiwat [27] and other authors proposed "a scalable and robust communication networks." The developments in processor, memory, and radio technology would make it possible to detect, communicate, and compute small or inexpensive nodes. ...
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have attracted much more attention in recent years. Hence, nowadays, WSN is considered one of the most popular technologies in the networking field. The reason behind its increasing rate is only for its adaptability as it works through batteries which are energy efficient, and for these characteristics, it has covered a wide market worldwide. Transmission collision is one of the key reasons for the decrease in performance in WSNs which results in excessive delay and packet loss. The collision range should be minimized in order to mitigate the risk of these packet collisions. The WSNs that contribute to minimize the collision area and the statistics show that the collision area which exceeds equivalents transmission power has been significantly reduced by this technique. This proposed paper optimally reduced the power consumption and data loss through proper routing of packets and the method of congestion detection. WSNs typically require high data reliability to preserve identification and responsiveness capacity while also improving data reliability, transmission, and redundancy. Retransmission is determined by the probability of packet arrival as well as the average energy consumption.
... Other routing strategies aim to provide fault tolerance. To achieve fault tolerance, the Directed Diffusion (DD) protocol was developed, where packets may follow multiple routes [8]. ...
In this paper, a novel energy-aware routing strategy for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is developed. The proposed strategy improves on the Self Healing Routing protocol (SHR), by periodically switching off different sensors while maintaining a small number of active nodes. These active nodes are carefully selected via a negotiation protocol to achieve proper terrain coverage. The proposed strategy is implemented and integrated into the SENSE simulation environment [1]. Experimental results illustrate the tradeoff between different performance parameters and the improvement in network lifetime. Different scenarios are implemented to study the effect of the number of active nodes as well as the scheduling time for inactive ones. The presented results can serve as a guide for selecting operating parameters in different scenarios.
... In Directed Diffusion technique, the data collection process involves data messages, gradients, and reinforcements [46]. An interesting message is a query where the user specifies their interest in specific data sets. ...
The design of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) requires the fulfillment of several design requirements. The most important one is optimizing the battery’s lifetime, which is tightly coupled to the sensor lifetime. End-users usually avoid replacing sensors’ batteries, especially in massive deployment scenarios like smart agriculture and smart buildings. To optimize battery lifetime, wireless sensor designers need to delineate and optimize active components at different levels of the sensor’s layered architecture, mainly, (1) the number of data sets being generated and processed at the application layer, (2) the size and the architecture of the operating systems (OS), (3) the networking layers’ protocols, and (4) the architecture of electronic components and duty cycling techniques. This paper reviews the different relevant technologies and investigates how they optimize energy consumption at each layer of the sensor’s architecture, e.g., hardware, operating system, application, and networking layer. This paper aims to make the researcher aware of the various optimization opportunities when designing WSN nodes. To our knowledge, there is no other work in the literature that reviews energy optimization of WSN in the context of Smart Energy-Efficient Buildings (SEEB) and from the formerly four listed perspectives to help in the design and implementation of optimal WSN for SEEB.
... Gradient-Based Routing [77], [78]. ...
During the past few years, Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSNs) become widely used due to their large amount of applications. These applications are classified into mine detection, landslide activities, ecology monitoring, or precision agriculture. in this latter, the buried nodeshave to check the good growth of plants by verifying the water content, the temperature, and the presence of nutriment. Thus, the user is able to decide to water or to add fertilizers in a particular area, therefore, efficient use of the resources is performed. However, since the ground which is denser than the air is the communication channel, the electromagnetic (EM) waves used for wireless communications are widely attenuated due to soil properties that may change over time. Thus, a sensor node must waste its energy by sending its sensed data to a destination node without being received by this latter due to signal loss in soil. A WUSN requires beforehand to allow reliable communication between buried sensor nodes.This thesis aims at allowing reliable and energy-efficient communication in WUSN for real-time application of precision agriculture. To achieve it, we proposed the Wireless Underground Sensor Network Path Loss Model called WUSN-PLM for the prediction of the signal loss in precision agriculture. In order to validate the proposed WUSN-PLM, intensive measurements have been conducted in a real agricultural field of onions culture at the Botanic Garden of the University Cheikh Anta Diop of Dakar. Over the 140 measurements, WUSN-PLM outperforms the existing models with 87:13% precision. Furthermore, for a real-time prediction of the packet loss, we proposed a link channel optimization for reliable communications in WUSNs based on the Sugeno Fuzzy Inference System (FIS). The proposed FIS consists of 04 inputs, one output, and 36 rules. The inputs give information related to the buried depth of transmitter and receiver nodes, the average value of the soil moisture proportion, and the linear distance between nodes. The output of the FIS gives the reception probability of a packet sent by the source node according to the previous parameters. The evaluation of the proposed approach obtains a higher accuracy and precision than WUSN-PLM (91:429% and 87:129% respectively) The Fuzzy Logic-based approach has been integrated within real sensor nodes made up of ARDUINO boards for practical use.
Artificial nori is a dry sheet food product resembling nori made from materials other than seaweed. In this study, nori was made from green grass jelly and papaya. The quality of artificial nori can be influenced by its binding material. Cassava starch has potential as a binder in making analog nori. This study aims to determine the potential of cassava starch to improve the quality of artificial nori made from green grass jelly leaves in terms of moisture content, total dissolved solids, water absorption capacity, texture, and sensory quality. The addition of 5% cassava starch to artificial nori made from grass jelly and papaya leaves reduced the total dissolved solids, water absorption capacity and hard texture of artificial nori, but had no effect on other sensory properties. Cassava starch has the potential to improve the texture of artificial nori so that it is drier but not too brittle
Background. Currently, there is a problem of limited resources of individual nodes of sensor networks, to solve many problems (including positioning), there is a need to develop methods for joint work of all nodes of the network. One of such tasks is the task of localization of nodes of the sensor network with self-organization. It consists in determining the coordinates of individual sensors without the use of external infrastructure. The problem of localization has been extensively studied in the past, as information on the location of objects or people is important in many applications, and a large number of systems have been developed to address them. The most famous of these is the Global Positioning System (GPS). However, the GPS approach cannot be applied to WSN due to its requirements for a large number of additional infrastructures (e.g. satellites). Methods. In this paper methods of complex systems analysis and synthesis as well as computer simulation are used. Results. In this study, it is proposed to use the method of measuring the distance between objects, based on the time of arrival of the signal. The estimation of error of measurement of frequency, at measurement of high and low frequencies is given. It is determined that in the study of periodic processes in a wide range of frequencies to achieve a given accuracy, it is advisable to use a digital frequency meter in the high frequency range, and in the low frequency range to move to period measurement. Research has been conducted and graphs of quantization errors in frequency and period measurement have been constructed. An algorithm of microprocessor frequency meter operation is built, which allows studying periodic processes in a wide range. The block diagram of the microprocessor frequency meter is offered, which allows implementing the given algorithm. Сonclusions. Implementation of the designed microprocessor frequency meter allows one substantially increase efficiency of wireless censor networks due to more precise measurements of the network elements positions.
The utilization of Internet of Things (IoT) in daily life and networking has been on the rise. Smartwatches, computers, smartphones, and other electronic devices utilize IoT for communication infrastructure. The primary objective of IoT is to provide a communication mechanism between endpoints, which face a range of issues such as data security, availability, mobility, performance, congestion control, and load balancing. To facilitate this, various routing protocols are employed in IoT, including those based on network structure. However, there are several routing challenges and problems in IoT that require further investigation, as discussed in this study.
As IoT is accepted across the world and the nodes connected are increasing rapidly through various applications like Smart Homes, Smart Cities, Health Care, and many more. The physical objects have a limited number of resources on which they rely like energy, bandwidth, and memory. The working of physical objects is affected due to these limited resources. Energy Efficient Protocol (EEP) is one solution to it, which is important in increasing the life of a physical object and smooth working of it over the network. This paper gives an overview of EEP that are being used and implemented in WSN.
Wireless sensor networks have potential to become the pervasive sensing (and actuating) technology of the future. For many applications, a large number of inexpensive sensors are preferable to a few expensive ones. The large number of sensors in a sensor network and most application scenarios preclude hand placement of the sensors. Determining the physical location of the sensors after they have been deployed is known as the problem of localization. In this paper, we proposed a novel localization technique based on a single mobile beacon aware of its position (e.g. by being equipped with a GPS receiver). Sensor nodes receiving beacon packets infer proximity constraints to the mobile beacon and use them to construct and maintain position estimate. As a range free technique so no extra hardware is necessary. This proposed technique is able to work in case of both anisotropic and isotropic networks.
For example in Wi-Fi Indicator Systems (WSNs), power source usage is a growing idea for information transmitting in different situation. WSN is a good strategy for wide range of different real-time programs. Different Redirecting methods for WSNs are very effective task in present days because of scalability, effective power usage and sturdiness in large amount of wireless sensor networks with comprises of more wide range of sensor nodes. LEATCH is a standard routing method for power marketing in WSNs, the main idea of LEACH behind wireless networks is to save power (energy) and it works on more long lasting plan in wireless sensor networks. This is due to the fact that all the functions will continue with expected with limitations on measurements on processor snacks chips, information storage benefits immediately wireless sensor networks. To minimize the place issue, we propose an Imbalanced Cluster-based Redirecting (ICR) method. It groups the nodes into multiple unequal measurements. Group heads closer to the bottom place have more compact cluster measurements than those farther from the bottom place, thus they can protect some energy for the inter-cluster information sending. A selfish geographic and energy-aware routing method is made for the inter-cluster interaction, which views the tradeoff between the power cost of pass on routes and the residual energy of pass on nodes. Simulator results show that UCR mitigates the place issue and accomplishes an apparent improvement on the system lifetime.
Resource optimization is critical to meeting the deterministic performance requirements of low-cost IWNs, making it a hot research topic. This chapter first discusses the problem formulation for resource optimization in IWNs, including the performance index and resource constraints. Then, a detailed review to the state-of-the-art methods for resource optimization is delivered and the drawbacks of exiting resource optimization methods are discussed.
Data Intensive scientific computing involves organizing, moving, visualizing, and analyzing massive amounts of data from around the world, as well as employing large-scale computation. There are systems that try to unify job and data management, but these are two different tasks to face in a Grid environment. Existing systems have tried to achieve only either job scheduling or data replication and does not provide fault tolerance. Data replication and job scheduling are two different but complementary functions in Data Grids: one to minimize the total file access cost (thus total job execution time of all sites), and the other to minimize the MakeSpan (the maximum job completion time among all sites). The two main challenges: first, how to formulate a problem that incorporates not only data replication but also job scheduling, and which addresses both total access cost and maximum access cost; and second, how to find an efficient algorithm that, if it cannot find optimal solutions of minimizing total/maximum access cost, gives near-optimal solution for both objectives in the proposed system. A novel method to achieve maximum fault tolerance in the Grid environment system by using a fault recovery pool is proposed.
Device-level security has become one of the major concerns in the smart home system. Misbehaving detection of the smart home strives to increase the accuracy in near real-time without hampering regular tasks of the smart home. The current state of the art in detecting the misbehaving of smart home devices is mainly focused on the app level, which only ensures the system security with a strong assumption that devices are well-being. In this paper, we propose a novel notion - correlated graph , and with the aid of that, we develop our system to detect misbehaving devices without modifying the existing system. Our correlated graphs explicitly represent the contextual correlations among the smart devices with little knowledge about the system. We further propose a linkage path model and a sensitivity ranking method to assist in detecting the abnormalities. We implement a semi-automatic prototype of our approach, evaluate it in real-world settings, and demonstrate its efficiency which achieves an accuracy of around 90% in near real-time.
In this chapter, an in-depth study and comparisons of simulators and emulators have been presented, with care accorded to their features, implementation, and use. Since emulators are hardware dependent, selecting one to use is straightforward. On the other hand, with the wide variety of simulators, the choice is rather complex and is subject mainly to how is the simulator easy to use, and fulfilling the model requirements. Remarkably, different simulators do not give similar results for the same model due to their different underlying features and implementations. Simulation has proven to be a valued tool in many areas where analytical methods are not applicable and experimentation is not feasible. Researchers generally use simulation to analyze system performance prior to physical design or to compare multiple alternatives over a wide range of conditions. Notably, errors in simulation models or improper data analysis often produce incorrect or misleading results. Although there exists an extensive row of performance evaluation tools for WSNs, it is impractical to have an all-in-one integrated tool that simultaneously supports simulation, emulation, and testbed implementation. In fact, there is no all-in-one stretchy simulator for WSNs. Each simulator exhibits different features and models, and each has advantages and weaknesses. Different simulators are appropriate and most effective in typical conditions, so in choosing a simulation tool from available picks, it is fruitful to elect a simulator that is best suited for the intended study and targeted application. Also, it is recommended to weigh the pros and cons of different simulators that do the same job: the level of complexity of each simulator, availability, extensibility, and scalability. Usually, WSN applications consist of a large number of sensor nodes; therefore it is recommended to settle on the simulation tool capable of simulating large-scale WSNs. Essentially, the reported use, besides the simulation results of a simulator, should not be ignored before deciding which simulator to prefer. The exercises at the end of the chapter are designed to pinpoint the simulator comparison and selection criteria suitable to the model under study. When bottom-up building a simulator, many decisions need to be made. Developers must consider the pros and cons of different programming languages, whether simulation is event-based or time-based, component-based, or object-oriented architecture, the level of complexity of the simulator, features to include and to not include, use of parallel execution, ability to interact with real nodes, and other design choices that are pertinent to a typical application. For researchers, choosing which simulator to use is not an easy duty. A full understanding of one’s own model is however the first major step before looking into the bookshelf of simulators. Then follows a survey of the available simulators that can do the job. A major step comes after, the careful weighting of the simulator features against the model under study and the programming capabilities of the researcher.
A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a network that comprises of independent sensor nodes which communicate with one another to share data. The routing techniques, regarded as a fundamental component of WSNs, govern how a node can transfer data in real-time. Location-based routing is one of the routing strategies used in wireless sensor networks to convey data by utilizing the position information of the node. In this article, a variety of location-based routing protocols such as GAF, GEAR, GPSR, and DREAM used in wireless sensor networks are considered for the study. In addition to that, the performance of selected location-based protocols is investigated using simulations based on several network parameters such as network delay, data loss ratio, data delivery ratio, and network throughput against different sizes of the network. The simulation results prove that, based on only the network parameter, picking up the best protocol is critical because the performance of each protocol also depends on the size of the network
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are energy and bandwidth constrained. Therefore routing protocols have to be designed as to increase the network lifetime. Accordingly it has been realized that conventional protocols of direct transmission, multihop routing etc.may not are optimal for sensor networks. So we present a low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) a clustering based protocol which utilizes randomized rotation of cluster heads to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network. In this paper we simulate the LEACH protocol for a sensor field & verify energy savings achieved by LEACH.
This paper presents the novel idea that how we can use a loss making factor of one technology into a useful output generator for the other technique. According to the researches the variation in the calibrated values of these problem from one water medium to another water medium is due to change in the chemical and physical properties of the water medium such as temperature, salinity and density. So one of the proposed solution is to use these problems for our benefit as to calculate the value of the chemical properties of the water medium. Idea is about to achieve higher range of the data sending and receiving under the water. Basically the idea is about the effect of the chemical and physical properties of the water on the communication under it. So there can we two ways that we can have either we can rectify those losses or use those losses for our profit generation. In this paper I work over the second concept and try to come up with some new outputs and analytical data.
The popularity of cloud computing is increasing day by day in distributed computing environment. There is a growing trend of using cloud environments for storage and data processing needs. Furthermore, wireless sensor networks, which are seen as being one of the most essential technologies for the 21st century, distribute spatially connected node that automatically forms a network to transmit and receive data among themselves, which are popularly known as sensor network. For security and easy access of data, cloud computing is widely used in distributed/mobile computing environment. This is possible due to miniaturization of communication technology. Many researchers have cited different types of technology in this context. But the application scenarios are of important consideration when designing a specific protocol for sensor network with reference to cloud computing.
Since they are endowed with small batteries and limited energy, it is expensive and difficult to change or charge the batteries of the sensors, especially if they are deployed in large numbers. The exhaustion of the sensor nodes’ energy most often implies the malfunction of the entire network. Therefore, at the time of design, communication protocols for WSN should take into account the degree of energy consumption to provide optimal management of this resource. An effective model of conservation and Energy will be presented. In this work, our contribution focuses on the implementation of an integrated, efficient solution based on the integration of the following system: A new scheme for the management of energy consumption, based priority mechanism, using the AODV protocol, is proposed in this contribution. Most of the existing energy models only analyze the energy state of the communication module in the absence of studies of global energy consumption from the view of nodes.
However, by modeling the energy consumption related to different node components in different modes of operation and state transitions, our work proposes a new energy management model, based on the improvement of the reactive routing protocol AODV, under the NS simulator, providing energy management and load balancing mechanism for the entire network, applying a technique of prioritizing nodes with more energy resources and event triggering. This model showed good performance in terms of energy consumption, average time, and flow.
KeywordsWireless sensor networkEnergy consumption priority mechanismEnergy managementNSAODV
An information revolution is currently occurring in agriculture resulting in the production of massive datasets at different spatial and temporal scales; therefore, efficient techniques for processing and summarizing data will be crucial for effective precision management. With the profusion and wide diversification of data sources provided by modern technology, such as remote and proximal sensing, sensor datasets could be used as auxiliary information to supplement a sparsely sampled target variable. Remote and proximal sensing data are often massive, taken on different spatial and temporal scales, and subject to measurement error biases. Moreover, differences between the instruments are always present; nevertheless, a data fusion approach could take advantage of their complementary features by combining the sensor datasets in a manner that is statistically robust. It would then be ideal to jointly use (fuse) partial information from the diverse today-available sources so efficiently to achieve a more comprehensive view and knowledge of the processes under study. The chapter investigates the data fusion process in agriculture and its connection to artificial intelligence, neural networks, and IoT in agriculture, and introduces the concepts of data fusion with applications in Remote and Proximal sensing.KeywordsInformation fusionContext awarenessArtificial intelligenceNeural networksDeep learning
The lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is a significant constraint since they are powered by non-rechargeable batteries with limited capacity. A promising solution to the energy issue is energy harvesting (EH). One of the most popular hierarchical routing protocols (RP) is the low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH). Most of the available RPs based on LEACH for EH-WSNs have employed the traditional cluster head (CH) selection based on taking turns, which is unsuitable. Moreover, most of them have not considered the remaining energy and harvested energy, nor investigated the weightages of these energies in selecting the CH. This work proposes the energy balanced and nodes aware (EBNA) routing protocol for EH-WSNs. It considers both the remaining energy and harvested energy along with the number of active nodes in selecting the CH which improves throughput. In addition, the weightages of the energies are investigated. EBNA is evaluated using the network simulator, GreenCastalia in OMNET. It uses the actual solar irradiance data with a resolution of 1 s. The performance is compared with energy-aware distributed clustering (EADC) and clustering routing algorithm of self-energized (CRAS) for EH-WSNs. The results show that EBNA outperforms EADC and CRAS in throughput by up to 58% and 113% and by number of CHs by up to 148% and 541%, respectively, during the high irradiance scenarios. In the low irradiance scenario, the improvement in throughput is up to 52% and 98%, and the number of CHs is up to 146% and 569%, as compared to EADC and CRAS, respectively.
Nowadays, wireless sensor network (WSN) is an essential segment in the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm. Essentially, WSN provides access to location, latest information of different objects of the environment, computing and communication for IoT monitoring. Considering distance as a critical factor, the communication process is energy healing as compared to computing; due to this, energy is found as one of the major constraints for WSN. As per the application, sensor devices may have either limited or unlimited power backup. Hence, they must connect directly from the power supply or battery, which needs energy-efficiency to sustain in the network. In this paper, we propose a segmented sector network that can work efficiently to increase the lifetime of the network. Heterogeneity parameters for sensor nodes are used, normal nodes transmit the information using direct diffusion & advanced nodes participate in the clustering process. With such integration of direct diffusion and clustering, the network lifetime and stability increase significantly by sectoring the network field. Simulation results of the proposed scheme show significant improvement in the energy efficiency by 11% and stability by 19% compared to the Z-SEP protocol.
In this paper we present a new ABM model of Directed Diffusion using NetLogo that allows to study the impact of energy usage for various transmission activities. Furthermore we developed two new derivatives of this model of Directed Diffusion that could lead to energy saving in practical applications. We call these Lazy Diffusion and Gradient Diffusion. We exercise the models to produce results that show significant reduction in energy consumption over Directed Diffusion. We conclude that Wireless Sensor Networks with their routing protocols are complex systems, which can yield to Agent Based Modelling.
It was almost impossible to establish communication between two different sorts of people having two different standard radio devices. This problem i.e. setting up a communication between two different standard radio communication devices must be settled by using Software Defined Radio (SDR). This problem is addressed by multi-rate Digital Signal Processing (DSP) systems serves to give additional degrees of chance in the arrangement of the communication devices. Multi-rate data structures are used at the transmitting end in demand to introduce the profusion in the data stream. This profusion generally supports a method by convincing a structure on the sent sign. If the source is unknown, this plan helps with identifying it; if the channel is ineffectively formed; additional accumulation avoids genuine uproar heightening at the, and so forth. SDR is an electronic arrangement which works with any communication protocol i.e. mobile phone, a pager, a WI-FI, AM or FM radio or satellite exchanges. To able to communicate with a different communication protocol at the same time Multirate Digital Signal Processing
is required.
Linear block code (LBCs) viz. Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH), Hamming, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC), and Reed Solomon (RS) codes were utilized for forward error correction (FEC) to appraise bit error rate (BER) of the wireless communication network (WSN). The BER execution of these codes was learned at indicated block length (255, 247) over an Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel utilizing Binary Phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation. The simulation process for coding and interpreting of these
codes was performed with MATLAB (R2017a) programming. While looking at BER execution, lower signal noise ratio (SNR, Eb/No) values differed somewhere in the range of 0 and 9. RS codes gave lower BER, contrasted and different codes. At an SNR estimation of Eb/No=0, the BER estimated utilizing BCH and Hamming codes was ~7.9 and 10.2% higher, separately contrasted and RS codes. A comparable pattern was watched for whole SNR goes (Eb/No = 0 to 9). The BER diminished by ~82% with increment in SNR Eb/No=0 to 1. Further, it was seen that BER displayed a generous lessening (98%) with further increment in SNR Eb/No=0 to 2. At higher SNR extend somewhere in the range of 0 and 18, the comparable pattern of BER was watched utilizing various codes.
Wireless Sensor Network is becoming a very important area of research in today’s world and contributes a lot in the field of technology. Reducing energy consumption and improving the network lifetime is the key factor to be considered. Clustering provides an effective way for prolonging the lifetime of a wireless sensor network. Current clustering algorithms usually utilize two techniques, selecting cluster heads with more residual energy and rotating cluster heads periodically, to distribute the energy consumption among nodes in each cluster and extend the network lifetime. Also, it comprises various sensor nodes to detect different parameters. Among those non-replaceable batteries plays a greater part. Hence the system with such networks is essential that the sensor nodes consume as little energy as possible. To address the problem, we propose anovel model namely enhanced energy distributed unequal clustering which is mainly utilized for tackling energy consumption issues in multi-hop remote sensor systems. In the proposed method with an area of base station and energy are given significance as clustering parameters. Because of these parameters, diverse nodes are assigned. Here, another methodology has been proposed to enhance the working of EDUC, by electing cluster heads considering several nodes in the neighborhood. The incorporation of the area data for calculation of the opposition radii gives better adjusting of energy in correlation with the current methodology. The technique utilized is of holding similar bunches for a couple of rounds and is successful in decreasing the clustering overhead. The execution of the proposed convention has been assessed under three distinct scenarios and contrasted and existing conventions through reenactments. The outcomes demonstrate that the proposed plan beats the current conventions regarding system lifetime and performances in all the scenarios in terms of delay, energy consumption, packet loss ratio, and packet received ratio.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have greatly facilitated life by reducing people’s efforts in different areas such as smart irrigation systems, environmental monitoring, military, medical monitoring, home security, etc. WSNs suffer from energy restriction and the difficulty of recharge or replacement sensors batteries in remote areas. So the energy consumption is one of the most significant issues in WSNs that needs to be addressed. The role of routing protocols to select the best path to transmit data has an obvious effect on saving energy. This paper proposed an enhance energy conservation based on residual energy and distance (EECRED) routing protocol which is an improvement on the LEACH protocol. The main objective of the EECRED proposed protocol is to reduce energy dissipated, reduce the process of exchanging control packets between cluster members and cluster head, delay the death of nodes that acts as routers, load balancing between nodes in the network, and prolong the network lifetime. The base idea of the EECRED is to elect the proper node as cluster head based on nodes’ residual energy and take the distance into account when selecting the path of a packet through using the multi-hop technique. The performance of EECRED protocol specified through compares the simulation results with LEACH, LEACH-C, PC-LEACH, and EMRCR protocols in terms of a number of alive nodes, energy consumption, and the network lifetime. The results show that the improvement rate of the EECRED proposed protocol is 50%, 39.76%, 50%, and 83.64% compared with LEACH, LEACH-C, PC-LEACH, and EMRCR protocols respectively in terms of the number of nodes stay alive. Consequently, EECRED added significant enhancement to WSNs in terms of minimizing energy consumption, load balancing between network nodes, and maximizing the network lifetime.
An ad-hoc network is the cooperative engagement of a collection of
mobile nodes without the required intervention of any centralized access
point or existing infrastructure. We present Ad-hoc On Demand Distance
Vector Routing (AODV), a novel algorithm for the operation of such
ad-hoc networks. Each mobile host operates as a specialized router, and
routes are obtained as needed (i.e., on-demand) with little or no
reliance on periodic advertisements. Our new routing algorithm is quite
suitable for a dynamic self starting network, as required by users
wishing to utilize ad-hoc networks. AODV provides loop-free routes even
while repairing broken links. Because the protocol does not require
global periodic routing advertisements, the demand on the overall
bandwidth available to the mobile nodes is substantially less than in
those protocols that do necessitate such advertisements. Nevertheless we
can still maintain most of the advantages of basic distance vector
routing mechanisms. We show that our algorithm scales to large
populations of mobile nodes wishing to form ad-hoc networks. We also
include an evaluation methodology and simulation results to verify the
operation of our algorithm
Broadcasting is a common operation in a network to resolve many issues. In a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) in particular, due to host mobility, such operations are expected to be executed more frequently (such as finding a route to a particular host, paging a particular host, and sending an alarm signal). Because radio signals are likely to overlap with others in a geographical area, a straightforward broadcasting by flooding is usually very costly and will result in serious redundancy, contention, and collision, to which we call the broadcast storm problem. In this paper, we identify this problem by showing how serious it is through analyses and simulations. We propose several schemes to reduce redundant rebroadcasts and differentiate timing of rebroadcasts to alleviate this problem. Simulation results are presented, which show different levels of improvement over the basic flooding approach.
This paper introduces AntNet, a new routing algorithm for communications networks. AntNet is an adaptive, distributed, mobile-agents-based algorithm whichwas inspired by recentwork on the ant colony metaphor. We apply AntNet to a datagram network and compare it with both static and adaptive state-of-the-art routing algorithms. We ran experiments for various paradigmatic temporal and spatial traffic distributions. AntNet showed both very good performance and robustness under all the experimental conditions with respect to its competitors.
An ad hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile hosts forming a temporary network without the aid of any established infrastructure or centralized administration. In such an environment, it may be necessary for one mobile host to enlist the aid of other hosts in forwarding a packet to its destination, due to the limited range of each mobile host's wireless transmissions. This paper presents a protocol for routing in ad hoc networks that uses dynamic source routing. The protocol adapts quickly to routing changes when host movement is frequent, yet requires little or no overhead during periods in which hosts move less frequently. Based on results from a packet-level simulation of mobile hosts operating in an ad hoc network, the protocol performs well over a variety of environmental conditions such as host density and movement rates. For all but the highest rates of host movement simulated, the overhead of the protocol is quite low, falling to just 1% of total data packets t...
An ad hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile nodes dynamically forming a temporary network without the use of any existing network infrastructure or centralized administration. Due to the limited transmission range of wireless network interfaces, multiple network "hops" may be needed for one node to exchange data with another across the network. In recent years, a variety of new routing protocols targeted specifically at this environment have been developed, but little performance information on each protocol and no realistic performance comparison between them is available. This paper presents the results of a detailed packet-level simulation comparing four multi-hop wireless ad hoc network routing protocols that cover a range of design choices: DSDV, TORA, DSR, and AODV. We have extended the ns-2 network simulator to accurately model the MAC and physical-layer behavior of the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standard, including a realistic wireless transmission channel model, and present the results of simulations of networks of 50 mobile nodes.
Introduction In recent years, the Internet has grown signicantly in size and scope, and as a result new protocols and algorithms are being developed to meet changing operational requirements in the Internet. Examples of such requirements include quality of service support, multicast transport, security, mobile networking, and policy management. Development and evaluation of protocols and algorithms for these domains requires answering many design questions. Although small-scale evaluation in a lab, wide-area testbeds, and custom simulators can all be valuable, each has signicant shortcomings. These approaches often lack the wide mix of trac and topologies found in real networks, they can incur substantial expense, and repetition of experiments under controlled conditions can be dicult. Multi-protocol network simulators can provide a rich environment for experimentation at low cost. A common simulation environment used across disparate research eorts can provide substantial
It is suggested that a system of chemical substances, called morphogens, reacting together and diffusing through a tissue, is adequate to account for the main phenomena of morphogenesis. Such a system, although it may originally be quite homogeneous, may later develop a pattern or structure due to an instability of the homogeneous equilibrium, which is triggered off by random disturbances. Such reaction-diffusion systems are considered in some detail in the case of an isolated ring of cells, a mathematically convenient, though biologically unusual system. The investigation is chiefly concerned with the onset of instability. It is found that there are six essentially different forms which this may take. In the most interesting form stationary waves appear on the ring. It is suggested that this might account, for instance, for the tentacle patterns on Hydra and for whorled leaves. A system of reactions and diffusion on a sphere is also considered. Such a system appears to account for gastrulation. Another reaction system in two dimensions gives rise to patterns reminiscent of dappling. It is also suggested that stationary waves in two dimensions could account for the phenomena of phyllotaxis. The purpose of this paper is to discuss a possible mechanism by which the genes of a zygote may determine the anatomical structure of the resulting organism. The theory does not make any new hypotheses; it merely suggests that certain well-known physical laws are sufficient to account for many of the facts. The full understanding of the paper requires a good knowledge of mathematics, some biology, and some elementary chemistry. Since readers cannot be expected to be experts in all of these subjects, a number of elementary facts are explained, which can be found in text-books, but whose omission would make the paper difficult reading.
This chapter discusses about the computer for the 21st century and the tabs. Tabs are the smallest components of embodied virtuality. Because they are interconnected, tabs will expand on the usefulness of existing inch-scale computers, such as the pocket calculator and the pocket organizer. Tabs will also take on functions that no computer performs today. For example, computer scientists at PARC and other research laboratories around the world have begun working with active badges—clip-on computers roughly the size of an employee ID card, first developed by the Olivetti Cambridge research laboratory. These badges can identify themselves to receivers placed throughout a building, thus making it possible to keep track of the people or objects to which they are attached. The chapter also discusses about page-size machines known as pads.
Multicasting is used within local-area networks to make distributed applications more robust and more efficient. The growing need to distribute applications across multiple, interconnected networks, and the increasing availability of high-performance, high-capacity switching nodes and networks, lead us to consider providing LAN-style multicasting across an internetwork. In this paper, we propose extensions to two common internetwork routing algorithms—distance-vector routing and link-state routing—to support low-delay datagram multicasting. We also suggest modifications to the single-spanning-tree routing algorithm, commonly used by link-layer bridges, to reduce the costs of multicasting in large extended LANs. Finally, we show how different link-layer and network-layer multicast routing algorithms can be combined hierarchically to support multicasting across large, heterogeneous internetworks.
This paper presents the design and implementation of the Intentional Naming System (INS), a resource discovery and service location system for dynamic and mobile networks of devices and computers. Such environments require a naming system that is (i) expressive, to describe and make requests based on specific properties of services, (ii) responsive, to track changes due to mobility and performance, (iii) robust, to handle failures, and (iv) easily configurable. INS uses a simple language based on attributes and values for its names. Applications use the language to describe what they are looking for (i.e., their intent), not where to find things (i.e., not hostnames). INS implements a late binding mechanism that integrates name resolution and message routing, enabling clients to continue communicating with end-nodes even if the name-to-address mappings change while a session is in progress. INS resolvers self-configure to form an application-level overlay network, which they use to discover new services, perform late binding, and maintain weak consistency of names using soft-state name exchanges and updates. We analyze the performance of the INS algorithms and protocols, present measurements of a Java-based implementation, and describe three applications we have implemented that demonstrate the feasibility and utility of INS.
An adaptive, highly scalable, and robust web caching system is needed to effectively handle the exponential growth and extreme dynamic environment of the World Wide Web. Our work presented last year sketched out the basic design of such a system. This sequel paper reports our progress over the past year. To assist caches making web query forwarding decisions, we sketch out the basic design of a URL routing framework. To assist fast searching within each cache group, we let neighbor caches share content information. Equipped with the URL routing table and neighbor cache contents, a cache in the revised design can now search the local group, and forward all missing queries quickly and efficiently, thus eliminating both the waiting delay and the overhead associated with multicast queries. The paper also presents a proposal for incremental deployment that provides a smooth transition from the currently deployed cache infrastructure to the new design.
Retransmission based error control for large scale multicast applications is difficult because of implosion and exposure. Existing schemes (SRM, RMTP, TMTP LBRRM) have good solutions to implosion, but only approximate solutions to exposure. We present a scheme that achieves finer grain fault recovery by exploiting new forwarding services that allow us to create a dynamic hierarchy of receivers. We extend the IP multicast service model so that routers provide a more refined form of multicasting (which may be useful to other applications), that enables local recovery. The new services are simple to implement and do not require routers to examine or store application packets; hence, they do not violate layering. Besides providing better implosion control and less exposure than other schemes, our scheme integrates well with the current IP model, has small recovery latencies (it requires no back-off delays), and completely isolates group members from topology. Our scheme can be used with a variety of multicast routing protocols, including DVMRP and PIM. We have implemented our scheme in NetBSD Unix, using about 250 lines of new C-code. The implementation requires two new IP options, 4 additional bytes in each routing entry and a slight modification to IGMP reports. The forwarding overhead incurred by the new services is actually lower than forwarding normal multicast traffic
Multicasting is used within local-area networks to make dis- tributed applications more robust and more efficient. The grow- ing need to distribute applications across multiple, interconnected networks, and the increasing availability of high-performance, high-capacity switching nodes and networks, lead us to consider providing LAN-style multicasting across an inter-network. In this paper, we propose extensions to two common internetwork rout- ing algorithms~istance-vector routing and link-state routing- to support low-delay datagram multicasting. We also suggest modifications to the single-spanning-tree routing algorithm, com- monly used by link-layer bridges, to reduce the costs of multi- casting in large extended LANs. Finally, we show how different link-layer and network-layer multicast routing algorithms can be combined hierarchically to support multicasting across large, het- erogeneous iotemetwo*s.
A mobile ad hoc network consists of wireless hosts that may move often. Movement of hosts results in a change in routes, requiring some mechanism for determining new routes. Several routing protocols have already been proposed for ad hoc networks. This paper suggests an approach to utilize location information (for instance, obtained using the global positioning system) to improve performance of routing protocols for ad hoc networks. By using location information, the proposed Location-Aided Routing (LAR) protocols limit the search for a new route to a smaller “request zone” of the ad hoc network. This results in a significant reduction in the number of routing messages. We present two algorithms to determine the request zone, and also suggest potential optimizations to our algorithms.
It is suggested that a system of chemical substances, called morphogens, reacting together and diffusing through a tissue,
is adequate to account for the main phenomena of morphogenesis. Such a system, although it may originally be quite homogeneous,
may later develop a pattern or structure due to an instability of the homogeneous equilibrium, which is triggered off by random
disturbances. Such reaction-diffusion systems are considered in some detail in the case of an isolated ring of cells, a mathematically
convenient, though biologically unusual system. The investigation is chiefly concerned with the onset of instability. It is
found that there are six essentially different forms which this may take. In the most interesting form stationary waves appear
on the ring. It is suggested that this might account, for instance, for the tentacle patterns onHydra and for whorled leaves. A system of reactions and diffusion on a sphere is also considered. Such a system appears to account
for gastrulation. Another reaction system in two dimensions gives rise to patterns reminiscent of dappling. It is also suggested
that stationary waves in two dimensions could account for the phenomena of phyllotaxis.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss a possible mechanism by which the genes of a zygote may determine the anatomical structure
of the resulting organism. The theory does not make any new hypotheses; it merely suggests that certain well-known physical
laws are sufficient to account for many of the facts. The full understanding of the paper requires a good knowledge of mathematics,
some biology, and some elementary chemistry. Since readers cannot be expected to be experts in all of these subjects, a number
of elementary facts are explained, which can be found in text-books, but whose omission would make the paper difficult reading.
Advances in commercial IC fabrication technology have made
possible the integration of wireless transceivers, CMOS signal
processing, and sensing in one integrated circuit package. Combination
with actuation is also possible. This amounts to a low-cost means to
link communications and computer networks to the physical world, and may
have profound consequences in such diverse areas as security, process
control, planetary exploration, and medical monitoring and diagnosis. We
outline the system design issues for a distributed sensor network, in
which each node has a limited energy supply and relatively low data rate
link. The nodes must establish a synchronous multi-hop network,
determine locations, and cooperate for such purposes as beamforming and
passing messages to the outside world
We present a new distributed routing protocol for mobile, multihop, wireless networks. The protocol is one of a family of protocols which we term “link reversal” algorithms. The protocol's reaction is structured as a temporally-ordered sequence of diffusing computations; each computation consisting of a sequence of directed link reversals. The protocol is highly adaptive, efficient and scalable; being best-suited for use in large, dense, mobile networks. In these networks, the protocol's reaction to link failures typically involves only a localized “single pass” of the distributed algorithm. This capability is unique among protocols which are stable in the face of network partitions, and results in the protocol's high degree of adaptivity. This desirable behavior is achieved through the novel use of a “physical or logical clock” to establish the “temporal order” of topological change events which is used to structure (or order) the algorithm's reaction to topological changes. We refer to the protocol as the temporally-ordered routing algorithm (TORA)
Piconet is a general-purpose, low-power ad hoc radio network. It
provides a base level of connectivity to even the simplest of sensing
and computing objects. It is our intention that a full range of portable
and embedded devices may make use of this connectivity. This article
outlines the Piconet system, under development at the Olivetti and
Oracle Research Laboratory (ORL). The authors discuss the motivation for
providing this low-level “embedded networking”, and describe
their experiences of building such a system. The article concludes with
a commentary on some of the implications that power saving, and other
considerations central to Piconet, have on the design of the
system
The purpose of multicast routing is to reduce the communication costs for applications that send the same data to multiple recipients. Existing multicast routing mechanisms were intended for use within regions where a group is widely represented or bandwidth is universally plentiful. When group members, and senders to those group members, are distributed sparsely across a wide area, these schemes are not efficient; data packets or membership report information are occasionally sent over many links that do not lead to receivers or senders, respectively. We have developed a multicast routing architecture that efficiently establishes distribution trees across wide area internets, where many groups will be sparsely represented. Efficiency is measured in terms of the router state, control message processing, and data packet processing, required across the entire network in order to deliver data packets to the members of the group. Our protocol independent multicast (PIM) architecture: (a) maintains the traditional IP multicast service model of receiver-initiated membership, (b) supports both shared and source-specific (shortest-path) distribution trees, (c) is not dependent on a specific unicast routing protocol, and (d) uses soft-state mechanisms to adapt to underlying network conditions and group dynamics. The robustness, flexibility, and scaling properties of this architecture make it well-suited to large heterogeneous internetworks
This paper describes the design and implementation of a multicast transport protocol called RMTP. RMTP provides sequenced, lossless delivery of bulk data from one sender to a group of receivers. RMTP achieves reliability by using a packet-based selective repeat retransmission scheme, in which each acknowledgment (ACK) packet carries a sequence number and a bitmap. ACK handling is based on a multi-level hierarchical approach, in which the receivers are grouped into a hierarchy of local regions, with a Designated Receiver (DR) in each local region. Receivers in each local region periodically send ACKs to their corresponding DR, DRs send ACKs to the higher-level DRs, until the DRs in the highest level send ACKs to the sender, thereby avoiding the ACK-implosion problem. DRs cache received data and respond to retransmission requests of the receivers in their corresponding local regions, thereby decreasing end-to-end latency and improving resource usage. This paper also provides the measurements of RMTP's performance with receivers located at various sites in the Internet.
In this paper, we present a family of adaptive protocols, called SPIN (Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation) , that eciently disseminates information among sensors in an energy-constrained wireless sensor network. Nodes running a SPIN communication protocol name their data using high-level data descriptors, called meta-data. They use meta-data negotiations to eliminate the transmission of redundant data throughout the network. In addition, SPIN nodes can base their communication decisions both upon application-specic knowledge of the data and upon knowledge of the resources that are available to them. This allows the sensors to eciently distribute data given a limited energy supply. We simulate and analyze the performance of two specic SPIN protocols, comparing them to other possible approaches and a theoretically optimal protocol. We nd that the SPIN protocols can deliver 60% more data for a given amount of energy than conventional approaches. We also nd that, in terms...
We present a new distributed routing protocol for mobile, multihop, wireless networks. The protocol is one of a family of protocols which we term "link reversal" algorithms. The protocol's reaction is structured as a temporally-ordered sequence of diffusing computations; each computation consisting of a sequence of directed l i nk reversals. The protocol is highly adaptive, efficient and scalable; being best-suited for use in large, dense, mobile networks. In these networks, the protocol's reaction to link failures typically involves only a localized "single pass" of the distributed algorithm. This capability is unique among protocols which are stable in the face of network partitions, and results in the protocol's high degree of adaptivity . This desirable behavior is achieved through the novel use of a "physical or logical clock" to establish the "temporal order" o f t opological change events which is used to structure (or order) the algorithm's reaction to topological changes. We r...
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