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The 25th Bartlett Lecture. To act or not to act: perspectives on the representation of actions.
Abstract
In this review; a description is offered of the way actions are represented, how these representations are built, and how their content can be accessed by the agent and by other agents. Such a description will appear critical for understanding how an action is attributed to its proper origin, or, in other words, how a subject can make a conscious judgement about who the agent of that action is (an agency judgement). This question is central to the problem of self-consciousness: Action is one of the main channels used for communication between individuals, so that determining the agent of an action contributes to differentiating the self from others.
... 92). The idea that the brain used simulation mechanisms to represent events of the world has been already proposed by Jeannerod (1994Jeannerod ( , 1999. Thus, Pezzulo (2011) argued that representations may also be transient and produced only when necessary. ...
... Then, we go back to Jeannerod's distinction between hidden and overt components of actions. Jeannerod (1994Jeannerod ( , 1999 went even further by arguing that action processing involved simulation mechanisms, mainly to anticipate the consequences of actions and choose the most appropriate motor sequence but simulation mechanisms can also be used when actions are observed or imagined. Now that we admit the existence of representations of actions in the brain (i.e., instances that can stand for actions even when actions are not currently produced or observed), we will discuss in more detail the different action components the field of action recognition usually refers to. ...
... We will exemplify such possibilities through the insights provided by motor control theories. an action), some authors have defended the idea that the same action representation could be recruited in different cognitive activities involving actions (Decety & Grèzes, 2006;Jeannerod, 1994Jeannerod, , 1999Jeannerod, , 2009). Jeannerod (1994) in particular suggested that any performed action should be preceded by a motor simulation in order to anticipate its perceptual consequences. ...
Actions are complex, goal-directed, movements, and, despite being hidden in the actor’s mind, observers successfully identify and anticipate actor’s goal. In this thesis, we identified two main approaches to explain how observers recognise others’ actions. Sensorimotor approaches consider action recognition as bottom-up propagation from the perception of visual kinematics to the recognition of action goals. Visual kinematics are viewed here as the primary source of visual information from which goal-related information is extracted. In contrast, predictive approaches assume that observers cannot make sense of visual kinematics without a prediction about the actor’s goal. Observers would extract goal-related information from non-motor sources of information to guide the processing of the visual kinematics. Information about the temporal dynamics of activation of visual kinematics and goal-related information during action visual processing is critical to disentangle the two approaches and to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying action recognition, but empirical data in this direction are clearly lacking. In order to fill this gap, we investigated the relative priority given to visual kinematics versus non-motor goal-related information during the recognition of others’ actions. The contribution of visual kinematics and non-motor goal-related information was independently evaluated by introducing violations of grip and/or visual goal in photographs of object-directed actions. Using behavioural methods (priming and visual-search paradigms), we demonstrated that non-motor goal-related information was prioritised over visual kinematics during the first steps of visual action processing, whereas visual kinematics were prioritised over goal-related information later during visual action processing. Using neurophysiological methods (event-related potential and transcranial magnetic stimulation priming paradigms), we found that both visual kinematics and non-motor goal-related information are already processed during the perceptual stages of action processing, but that action semantic processing is guided by goal-related information rather than visual kinematics. We further provide evidence supporting the critical involvement of the frontoparietal network in the later integration of visual kinematics and non-motor goal-related information. We finally showed that the priority given to non-motor goal-related information over visual kinematics during action visual processing depends on individual social characteristics. Together, the findings reported are consistent with predictive approaches of action recognition. Results are discussed in the light of converging evidence suggesting that visual kinematics are used to update goal predictions that have been previously derived from non-motor goal-related information. Yet findings further orient towards a pluralist view of action understanding, in which the strategies used to process others’ actions may vary depending on situations and individuals.
... Cognitive literature proposes that the effective kinaesthetic sensations, including movement, effort, heaviness, and position provide information that allows to determine the position of limbs and to identify the origins and the cause of action [27]. More, it has been proposed that there are functional equivalence and the use of common neural pathways in motor preparation/execution and motor imagery [28,29]. Thus, because motor preparation/execution and motor imagery involve the same motor representation systems, they likely have the same neuronal substrates [22,29]. ...
... More, it has been proposed that there are functional equivalence and the use of common neural pathways in motor preparation/execution and motor imagery [28,29]. Thus, because motor preparation/execution and motor imagery involve the same motor representation systems, they likely have the same neuronal substrates [22,29]. ...
... To validate this hypothesis, we studied the perceived length of the left forearm and during their motor imagery after a period of the mirror box. We used the Forearm bisection task since it allows to detect changes in sensorimotor representation of the arm length [29,30]. ...
The human central nervous system integrates different sensory modalities with the visual information to produce a coherent mental representation of our own body, making us capable not only to process sensory events but also to plan and executes movements in the surrounding space. The basis of Mirror Therapy (MT) is the use of a mirror to create a visual reflection of an affected limb to create an illusion of movement of the paretic part of the limb. One of the uses of the MT is in motor recovery in post-stroke hemiparesis and even thought that it is valuable rehabilitation tool, its underlying neurophysiological manifestations and interaction with Motor Imagery (MI) are still unknown. Our study aim is to assess the effect of the MT by applying Forearm Bisection Test (FBT) and EEG measurement of the Event-related (de)synchronisation (ERD/S). Our results show that FBT scores were significantly higher in the experimental Mirror Box (MB) group compared to the control (CN) group (median 13.54 vs 0.00, respectively; p = 0.003). Furthermore, DERD/S (post-pre) differed significantly between the hemispheres in the MB group in the Mu, beta low and beta high EEG bands, whilst did not differ in the CN group in the Mu and beta low bands. The results demonstrate improvement in ERD/S MI and an update of the body representation caused by MT. Moreover, findings suggest that the reflection of the moving hand in the mirror created an illusion of concomitant movement in the opposite hand that modulate the arm length representation which is detectable even during MI at EEG level. Our findings of neural basis and link of the MT and MI supports MT as favourable neurorehabilitation tool for motor recovery affecting not only the areas governing the moving hand but also the corresponding regions of the other hemisphere.
... What is stored is a set of action control commands, that is itself an action, its mental trace. Once activated (i.e., "retrieved"), it directly triggers an action 22 . That is why we clearly distinguish skills (knowing how to do something, e.g. ...
... Recollections are ultimately practical: they are supposed to help us to solve the problems that face us in the present. 22 " Our knowledge that we are acting intentionally is knowledge without observations. … By observation we get descriptive contents. ...
... They are stored and retrieved naturally, and they do not require symbolic representations. The mental command pattern or 'schema' of an action is both its controlling program and its representation (Jeannerod, 1999). Hence, I would expect that the category of 'a car' is represented as the bundle of sensorimotor experiences of a subject in or around cars. ...
The human faculty of action, understood as a physical and mental capacity to perform conscious actions and participate in collective activity, is formulated and analyzed in this paper within the framework of activity theory and is complemented with neurobiological evidence. The paper starts out from the observation that the innate abilities underpinning the faculty of action were originally developed in the course of biocultural evolution. In agreement with the foundational ideas of activity theory, the main instrument of analysis of the faculty of action is defined in this work as an 'action-thought', an elementary unit of activity and actional thinking. Action-thoughts both guide and represent actions and are also employed in their mental rehearsal as well as in decision-making. The faculty of actions appears at the highest level in the hierarchy of motion control as originally outlined by N. A. Bernstein. This hierarchy, the paper argues, must be amended and completed with the addition of one further level of external action control, which characterizes the individual's ability to act collectively by means of commanding/obeying. In closing, the primary role of actions in languaging is discussed, as well as the action-based generation of meaning and language acquisition. We regard the human intellect as relative to the needs of action. Postulate action and the very form of the intellect can be deduced from it. Henri Bergson, "Creative evolution", p.161 We are born as helpless babies, and everything we do, from bipedal walking to the heights of artistic and scientific endeavor, comes as a result of long and relentless learning processes. But a learner is learning only if he/she is able to learn. For example, teaching singing to someone who was born with no musical ear (such as myself) is frustrating and useless. Or, on a more self-assuring note, some are good at mathematics, while others are unable to grasp the basics of algebra. The discussion of individual gifts is an exciting subject-somewhat neglected within the current cultural-historical discourse-but the purpose of this paper is different. We shall attempt to identify and characterize the talent for actions-not to measure it, nor to rate individuals for their AQ's, but rather to outline a sketch of this talent as a generic human capacity, similar in a way to the five major senses. This paper is about our faculty of action. Culture and biology. The tale of two evolutions. Within the animal world we are reputed geniuses for acting. This exceptionally developed human ability, which has taken us thus far, is a product of a long prehistoric evolution towards our present human condition. Even if you believe that our current ability to act collectively is mostly a product and reflection of today's praxis, you will have to agree that it must also be enabled by certain innate features. We are shaped by the joint working of two mutually
... L'amélioration des performances observée suite à une pratique en imagerie ou suite à une pratique physique a amené des auteurs à proposer que ces deux types de pratiques seraient fonctionnellement équivalentes (Hall, Bernoties & Schmidt, 1995). Cette équivalence a été confirmée dans des études utilisant des paradigmes expérimentaux variés comme le paradigme de chronométrie mentale (Decety & Michel, 1989), la mesure d'indices physiologiques (Roure, Collet, Deschaumes-Molinaro, Delhomme, Dittmar & Vernet-Maury, 1999), mais aussi les techniques d'imageries cérébrales (Ingvar & Philipson, 1977 ;Jeannerod, 1999). Les résultats de ces études montrent que les mécanismes cognitifs de planification, de construction et de programmation de la réponse (Decety & Grèzes, 1999), mais aussi de préparation des conséquences sensorielles (Bonnet, Decety, Jeannerod & Requin, 1997), mis en oeuvre au cours de l'imagerie mentale sont similaires à ceux de la pratique physique réelle. ...
... Qu'apporte l'analyse de la performance obtenue pour le groupe qui a réalisé une Compte tenu de la similarité fonctionnelle entre pratique physique et pratique en imagerie (Jeannerod, 1999), on peut alors s'appuyer sur les résultats des études en pratique physique pour comprendre la nature des images sensorielles à solliciter lors d'une pratique mentale. L'évolution du rôle des modalités sensorielles lors de la pratique réelle peut-être expliquée par l'hypothèse de spécificité des conditions d'apprentissage . ...
... Comme une équivalence fonctionnelle entre la réalisation des actions et les actions mentalement simulées a été postulée (Jeannerod, 1999 pour revue), nous avons utilisé l'hypothèse de spécificité des conditions d'apprentissage, qui a été développée dans le contexte de la pratique physique , afin d'évaluer les mécanismes impliqués au cours de la pratique en imagerie. Dans cette étude, nous avons fait l'hypothèse que l'imagerie visuelle devrait permettre une amélioration supérieure de la performance par rapport aux autres modalités d'imagerie et que le traitement précoce des indices visuels devrait s'accompagner d'une amélioration dès 15 essais de pratique en imagerie. ...
Ce présent travail examine la similarité fonctionnelle entre pratique en imagerie et pratique réelle en ce qui concerne le traitement privilégié des modalités sensorielles spécifiques (visuelles et/ou proprioceptives). Les expériences réalisées s’intéressent aux effets de la pratique mentale sur la performance motrice, et plus particulièrement à l’influence des modalités d’imagerie (expériences 1, 3, 4 et 5) et des capacités d’imagerie (expériences 1 et 2). Ces expériences utilisent des tâches de reproductions de configuration corporelles simples ou de pointage dans lesquelles les sujets disposent (expériences 3 et 4) ou non (expériences 1, 2 et 5) des informations visuelles sur le mouvement en cours de réalisation. Les principaux résultats obtenus dans cette thèse montrent que les modalités d’imagerie visuelle et/ ou proprioceptive n’ont pas la même importance dans chacune des expériences réalisées. Dans une tâche de pointage de cible avec laser (expérience 3) ou de reproduction de configurations corporelles simples, une pratique qui sollicite la modalité d’imagerie visuelle permet une plus forte amélioration de la performance motrice lorsque celle-ci est réalisée face à un miroir (expérience 4). En revanche, lorsque la vision de l’effecteur ou du mouvement en cours de réalisation n’est pas disponible (expériences 1 et 5), aucun transfert positif de la modalité visuelle à la modalité proprioceptive ne semble s’opérer, et l’augmentation de la précision des gestes moteurs n’apparaît que chez les sujets réalisant à une pratique d’imagerie proprioceptive. Celle-ci est d’autant plus bénéfique que les sujets rapportent avoir des facilités à simuler mentalement une action (« bons imageurs » versus « mauvais imageurs », expériences 1 et 2). Dans le cas où la modalité d’imagerie visuelle est la plus pertinente (expériences 3 et 4), une pratique mixte donne de moins bons résultats, tandis que l’amélioration de la précision motrice, observée dans les tâches bénéficiant favorablement d’une pratique en imagerie proprioceptive (expériences 1, 2 et 5), est similaire pour des pratiques d’imagerie proprioceptive et mixte. L’ensemble de ces résultats nous conduit à réfléchir sur les facteurs pouvant induire une dominance d’imagerie, sur une généralisation possible de l’hypothèse de spécificité de l’apprentissage à la pratique mentale, et sur les conditions nécessaires à l’expression des différences inter-individuelles en ce qui concerne la pratique en imagerie.
... Movement imagery-the mental simulation of movement in the absence of overt movement itself-has long been known to enhance the performance outcomes and (re-)learning of skills (e.g., Dijkerman, Ietswaart, Johnston, & MacWalter, 2004;Ramsey, Cumming, & Edwards, 2008;Reiser, Büsch, & Munzert, 2011;Romano Smith, Wood, Coyles, Roberts, & Wakefield, 2019;Romano-Smith, Roberts, Wood, Coyles, & Wakefield, 2022;Vogt, 1995;Wright & Smith, 2009). One of the foremost accounts of these findings is functional equivalence, where the mere imagery of movement is deemed to be functionally equivalent to the execution (and observation) of it (Jeannerod, 1994(Jeannerod, , 1999. In other words, the internal representation or neural codes used for imagery are also those responsible for execution (see also , Hommel, Müsseler, Aschersleben, & Prinz, 2001). ...
... Movement imagery has been suggested to be functionally equivalent to execution in that it uses many of the same internal processes (Jeannerod, 1994(Jeannerod, , 1999. Extending upon this concept, the more recent motor-cognitive model (Glover & Baran, 2017) states that movement imagery initially comprises a motor representation that is also responsible for execution followed later on by the conscious monitoring and generation of an image. ...
The motor-cognitive model proposes that movement imagery additionally requires conscious monitoring owing to an absence of veridical online sensory feedback. Therefore, it is predicted that there would be a comparatively limited ability for individuals to update or correct movement imagery as they could within execution. To investigate, participants executed and imagined target-directed aiming movements featuring either an unexpected target perturbation (Exp. 1) or removal of visual sensory feedback (Exp. 2). The results of both experiments indicated that the time-course of executed and imagined movements was equally influenced by each of these online visual manipulations. Thus, contrary to some of the tenets of the motor-cognitive model, movement imagery holds the capacity to interpolate online corrections despite the absence of veridical sensory feedback. The further theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
... According to the emotion sharing theory (Jeannerod, 1999), individuals will only have empathy when they perceive other people's voices, expressions or actions, and spontaneously imitate others. It can be seen that the ability to care about and feel the emotions of others is an important factor affecting the generation of empathy. ...
... This study further found the mediating effect of empathy between trait mindfulness and the QTCR, with an effect value of 26.60%. The theory of emotional sharing (Jeannerod, 1999) indicates that the individual's awareness of other people's voice, expression or actions and spontaneously imitate of other people's behaviors are the basis for empathy. Teachers' perception of children's emotions and caring for children are important factors affecting empathy. ...
The teacher-child relationship plays an important role in children’s future development. However, the existing research mainly focuses on the influence of preschool teachers’ external conditions on the teacher-student relationship, while the research on the influence of teachers’ internal psychological characteristics on the teacher-student relationship is relatively lacking. In this study, three hundred and seventeen preschool teachers were tested were tested with Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, Emotional Intelligence Scale, Chinese Interpersonal Response Index, and Teacher-student Relationship Scale. The results showed that trait mindfulness positively predicted the quality of parent-teacher relationship (β = 0.173, p = 0.026). Emotional intelligence played a mediating role in trait mindfulness and teacher-child relationship quality (β = 0.118, p = 0.004), and empathy played a mediating role in trait mindfulness and teacher-child relationship quality (β = 0.112, p = 0.001). Meanwhile, emotional intelligence and empathy played a chain mediating role in trait mindfulness and parent-teacher relationship quality (β = 0.044, p = 0.038). On the one hand, this study enriches attachment theory. The conclusions of this study verify the diversity of proximal factors in attachment theory, and confirm the influence of teachers’ own characteristics and abilities on the teacher-child relationship quality. On the other hand, by exploring the factors affecting the teacher-child relationship quality, we can find ways to improve teacher-child relationship from a new perspective, and then provide some new methods and approaches for improving the quality of preschool teacher-child relationship.
... Physiologically speaking, motor preparation and kinetic imagery involve the same motor imagery system in the brain. The cognitive neuroscience literature (Callow, and Waters, 2004;Detecy, and Grezes, 1996;Jeannerod, 1999) suggests that if kinesthetic imagery mirrors genuine kinesthetic sensations, then kinesthetic imagery may combine the appropriate force and effort, as well as spatial sensations. In the cognitive neuroscience literature, it is proposed that there is a functional equivalence between (Decety, and Grezes, 1999), common neural pathways (Jeannerod, 1999) in motor preparation/execution and motor (kinesthetic) imagery. ...
... The cognitive neuroscience literature (Callow, and Waters, 2004;Detecy, and Grezes, 1996;Jeannerod, 1999) suggests that if kinesthetic imagery mirrors genuine kinesthetic sensations, then kinesthetic imagery may combine the appropriate force and effort, as well as spatial sensations. In the cognitive neuroscience literature, it is proposed that there is a functional equivalence between (Decety, and Grezes, 1999), common neural pathways (Jeannerod, 1999) in motor preparation/execution and motor (kinesthetic) imagery. Motor preparation/execution and kinesthetic imagery involve the same motor representation systems in the brain. ...
The aims of the study were the determination of the importance of the psychology of motor learning in artistic gymnastics. The study was analyzed the mental and movement imagery factors and their effect on the gymnast's performance. Determination of the importance of the navigators used in artistic gymnastics by coaches in the teaching process of the elements with high difficulty degree. Besides this, were analyzed the training methodology from a psychology perspective. Analyze the psychology of error avoidance and addressing mistakes in the learning process of artistic gymnastics. The psychological aspects of artistic gymnastics are just as important as the motor abilities, physiological characteristics, and mechanics of the movement. In fact, the mechanical, physiological, and motor aspects of gymnastics are significantly impacted by the psychological state of the gymnast. Mental and movement imagery increases motivation and a sense of well-being. The relationship between the gymnast and her or his coach is considered one of the most important factors in achieving competitive success. The performance of the gymnasts can be optimized by having a strong bond between the gymnast and the coach. Due to the difficulty degree of the artistic gymnastic elements, mental training is an essential part of a learning methodology and assistance that can minimize mistakes that lead to sub-optimal performance.
... This absence of interference between potential motor simulation of walking and actual walking may inform us that these two activities are functionally too different to overlap. However, studies carried out in the field of imagined walking found that imagined walking share biomechanical characteristics with actual walking and implies motor simulation (Jeannerod, 1999;Papaxanthis et al., 2002). Stevens (2005) found that biomechanical information conflicting with locomotion (such as interfering stances) had a negative impact on imagined walking times, making them shorter. ...
... For example, a linear relation between distances on a map and time used for participants to mentally travel these distances has been shown ( Kosslyn et al., 1978). Along the same lines, it is known that imagined movements share the same biomechanical constraints as real movements (Jeannerod, 1999) and that motor imagery time is linked to actual movement execution time for simple (Maruff & Velakoulis, 2000) as well as complex movements (Macintyre, 1996 (1989) showed that wearing a heavy load as a backpack does not decrease actual walking time, but decrease imagined walking time. These results are explained by the existence of a recalibration process, as a result of the changing relationship between perceptual and podokinetic information during locomotion ( Rieser et al., 1995). ...
L’objectif de cette thèse est de mieux comprendre comment les informations sensorimotrices participent à la représentation d’un lieu en mémoire, et en influence les propriétés métriques. Notre hypothèse est que les informations issues du corps contribuent spécifiquement à ajuster les propriétés métriques de la représentation spatiale, c’est-à-dire à moduler la valeur des angles et distances mémorisés entre différents points de repères issus de l’environnement. Nous choisissons d’adopter une perspective située et incarnée, visant à promouvoir la synthèse de modèles théoriques écologiques afin d’aboutir à une meilleure connaissance des processus impliqués dans la mémoire spatiale. Afin d’appuyer notre vision intégrative des représentations spatiales, nous avons imaginé plusieurs protocoles impliquant un apprentissage spatial dans lequel les informations sensorimotrices pouvaient être rendues disponibles ou altérées, et nous avons observé les conséquences de ces manipulations sur des tâches variées dont le rappel de coordonnées spatiales sur carte. Nos résultats mettent en lumière les effets de processus d’anticipation d’effort physique liés à la locomotion sur l’encodage des propriétés métriques d’un lieu à grande échelle. Ils apportent également des données nouvelles concernant la perception des capacités d’action dans un espace péri-personnel, et son effet sur les propriétés de la représentation spatiale. Les implications théoriques de ce travail mettent l’accent sur la dépendance du format de représentation final aux demandes de la tâche effectuée durant l’encodage : à une activité et un but donné correspondrait une forme de représentation adaptée aux besoins de l’organisme en interaction avec un espace spécifique.
... The cognitive literature proposes that the effective kinesthetic sensations, including movement, effort, heaviness, and position provide information that enables the human system to determine the position of limbs and to identify the origins and the cause of action [11]. Further, it has been proposed that there are functional equivalence and the use of common neural pathways in motor preparation/execution and motor imagery [12,13]. Thus, because motor preparation/execution and motor imagery involve the same motor representation systems, they likely have the same neuronal substrates [1,2,14]. ...
... The participants in the present study were explicitly asked to use motor imagery in order to simulate a movement. Therefore, we speculate, that motor imagery can assist in the creation of a vivid simulation of the same feelings as during the actual execution [30,31], activating in this way, the common neural pathways in motor preparation/execution and motor imagery [12,13]. Our results suggest that motor imagery induce most efficiently changes of resting-state of SMR. ...
In the present study, 30 right-handed participants randomly performed one of three motor neurorehabilitation paradigms: action observation (AO), motor imagery (MI) and combined action observation and motor imagery (AO+MI) of the right arm and hand movement. Resting state electroencephalography (EEG) was acquired for 5 min before and immediately after the motor paradigms session. EEG was recorded from 10 sites over sensorimotor areas, and the average power was calculated for left (FC3, C3, C1, C5, CP3) and right (FC4, C4, C2, C6, CP4) regions in the spectral bands: delta, theta, alpha, mu, low and high beta. Our main finding demonstrates that delta, theta and mu activity decreased significantly on the contralateral regions during MI, while low beta increased significantly. Except for the mu band, the same changes were observed on the ipsilateral side, where delta and theta decreased significantly, while low beta became significantly higher. No relevant effects were observed for AO or combined AO and MI. These findings demonstrate a rapid effect of MI on cortical modulation in sensorimotor areas which is revealed by changes in resting state oscillatory activity and suggest an interesting interplay between MI and AO. The presented findings may be relevant for choosing a proper protocol for clinical motor neurorehabilitation approaches.
KeywordsMotor imageryAction observationEEGBiomedical signal processing
... Goals are set at a 'meta-level' governed by drives, values and beliefs to allow planning of actions, inhibition of actions, and reflection ('wait and see') as the situation requires. A similar theory was independently developed by Jeannerod (1999) [42]. ...
... Goals are set at a 'meta-level' governed by drives, values and beliefs to allow planning of actions, inhibition of actions, and reflection ('wait and see') as the situation requires. A similar theory was independently developed by Jeannerod (1999) [42]. ...
Organisms are adapted to each other and the environment, not as tradition would have it, because natural selection made them that way, but because there is inbuilt striving towards stability and equilibrium. A General Theory of Behaviour connects imagery, affect and action with the central executive system we call Consciousness. The General Theory is founded on the assumption that the primary motivation of all of Consciousness and intentional behaviour is Psychological Homeostasis. Psychological homeostasis is as important to the organisation of mind and behaviour as Physiological Homeostasis is to the organisation of bodily systems. Consciousness processes quasi-perceptual images independently of the input to the retina and sensorium. Consciousness is the “I-Am” control centre for integration and regulation of (my) thoughts, (my) feelings and (my) actions with (my) conscious mental imagery as foundation stones. Imagery vividness, a combination of clarity and liveliness, is essential to imagining, remembering, thinking, predicting, planning and acting. Assessment of vividness using introspective report is validated by objective means such as fMRI. A significant body of work shows that vividness of visual imagery is determined by the similarity of neural responses in imagery to those occurring in perception of actual objects and performance of activities. I am Conscious, therefore I am.
... Second, body-related data processing involves networks of many brain regions which are spread in the human brain (Churchland 2002). Among them fronto-parietal circuit was evidenced to play predominant role (Rizzolatti et al. 1997;Jeannerod 1999;Galati et al. 2001;Mohr et al. 2006;Tsakiris et al. 2007;Kemmerer and Tranel 2008). Third, human body (faces and other body parts) gains a special status as socially relevant stimuli which play a privileged role in perceptual processing (Bracco and Chiorri 2009;Boyer et al. 2017). ...
... In both studies, the hand laterality task and the hand action task, which are assumed to measure body schema, loaded on two separate factors (in Schwoebel's and Coslett's study each of the mentioned tasks loaded on a distinct factor, which was not loaded by any other task-that is, the factors were loaded by one task only; in my study, the tasks were included in diverse factors, which were also loaded by other tasks). This kind of separateness of these two tasks is inconsistent with the findings reported in the literature, which indicate that both tasks refer in a similar way to dynamic body representation (Parsons 1987;Stephan et al. 1995;Coslett 1998;Jeannerod 1999;Gerardin et al. 2000;Schwoebel et al. 2001Schwoebel et al. , 2002Amorim et al. 2006;Sekiyama 2006;Creem-Regehr et al. 2007). This issue needs to be explored both in clinical samples and in healthy participants. ...
Neuropsychological literature suggests that body representation is a multidimensional concept consisting of various types of representations. Previous studies have demonstrated dissociations between three types of body representation specified by the kind of data and processes, i.e. body schema, body structural description, and body semantics. The aim of the study was to describe the state of body representation in patients after vascular brain injuries and to provide evidence for the different types of body representation. The question about correlations between body representation deficits and neuropsychological dysfunctions was also investigated. Fifty patients after strokes and 50 control individuals participated in the study. They were examined with tasks referring to dynamic representation of body parts positions, topological body map, and lexical and semantic knowledge about the body. Data analysis showed that vascular brain injuries result in deficits of body representation, which may co-occur with cognitive dysfunctions, but the latter are a possible risk factor for body representation deficits rather than sufficient or imperative requisites for them. The study suggests that types of body representation may be separated on the basis not only of their content, but also of their relation with self. Principal component analysis revealed three factors, which explained over 66% of results variance. The factors, which may be interpreted as types or dimensions of mental model of a body, represent different degrees of connection with self. The results indicate another possibility of body representation types classification, which should be verified in future research.
... The second network refers to the often eagerly termed "mirror neuron network" Keysers and Gazzola, 2007;Rizzolatti and Craighero, 2004), which here I will refer to as a shared action representation system. This usage refers to converging theories on common coding of actions between self and others on the basis of behavioral studies undertaken in the 1990's which found that the observation of actions in others influences our own (Jeannerod, 1999;Prinz, 1997). Similar conclusions were reached at around the same time from the observation of neurons in the macaque monkey premotor cortex that code the execution as well as the mere observation of the same actions (Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, 2010). ...
... From such an embodied stance (Gallese, 2007;Niedenthal, 2007) however, it follows necessarily that all action representations are always tied to our own actions and likewise all body representations to our own bodies. The shared action representation and mirror neuron discoveries have proven (Grezes & Decety, 2001;Jeannerod, 1999;Keysers & Gazzola, 2007;Prinz, 1990;Rizzolatti & Sinigaglia, 2010) what movement and body workers knew and used all along. ...
Patients with Huntington’s Disease (HD), a rare, inherited neurological disorder, causing motor, cognitive and emotional dysfunctions, are impaired at recognizing emotional facial expressions. I will argue that this impairment closes one important door to empathy for them. If they cannot decipher other’s emotional expressions correctly, they can no longer resonate normally with other’s emotional states. However, all doors to empathy might not be motor, and other ways of affect sharing might be spared. In a series of experiments it is shown that the representation of an emotional gesture appears to be lesioned in HD. As a consequence, recognition of an emotion expression in another individual is impaired, as well as voluntary emotional expressivity, and micro-mimicry of facial expressions. Importantly however, these impairments do not go along with affect understanding in self, and/or with affect sharing on purely verbal-communicative and cognitive levels. Indeed, HD patients perform normally on empathy and alexithymia questionnaires. Such a differential view is essential to guide patients and caregivers in finding and strengthening their tools for affect sharing and communication.
... These authors noted that [138] faster attainment of motor developmental milestones is related to better adult cognitive performance in some domains, such as executive function. [137] The complete realization of complex acts and movements [140][141][142][143] is played out in a group of collectively functioning components, i.e., the sensory, motor, and anterior cingulate areas of the cortex, the intralaminar thalamic nucleus (in conjunction with the reticular nucleus), the amygdala, and the striatum. In mammals, the latter has a heterogeneous structure, [144] in which the continuous matrix is inter-digitated with the isolated striosomes. ...
... Given that striatal output reaches the primary motor cortex (M1) via the GPi, whereas the matrix output does not, it seems that the striatum may be more essentially related to consciousness and is much like the individual motor elements of the infant. [137][138][139][140][141][142] Likewise, the pars intermedia appears to be have more intimate associations with consciousness-related part of the cerebellum because it has analogous projections. Moreover, the threshold for overt movements may be exceeded only when both the feeding components are dispatching signals concurrently. ...
Apart from the well known role of the basal ganglia (BG) in motor control, their important role in regulating the cognitive functions is emerging. This article traces the scientific work that explores this role of BG in reinforcement learning, perceptual decision making, and other nonmotor pathways (speech fluency, cognition, attention and behaviour). It also highlights the important role played by the BG networks in determining the development of a child's brain. It retraces the various pathways and connections of the BG with the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and other regions that may be utilized in the establishment of complex cognitive procedures. Various diseases that may be the direct result of disruption of these basal ganglionic networks and interconnections are also recounted. © 2017 Neurology India, Neurological Society of India Published by Wolters Kluwer-Medknow.
... From a psychophysiological perspective the bioinformational theory of Lang [10][11][12] emphasises the role of stimuli (e.g., the imagined situation of starting in a competition induces certain physiological responses in individuals such as the modulation of the skin conductance level). A functional similarity between imagery and real execution (functional equivalence) was also revealed in other studies [13][14][15][16][17][18] . However, in previous models (e.g. ...
Athletes need to achieve their optimal level of arousal for peak performance. Visualization or mental rehearsal (i.e., Imagery) often helps to obtain an appropriate level of activation, which can be detected by monitoring Skin Conductance Level (SCL). However, different types of imagery could elicit different amount of physiological arousal. Therefore, this study aims: (1) to investigate differences in SCL associated with two instructional modalities of imagery (guided vs. self-produced) and six different scripts; (2) to check if SCL could differentiate respondents according to their sport expertise. Thirty participants, aged between 14 and 42 years (M = 22.93; SD = 5.24), with different sport levels took part in the study. Participants listened to each previously recorded script and then were asked to imagine the scene for a minute. During the task, SCL was monitored. We analysed the mean value, variance, slope and number of fluctuations per minute of the electrodermal signal. Unsupervised machine learning models were used for measuring the resemblance of the signal. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for distinguishing guided and self-produced imagery, and The Mann–Whitney U test was used for distinguishing results of different level athletes. We discovered that among others, self-produced imagery generates lower SCL, higher variance, and a higher number of fluctuations compared to guided imagery. Moreover, we found similarities of the SCL signal among the groups of athletes (i.e. expertise level). From a practical point of view, our findings suggest that different imagery instructional modalities can be implemented for specific purposes of mental preparation.
... L'IM est un processus conscient durant lequel la représentation mentale d'une action motrice, comme par exemple réaliser un service au tennis, est réactivée dans le cerveau en l'absence d'exécution motrice réelle (Robin & Blandin, 2021). Cette représentation mentale, qui peut être définie comme étant le modèle intériorisé d'une action motrice et de ses conséquences dans l'environnement (Jeannerod, 1999), est construite sur la base des informations sensorielles provenant de l'environnement et du corps du joueur (Dana & Gozalzadeh, 2017). Bien qu'il semble que la plupart des individus soient capables de créer des images mentales, il existe des différences inter-individuelles en IM que l'on retrouve sous le terme générique de « capacité d'imagerie », et qui correspond à la difficulté ou la facilité à générer et utiliser des images mentales au cours d'une pratique en imagerie (Hall, 2001). ...
L’objectif de cette étude était de tester si la capacité d’imagerie (i.e., facilité ou difficulté à créer, dans sa tête, des images mentales claires et vives) pouvait influencer la vitesse d’apprentissage du service chez des joueurs de tennis débutants lorsque ces derniers bénéficiaient d’une pratique en imagerie motrice (IM) combinée à la pratique réelle pendant leurs séances d’entrainements. Les résultats de cette expérience mettent en évidence une amélioration de la vitesse et du pourcentage de réussite (mesurés avec une tablette équipée du logiciel Swingvision) et de la qualité des services (évaluée par des entraineurs de tennis experts) des participants qui réalisaient une pratique en IM avant de servir. De plus, les résultats montrent que bien que les joueurs qui avaient des difficultés à s’imaginer servir ont obtenu des performances inférieures à celles des joueurs qui réalisaient facilement l’IM, au bout de 10 séances, leurs performances étaient similaires après 20 séances de pratique. Servir étant une habileté motrice complexe, nous recommandons aux coaches et entraineurs d’avoir recours à l’IM, en complément de la pratique réelle, même en cas de difficulté des joueurs à générer et à utiliser des images mentales : il s’agira alors d’augmenter leur quantité de pratique.
... MI is a conscious process during which the mental representation of a motor action, such as performing a tennis serve, is reactivated in the brain in the absence of actual motor execution (Robin & Blandin, 2021). This mental representation, which can be defined as the internalized model of a motor action and its consequences in the environment (Jeannerod, 1999), is constructed based on sensory information from the environment and the player's body (Dana & Gozalzadeh, 2017). Although it appears that most individuals can create mental images, there are interindividual differences in MI that are captured under the umbrella term 'imagery ability', which refers to the difficulty or ease of generating and using mental images during imagery practice (Hall, 2001). ...
The objective of this study was to test whether the ability to imagery (i.e., ease or difficulty in creating clear and vivid mental images in one's mind) could influence the speed of service learning in beginner tennis players when they were given motor imagery (MI) practice combined with real practice during their training sessions. The results of this experiment show an improvement in the speed and percentage of success (measured with a tablet equipped with Swingvision software) and in the quality of serves (assessed by expert tennis coaches) of the participants who carried out IM practice before serving. Furthermore, the results show that although players who had difficulty imagining serving performed worse than players who could easily perform MI, after 10 sessions their performance was similar after 20 sessions of practice. Since serving is a complex motor skill, we recommend that coaches use MI, in addition to actual practice, even if players have difficulty generating and using mental images: this will mean increasing the amount of practice.
... Les activités motrices sont guidées par des représentations mentales sensorimotrices stockées en mémoire qui permettent la planification, la programmation et le contrôle des actions [1]. Les représentations mentales se construisent sur la base d'informations sensorimotrices disponibles dans l'environnement ou fournies par le corps [2]. ...
Introduction
Les activités motrices sont guidées par des représentations mentales sensorimotrices permettant la planification, la programmation et le contrôle des actions [1] qui se construisent sur la base d’informations sensorimotrices issues de l’environnement ou du corps [2]. L’évolution du traitement de celles-ci, liée à l’apprentissage et l’expertise [3] est peu décrite pour la pratique professionnelle et l’apprentissage de métiers où le corps est un outil (par exemple, le masseur-kinésithérapeute MK). Ce métier évolue au cours des années avec l’utilisation de la pratique basée sur les preuves aidant au choix thérapeutique avec les données scientifiques tout en gardant une pratique physique quotidienne. Ces compétences physiques apprises et répétées feront évoluer le système sensori-moteur. Cette évolution pourra être évaluée par différents moyens comme l’imagerie motrice qui sollicite des zones corticales, responsables de la programmation et du contrôle moteur, similaires à celle des actions réelles.
Matériel et méthodes
Cette étude a pour but de comparer l’évolution de la sensorimotricité d’étudiants et de MK diplômés ainsi que leur modalité et perspective préférentielle (visuelles 1re et 3e personne et kinesthésique). Un questionnaire en ligne (MIQ-3sf [4]), évaluant la capacité d’imagerie de mouvements simples pour différentes modalités et perspectives, a été envoyé à des MK et étudiants.
Résultats
Au total, 337 sujets (278 étudiants MK, 59 MK ; âge moyen = 24,9 ans) ont répondu. Une différence significative d’imagerie kinesthésique entre étudiants et MK diplômés (p = 011) a été observée. L’analyse de la comparaison des segments corporels révèle des scores d’imagerie kinesthésique supérieurs chez les diplômés par rapport aux étudiants, que ce soit pour le membre supérieur (p = 0,011), le tronc (p = 0,030) ou les deux (p = 0,002). Aucune différence n’a été observée entre les deux cycles de formation des étudiants chez qui la modalité et perspective préférentielle est l’imagerie visuelle 1re personne.
Discussion/conclusion
L’amélioration des scores d’imagerie kinesthésique avec les années de pratique pourrait être liée à une quantité de pratique supérieure, de par une utilisation quotidienne de leur corps comme outils de soin, chez les MK diplômés. L’absence de groupe contrôle et les différences de taille d’échantillon entre les groupes sont des limites. Les résultats de cette étude suggèrent un développement de la sensorimotricité une fois l’obtention du diplôme et non en formation initiale.
... Importantly, all these findings provide support to the common coding hypothesis of intention and action [12,13], and the theory of event coding [TEC: 14] that in line with the ideomotor principle [15; see also 16 for an earlier formulation of the same principle] assume that we represent our intentions and actions in terms of their anticipated sensory consequences [see also [17][18][19]. Accordingly, a common representational code is shared by perceived stimuli and generated actions. Therefore, effects can act as stimuli that, although being irrelevant to the task or situation, are being processed and are able to influence responses [see 20 for a review]. ...
Previous studies highlighted spatial compatibility effects other than those strictly arising from stimulus-response locations. In particular, the so-called Destination Compatibility (DC) effect refers to faster responses for dynamic (i.e., moving) stimuli the end point of which is spatially compatible with the response key. Four experiments examined whether the DC effect also occurs with static visual stimuli symbolically representing either motion destination alone (Experiment 1a), or both motion origin and destination (Experiments 1b, 2a, and 2b). Overall, our results are consistent in showing a DC effect; most importantly, the present findings reveal a predominance of the effect of destination of motion over that of origin, even when both the starting and ending positions of the stimulus are symbolically represented and participants are instructed to respond according to motion origin. This finding suggests that the DC effect is independent from other stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) effects.
... The sophisticated computations required to solve these problems likely rely on action-perception matching processes (Jeannerod, 1999;Prinz, 1997), supported by the morphological similarities of the two agents' bodies and a shared motor repertoire. By virtue of the common representational domain 13 shared by observed and planned actions, we understand the goals of the actions we observe by simulating them in our own sensorimotor system (but see Csibra, 2008;Gallese & Goldman, 1998;Jacob & Jeannerod, 2005;Kilner, 2011). ...
There is no one way to learn techniques: their acquisition depends on the specifics of the learning context. Such demands speak to our capacity to successfully transmit vital know-how by flexibly adapting to local contingencies. Cognitive accounts of cultural learning have yet to explain this flexibility. Here, we argue that a key feature of cultural learning is that both the expert(s) and novice(s) recruit cognitive mechanisms of action coordination modulating their behavior contingently on the behavior of their partner, generating a process of mutual adaptation supporting the successful transmission of technical skills in diverse and fluctuating learning environments.
... Thus, a seesaw may afford action to two kids, but not to a single child. A third source of emergent coordination is perception-action matching, whereby observed actions are matched onto the observer's own action repertoire and can induce the same action tendencies in different agents who observe one another's actions (Jeannerod, 1999;Prinz, 1997;Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, 2010). It is likely that such processes make partners in a joint action more similar and thus more easily predictable, and thereby facilitate mutual responsiveness in action. ...
This document is an extended version of the one published in the proceedings of RoboPhilosophy conference
... However, current philosophy of mind, cognitive neuroscience, and developmental theory have seriously challenged the Cartesian view of the mind (Damasio, 1994;Dennett, 1991;Gopnik, 1993;Wegner & Wheatley, 1999). At the same time, recent philosophical (Davidson, 1980;Searle, 1983), cognitive and neuropsychological (Frith, 1992;Jeannerod, 1999;Pacherie, 1997;Prinz, 1997) models of the representation of intentional action indicate that the representation of intentional mind states has a rather complex internal structure whose conscious access may be absent or only partial, and may depend on a variety of factors (Dienes & Perner, 1999). This, together with the demonstrations from current theory of mind research documenting an intriguingly complex developmental unfolding of the understanding of different types of intentional mind states (such as desires, intentions, and beliefs) (Bartsch & Wellman, 1995;Perner, 1991) strongly indicates that the mature understanding of the self as a mental agent is also likely to be the product of rather complex developmental processes. ...
... However, current philosophy of mind, cognitive neuroscience, and developmental theory have seriously challenged the Cartesian view of the mind (Damasio, 1994;Dennett, 1991;Gopnik, 1993;Wegner & Wheatley, 1999). At the same time, recent philosophical (Davidson, 1980;Searle, 1983), cognitive and neuropsychological (Frith, 1992;Jeannerod, 1999;Pacherie, 1997;Prinz, 1997) models of the representation of intentional action indicate that the representation of intentional mind states has a rather complex internal structure whose conscious access may be absent or only partial, and may depend on a variety of factors (Dienes & Perner, 1999). This, together with the demonstrations from current theory of mind research documenting an intriguingly complex developmental unfolding of the understanding of different types of intentional mind states (such as desires, intentions, and beliefs) (Bartsch & Wellman, 1995;Perner, 1991) strongly indicates that the mature understanding of the self as a mental agent is also likely to be the product of rather complex developmental processes. ...
... Based on neuroimaging studies, it was demonstrated that the cortical motor regions (such as the pre-motor cortex, sensory motor cortex, dorsal and ventral pre-motor cortex, supplementary motor area (SMA) and posterior parietal cortex) are activated when participants attempt to perform tasks in high CI (random practice) condition, when compared to low CI (blocked practice) condition On the other hand, several neuroimaging studies reported that the common neural structures (including the pre-motor cortex, SMA, inferior parietal lobule, cingulate gyrus and cerebellum) are activated during physical and observational practice (Gallese & Goldman, 1998;Grezes & Decety, 2001;Jeannerod, 1999Jeannerod, , 2001). ...
ANALYSIS OF STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARDS PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS
Nermin Nurković1, Faris Rašidagić1, Dženana Imamović1, Hana Hadžibulić-Nurković 3
1. Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo
2. Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Sarajevo
The behaviour of physical education teachers during the educational process influences the formation of student attitudes. If the pedagogical work of the teacher is on a low interactive level, it can form negative student attitudes towards lessons or the subject. Student attitudes towards physical education lessons do not necessarily have to begin during the educational process. They can be previously formed in a negative or positive way. In both cases, they influence the entire attitude towards the subject. These opinions can be a reflection of the teacher’s work. This research has been made with the aim to determine the attitude of primary-school students towards physical education lessons. In the examinee sample, students of the seventh and eighth grades from ten different primary schools in Sarajevo Canton have been examined. This research has gathered 514 examinees in total, 53% of male participants and 47% of female participants. Data which has defined the examinees’ attitude were gathered by filling in anonymous questionnaires containing twenty different questions. After data gathering, a factor analysis conducted. The results obtained from the analysis have shown that there are three significant latent components. The first latent component can be identified as the students’ negative attitude towards physical education lessons. It contains about 20% of the explained variance with a 4.127 root. The second latent component can be identified as an extremely positive attitude towards physical education lessons. It contains about 16% of the explained variance with a 3.233 root. The third latent component with a 1.31 root and the explained variance of 5.65% is considered to be a mathematical artefact inclined towards the students’ negative attitude. Categorizing correlation coefficients is not the same as in the first latent component and it is a part of a completely different subgroup of physical education lessons. After the completion of the factor analysis, it can be stated that the aim ofnthis research has been accomplished. Two clear student attitudes towards physical education lessons have been determined. One is positive and the other is negative. The third attitude, contained in the third latent dimension is negative and has elements of a different subgroup in lessons. To fully understand the students’ attitude towards physical education lessons, there are several research methods that can be organized within various age categories that differ from the one inspected in this case. The obtained data can also be differentiated according to the students’ sex. This would more clearly define the guidelines for teachers in order to improve the students’ attitude towards physical education lessons.
Keywords: factor analysis, students, primary school
... Goals are set at a meta level governed by drives, values, and beliefs to allow planning of actions, inhibition of actions, and reflection ("wait and see") as the situation requires. A similar theory was independently developed by Marc Jeannerod (1999) [43]. ...
Abstract: Organisms are adapted to each other and the environment because there is an inbuilt striving toward security, stability, and equilibrium. A General Theory of Behavior connects imagery, affect, and action with the central executive system we call consciousness, a direct emergent property of cerebral activity. The General Theory is founded on the assumption that the primary motivation of all of consciousness and intentional behavior is psychological homeostasis. Psychological homeostasis is as important to the organization of mind and behavior as physiological homeostasis is to the organization of bodily systems. Consciousness processes quasi-perceptual images independently of the input to the retina and sensorium. Consciousness is the “I am” control
center for integration and regulation of (my) thoughts, (my) feelings, and (my) actions with (my) conscious mental imagery as foundation stones. The fundamental, universal conscious desire for psychological homeostasis benefits from the degree of vividness of inner imagery. Imagery vividness, a combination of clarity and liveliness, is beneficial to imagining, remembering, thinking, predicting, planning, and acting. Assessment of vividness using introspective report is validated by objective means such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). A significant body of work shows that vividness of visual imagery is determined by the similarity of neural responses in imagery to those occurring in perception of actual objects and performance of activities. I am conscious; therefore, I am.
... The ability to plan ahead is crucial for cognition [9] and is thought to be realized as a form of internal simulation that is applied using such flexible internal models. In particular, forward models are of predictive nature which allows to recruit these predictive capabilities for planning ahead in an internal simulation [10]. ...
An internal model of the own body can be assumed a fundamental and evolutionary-early representation as it is present throughout the animal kingdom. Such functional models are, on the one hand, required in motor control, for example solving the inverse kinematic or dynamic task in goal-directed movements or a forward task in ballistic movements. On the other hand, such models are recruited in cognitive tasks as are planning ahead or observation of actions of a conspecific. Here, we present a functional internal body model that is based on the Mean of Multiple Computations principle. For the first time such a model is completely realized in a recurrent neural network as necessary normalization steps are integrated into the neural model itself. Secondly, a dynamic extension is applied to the model. It is shown how the neural network solves a series of inverse tasks. Furthermore, emerging representation in transformational layers are analyzed that show a form of prototypical population-coding as found in place or direction cells.
... Sans adopter une démarche restrictive, la principale différence entre IM et exécution réelle est que l'IM se caractérise par une inhibition de la commande motrice, tout au moins partielle (pour revue, voir Guillot et al., 2012). Il existe donc une étroite similitude structurale et fonctionnelle entre la simulation mentale d'un mouvement et son exécution réelle (Jeannerod, 1994(Jeannerod, , 1995(Jeannerod, , 1999. Pour mieux expliquer cette similarité, différents paradigmes ...
L’objectif de ce travail de thèse était d’évaluer les bénéfices thérapeutiques d’un entraînement par imagerie motrice chez les patients ayant subi une prothèse totale de genou unilatérale. Combiner l’imagerie motrice avec la physiothérapie classique a permis de diminuer la douleur et d’augmenter la force du quadriceps durant la phase aiguë, au 1er mois postopératoire. Durant la phase chronique, au 6ème mois postopératoire, l’imagerie motrice permettrait de corriger l’asymétrie de la marche, d’une part en augmentant la force du quadriceps ipsilatéral et, par conséquent, en accentuant la charge sur le genou opéré, et d’autre part en augmentant la flexion maximale du genou durant la phase oscillante. L’imagerie motrice pourrait également aider les personnes âgées après la prothèse totale du genou à monter les escaliers plus rapidement, en toute sécurité. Cela peut atténuer le risque de chute dans les escaliers et, par conséquent, diminuer la fréquence des blessures graves. En conclusion, intégrer l’imagerie motrice dans les programmes de rééducation après prothèse totale du genou primaire unilatérale est pertinent et prometteur
... « 12 » We should, of course, be clear about what the evidence shows. abu-akel cites Marc Jeannerod (1999) in regard to the claim that mirror neurons (Mns) make no distinction between self and other. This is part of the original Mn doctrine, but the original data on Mns show that firing rates of these neurons are different for action mode (when i am acting) versus observation mode (when i am perceiving the actions of others). ...
The commentaries on my target article tend to be either supportive and expansive or corrective. I respond to these commentaries by focusing on issues that involve philosophical and scientific frameworks, concepts of autonomy, self, and social cognition broadly conceived.
... To carry out goal-directed movements, the central nervous system needs to transform sensory information related to hand and target locations into appropriate motor commands for the environment in which one is reaching (Wolpert and Kawato 1998;Flanagan et al. 1999;Jeannerod 1999;Kawato 1999). The sensory information used to plan and execute reaching movements is primarily visual and proprioceptive in nature. ...
Explicit (strategic) and implicit (unconscious) processes play a role in visuomotor adaptation (Bond and Taylor, J Neurophysiol 113:3836–3849, https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00009.2015, 2015; Werner et al., PLoS ONE 10:1–18, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123321, 2015). We investigated the contributions of explicit and implicit processes to visuomotor adaptation when awareness was manipulated directly vs. indirectly, and asked how these contributions changed over time. Participants were assigned to a Strategy or No-Strategy group. Those in the Strategy group were made aware of the visuomotor distortion directly. Participants were further subdivided into groups to train with a large (60°), medium (40°) or small (20°) visuomotor distortion, providing the potential for awareness to develop indirectly. Participants reached with their respective distorted cursor, followed by a series of no-cursor reaches to assess the contributions of explicit and implicit processes to visuomotor adaptation after every 30 reach training trials. Within the no-cursor reaching trials, participants reached (1) with any strategies they had gained during training (explicit + implicit processes), and (2) as accurately to the target as possible (implicit processes). Results showed that implicit contributions were greatest in the No-Strategy group, took time to develop, and were transient, as partial decay was seen following a 5-min rest. As well, implicit contributions were similar (i.e., plateaued), regardless of the rotation size participants trained with. In contrast, explicit contributions were greatest in the Strategy group, increased with rotation size, and remained consistent over time. Taken together, results reveal that there are notable differences in the stability of explicit and implicit processes and their potential to contribute to visuomotor adaptation depending on if awareness is provided directly.
... En effectuant ces différents types de tâche, on observe, une activation du cortex pré-moteur, de l'aire motrice supplémentaire (AMS) et du cervelet complétée dans le cas de relations production-imagination par une activation du cortex moteur primaire, des voies cortico-spinales et des ganglions de la base. L'ensemble de ces données a amenéJeannerod (1999; à développer une théorie de la simulation motrice. Il propose que le système moteur soit parti intégrante d'un ensemble neuronal qui est activé dans de nombreuses situations impliquant l'action, que celle-ci soit intentionnellement planifiée ou non. ...
Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude du rôle de la motricité dans la perception visuelle des mouvements humains. L’objectif est de montrer que les correspondances entre les performances motrices et les jugements perceptifs, contrairement à ce qui est postulé par les théories motrices de la perception, ne sont pas forcément dues à l’intervention du système moteur. Pour cela nous avons analysé d’une part les jugements perceptifs pour des stimuli dont la cinématique ne respecte plus les règles de production motrices et d’autre part les liens existant entre les capacités motrices et perceptives chez des populations présentant un niveau de développement moteur variable (enfants, patients atteints de la maladie de Parkinson). Ces travaux ont concerné uniquement les relations espace-temps telles qu’elles s’expriment dans les mouvements morphocinétiques (principe d’isochronie) et topocinétiques (loi de Fitts). Les résultats indiquent que la modification de la cinématique des mouvements n’empêche pas le respect des règles motrices lors du jugement perceptif de mouvements d’ellipse ou de pointage de cible. Par contre, une perturbation très importante de la cinématique entraîne une modification du jugement des mouvements d’écriture. D’autre part, on observe des décalages entre les compétences motrices et les compétences perceptives chez les enfants et les patients parkinsoniens. Ces résultats suggèrent que la perception visuelle des mouvements humains n’implique pas systématiquement une intervention du système moteur. On constate en particulier que le type de mouvement (écriture vs mouvement d’atteinte de cible) et les propriétés des objets manipulés (verre vscylindre) ont un effet très important sur le degré d’intervention du système moteur lors du jugement visuel de mouvements humains.
... The enduring, bimodal vertical associations of sensory or perceptual and motor features of actions (i.e., shared representational system) were activated automatically by the perception of a corresponding action producing an impulse or potential to imitate (Massen & Prinz, 2009). The shared representation system did not specify who performed the action (Jeannerod, 1999). Brass, Ruby, and Spengler (2009) proposed that the control of the shared representations by relevant processes such as self/other distinction, representing conflicting mental states was the link between the shared representations and mentalizing. ...
The need for effective interventions to improve the social communication skills of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that are feasible to implement in the general education classroom has been well documented. Video self-modeling (VSM) interventions have produced rapid, durable positive behavioral changes that have been generalized beyond the intervention setting for individuals with a wide variety of conditions including ASD. In this study VSM was used as an intervention for increasing the use of spontaneous verbal communication during cooperative math activities with peers by three Hispanic boys ages 5 and 6 who had high functioning (HF) ASD. No defensible intervention effects were demonstrated in this experiment. It was likely that the target social communication skills were beyond the participants’ current skill sets at least for the context in which those skills were used, a cooperative math activity. Possible implications, limitations, and future research were discussed.
... L'imagerie mentale et la pratique physique partagent un système commun de représentation des actions18 . Les représentations sont « des modèles intériorisés de l'environnement du sujet et de ses actions dans cet environnement ; ces modèles sont utilisables par l'individu comme source d'information sur le monde et comme instrument de régulation et de plani-fication de ses conduites » 19 . ...
L’imagerie mentale (IM) est un processus conscient, durant lequel les participants simulent intérieurement une action motrice sans la réaliser réellement1. Cette technique, très populaire, est notamment utilisée en sport pour augmenter la motivation et l’auto-efficacité, améliorer l’ap- prentissage de mouvements, réguler l’éveil et l’anxiété ainsi que faciliter la rééducation2.
L’IM est fonction de l’interaction entre l’expé- rience et les variables génétiques3 mais son efficacité dépend de nombreux facteurs4. Après avoir mentionné les différentes fonctions de l’imagerie, la performance sportive et le degré d’expertise en lien avec l’IM seront abordés puis nous évoquerons les raisons pour lesquelles l’IM est fonctionnellement similaire à la pratique physique avant de détailler et suggérer les condi- tions de réalisation d’une pratique en IM en EPS.
... The exploration of cortical substrates of action, performed with lesions or electrophysiological recording of the parietal cortex of the monkey, confirmed the importance of the PPC in guiding goal-directed movements (e.g.: [31,32]). These results strongly supported the specialization of the dorsal visual system for goal-directed actions (reviews: [4,13,25,[33][34][35][36]). These findings were complemented by electrophysiological studies on the latency of visual areas, which revealed a rapid processing pathway (the dorsal stream), and a slower one (the ventral stream) [37][38][39], compatible with the idea of a dorsal stream enabling fast action responses [40]. ...
This chapter reviews clinical and scientific approaches to optic ataxia. This double historic track allows us to address important issues such as the link between Bálint syndrome and optic ataxia, the alleged double dissociation between optic ataxia and visual agnosia, and the use of optic ataxia to argue for a specific vision-for-action occipitoposterior parietal stream. Clinical cases are described and reveal that perceptual deficits have been long shown to accompany ataxia. Importantly, the term ataxia appears to be misleading as patients exhibit a combination of visual and nonvisual perceptual, attentional, and visuomotor guidance deficits, which are confirmed by experimental approaches. Three major features of optic ataxia are described. The first is a spatial feature whereby the deficits exhibited by patients appear to be specific to peripheral vision, akin to the field effect. Visuomotor field examination allows us to quantify this deficit and reveals that it consists of a highly reliable retinocentric hypometria. The third is a temporal feature whereby these deficits are exacerbated under temporal constraints, i.e., when attending to dynamic stimuli. These two aspects combine in a situation where patients have to quickly respond to a target presented in peripheral vision that is experimentally displaced upon movement onset. In addition to the field effect, a hand effect can be described in conditions where the hand is not visible. Spatial and temporal aspects as well as field and hand effects may rely on several posterior parietal modules that remain to be precisely identified both anatomically and functionally. It is concluded that optic ataxia is not a visuomotor deficit and there is no dissociation between perception and action capacities in optic ataxia, hence a fortiori no double dissociation between optic ataxia and visual agnosia. Future directions for understanding the basic pathophysiology of optic ataxia are proposed.
... We can now add a second possible penalty; thoughts might otherwise establish themselves by default. One should note that overt movement and mere imagery-that is, covert preparations for movement, appear to involve identical areas [17]. ...
The historical development of the thinking in
various approaches to a fundamental
understanding of impairments in the
developmental process is presented with the
aim being to provide a comprehensive
rationale for the treatment of children with
developmental disabilities in the context of the
integrative function of the nervous system.
Applications in sensory integration and
language acquisition are presented in the
context of a functional neurological approach
to developmental aspects of rehabilitation.
... The exploration of cortical substrates of action, performed with lesions or electrophysiological recording of the parietal cortex of the monkey, confirmed the importance of the PPC in guiding goal-directed movements (e.g.: [31,32]). These results strongly supported the specialization of the dorsal visual system for goal-directed actions (reviews: [4,13,25,[33][34][35][36]). These findings were complemented by electrophysiological studies on the latency of visual areas, which revealed a rapid processing pathway (the dorsal stream), and a slower one (the ventral stream) [37][38][39], compatible with the idea of a dorsal stream enabling fast action responses [40]. ...
Among the many dissociations describing the visual system, the dual theory of two visual systems, respectively dedicated to perception and action, has yielded a lot of support. There are psychophysical, anatomical and neuropsychological arguments in favor of this theory. Several behavioral studies that used sensory and motor psychophysical parameters observed differences between perceptive and motor responses. The anatomical network of the visual system in the non-human primate was very readily organized according to two major pathways, dorsal and ventral. Neuropsychological studies, exploring optic ataxia and visual agnosia as characteristic deficits of these two pathways, led to the proposal of a functional double dissociation between visuomotor and visual perceptual functions. After a major wave of popularity that promoted great advances, particularly in knowledge of visuomotor functions, the guiding theory is now being reconsidered. Firstly, the idea of a double dissociation between optic ataxia and visual form agnosia, as cleanly separating visuomotor from visual perceptual functions, is no longer tenable; optic ataxia does not support a dissociation between perception and action and might be more accurately viewed as a negative image of action blindsight. Secondly, dissociations between perceptive and motor responses highlighted in the framework of this theory concern a very elementary level of action, even automatically guided action routines. Thirdly, the very rich interconnected network of the visual brain yields few arguments in favor of a strict perception/action dissociation. Overall, the dissociation between motor function and perceptive function explored by these behavioral and neuropsychological studies can help define an automatic level of action organization deficient in optic ataxia and preserved in action blindsight, and underlines the renewed need to consider the perception-action circle as a functional ensemble.
... One source of emergent coordination involves interpersonal entrainment mechanisms. Thus, two people sitting next to each other in rocking chairs will unconsciously synchronize their rocking frequency (Richardson et al., 2007) and two people walking side by side will tend to fall in synchrony (van Ulzen et al., 2008) Another source of emergent coordination is perception-action matching, whereby observed actions are matched onto the observer's own action repertoire and can induce the same action tendencies in different agents who observe one another's actions (Jeannerod, 1999;Prinz, 1997;Rizzolatti & Sinigaglia, 2010). It is likely that such processes make partners in a joint action more similar and thus more easily predictable, and thereby facilitate coordination during action execution. ...
Intégration de l’action, de l’action conjointe et de l’apprentissage dans les architectures cognitives robotiques. À l’opposé des recherches en Intelligence Artificielle, où des algorithmes conçus pour des problèmes spécifiques peuvent être testés dans des conditions de simulation parfaitement contrôlée, la Robotique a toujours eu à faire face à la nécessité d’intégrer la perception, la décision et l’exécution de l’action pour pouvoir fonctionner sur des plateformes physiques en interaction dans et avec le monde réel. Cette particularité a obligé les roboticiennes et roboticiens à se poser très tôt la question de comment coordonner efficacement différents systèmes de mémoires, différents niveaux de prise de décision et différents processus d’apprentissage dans des architectures cognitives. En conséquence, les propositions d’architectures robotiques ont souvent été confrontées et nourries par les questionnements sur les architectures cognitives tels qu’abordés en Philosophie, en Psychologie, en Neurosciences, et plus généralement en Sciences Cognitives. Dans cet article, nous passons en revue les travaux robotiques qui ont abordé le problème de l’intégration de différents niveaux d’action et de leurs mécanismes d’apprentissage associés (de la planification des actions orientées vers un but aux simples réflexes ; de la surveillance de l’action aux comportements réactifs guidés par la vision). Nous montrons qu’un tel type d’intégration est nécessaire et suffisant pour permettre à un agent artificiel de montrer un niveau basique de surveillance de sa propre performance, et en conséquence de montrer de plus grandes capacités de flexibilité comportementale, d’autonomie et de généralisation à différents environnements. Nous illustrons cette problématique à travers des exemples expérimentaux sur la coordination de systèmes multiples d’apprentissage au sein d’un même robot, et sur l’application à l’action conjointe lors de la coopération homme-robot. Nous trouvons en effet que des mécanismes partiellement similaires d’intégration des niveaux d’action peuvent fonctionner à la fois pour l’action individuelle et pour l’action conjointe. Enfin, nous mettons en lumière certains des succès et des échecs de ces approches robotiques en espérant nourrir et contribuer aux débats similaires sur l’action qui se posent dans les autres champs des Sciences Cognitives.
... The SoA can be defined as the feeling of one's voluntary actions causing events in the external world [22] and having the awareness of owning the actions' outcomes. This "Attribution of judgement" allows us to distinguish our actions and their sensory effects from those of other people [25]. For example, in touchless applications scenarios in which perceiving a responsive system is relevant (e.g. ...
Touchless interfaces allow users to view, control and manipulate digital content without physically touching an interface. They are being explored in a wide range of application scenarios from medical surgery to car dashboard controllers. One aspect of touchless interaction that has not been explored to date is the Sense of Agency (SoA). The SoA refers to the subjective experience of voluntary control over actions in the external world. In this paper, we investigated the SoA in touchless systems using the intentional binding paradigm. We first compare touchless systems with physical interactions and then augmented different types of haptic feedback to explore how different outcome modalities influence intentional binding. From our experiments, we demonstrated that an intentional binding effect is observed in both physical and touchless interactions with no statistical difference. Additionally, we found that haptic and auditory feedback help to increase SoA compared with visual feedback in touchless interfaces. We discuss these findings and identify design opportunities that take agency into consideration.
The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness is the first of its kind in the field, and its appearance marks a unique time in the history of intellectual inquiry on the topic. After decades during which consciousness was considered beyond the scope of legitimate scientific investigation, consciousness re-emerged as a popular focus of research towards the end of the last century, and it has remained so for nearly 20 years. There are now so many different lines of investigation on consciousness that the time has come when the field may finally benefit from a book that pulls them together and, by juxtaposing them, provides a comprehensive survey of this exciting field. An authoritative desk reference, which will also be suitable as an advanced textbook.
The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness is the first of its kind in the field, and its appearance marks a unique time in the history of intellectual inquiry on the topic. After decades during which consciousness was considered beyond the scope of legitimate scientific investigation, consciousness re-emerged as a popular focus of research towards the end of the last century, and it has remained so for nearly 20 years. There are now so many different lines of investigation on consciousness that the time has come when the field may finally benefit from a book that pulls them together and, by juxtaposing them, provides a comprehensive survey of this exciting field. An authoritative desk reference, which will also be suitable as an advanced textbook.
The sports and culture sectors play a significant role in generating better values for the society. Olympic Heritage belongs to cultural values, especially in countries where the Olympic Games took place. Over three decades ago, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) was a leader in promoting Olympic values during the 1984 Winter Olympic Games. Through questionnaires addressed to the sports federations that are members of the Olympic Committee of Bosnia and Herzegovina (over 30 sports organizations), this paper was used to inspect the value and direction of the cultural dimension related to the Olympic Heritage in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Through the Likert scale consisting of 13 items which were used, important values and the potential development of cultural activities within the Olympic Movement were used and considered in order to provide recommendations for promoting the country’s cultural values in the future. The significance of differences and examinations was determined using the chi-square test (x2).
Considering the fact that there is little research on the topic, the authors approach the work by highlighting the elements of culture that are closely connected with the importance of preserving the Olympic Heritage, as well as promotion of culture through sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the future, universities, together with the Olympic Committee and NGOs, could offer new cultural platforms emphasising the Olympic values by spreading awareness and educating the youth through sport and culture. The research results may also be applicable to the Sports Development Strategy of BiH.
Keywords: Olympic values, Olympic Heritage, cultural activities, cultural awareness, cultural impact.
Introduction:
Motor imagery (MI) refers to the mental rehearsal of a physical action without muscular activity. Our previous studies showed that MI combined with rhythmic-auditory cues improved walking, fatigue and quality of life (QoL) in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). Largest improvements were seen after music and verbally cued MI. It is unclear whether actual cued gait training achieves similar effects on walking as cued MI in pwMS. Furthermore, in pwMS it is unknown whether any of these interventions leads to changes in brain activation. The purpose of this study is therefore to compare the effects of imagined and actual cued gait training and a combination thereof on walking, brain activation patterns, fatigue, cognitive and emotional functioning in pwMS.
Methods and analysis:
A prospective double-blind randomised parallel multicentre trial will be conducted in 132 pwMS with mild to moderate disability. Randomised into three groups, participants will receive music, metronome and verbal cueing, plus MI of walking (1), MI combined with actual gait training (2) or actual gait training (3) for 30 min, 4× per week for 4 weeks. Supported by weekly phone calls, participants will practise at home, guided by recorded instructions. Primary endpoints will be walking speed (Timed 25-Foot Walk) and distance (2 min Walk Test). Secondary endpoints will be brain activation patterns, fatigue, QoL, MI ability, anxiety, depression, cognitive functioning, music-induced motivation-to-move, pleasure, arousal and self-efficacy. Data will be collected at baseline, postintervention and 3-month follow-up. MRI reference values will be generated using 15 matched healthy controls.
Ethics and dissemination:
This study follows the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials-PRO Extension. Ethical approval was received from the Ethics Committees of the Medical Universities of Innsbruck (1347/2020) and Graz (33-056 ex 20/21), Austria. Results will be disseminated via national and international conferences and published in peer-reviewed journals.
Trial registration number:
DRKS00023978.
The Phenomenological Mind, Third Edition, introduces fundamental questions about the mind from the perspective of phenomenology. One of the outstanding books in the field, now translated into eight languages, this highly regarded exploration of phenomenology from a topic-driven standpoint examines the following key questions and issues:
• what is phenomenology?
• phenomenology and the cognitive sciences
• consciousness and self-consciousness
• time and consciousness
• intentionality and perception
• the embodied mind
• action
• knowledge of other minds
• situated and extended minds
• phenomenology and personal identity.
This third edition has been revised and updated throughout. The chapter on phenomenological methodologies has been significantly expanded to cover qualitative research, and there are new sections discussing important, recent research on topics such as critical phenomenology, imagination, social cognition, race and gender, collective intentionality, and selfhood.
ABSTRACT
Activities in which athletes must move their body across a feld with a quick burst of energy require a high relative peak power and anaerobic capacity. Some of the procedures that have been used in previous studies to estimate anaerobic power and/or capacity are the maximal accumulated oxygen defcit (MAOD), Wingate test (WAnT), jump tests, maximal anaerobic running test and running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST). The aim of this systematic review is the relationship of anaerobic capacity-based tests with various sports activities. Four electronic databases (Medline, PubMed, Kobson and Google Scholar) were searched. The included studies were coded for the following criteria: anaerobic capacity assessment tests, the impact of motor skills-based tests on
anaerobic capacity and its correlation with the type of activity. A total of 20 studies met the inclusion criteria. The most used tests to determine the anaerobic capacity in the analysed research were WAnT and RAST tests, as well as their relation to the motor skills tests such as jump tests, agility and sprint tests, and isokinetic tests. The WAnT and RAST are reliable and valid tests which can be used to assess anaerobic power and predict shortdistance performances. Vertical jump is good for measuring the leg muscle strength and power in activities that require a running and jumping-based ability. The countermovement jump and bench press power tests are good for measuring anaerobic capacity in activities that require repeated short sprints, and agility tests are good when
assessing performance measures that require lower body strength and power necessary for quick changes in direction.
Keywords: Anaerobic capacity, agility, vertical jump, countermovement jump, squat jump, speed
The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of a 30-day plyometric training programme on increasing explosive strength and agility in basketball players. 20 basketball players divided into the control group (CG n=10) and the experimental-plyometric group (PG n=10) of the age 15 + / - 6 months have participated in this research. There are thirteen (13) variables in the research; 3 from anthropometry and 10 motor tests of explosive strength, repetitive (iterative) strength, flexibility and agility (Bal, B. et al., 2011, Asadi, A., et al., 2012; Andrejić, O. et al., 2012). The plyometric training programme is realized according to the model of Poomsalood, S. and Pakulanon,
S. (2015). Data processing methods are applied by way of SPSS version 21.0, which applies the basic statistical parameters, and the method for finding statistically significant differences was the T-test. We may conclude that the effect of a 30-day plyometric training programme can be achieved in increasing explosive strength and agility of the basketball players.
Research paradigms for stimulating empathic responses in virtual reality change perceived self-other overlap through illusions that cause users to experience their own body as a virtual avatar with a different type of body. Virtual Alterity paradigms involve sharing aspects of another real person's first-person experience in interactive virtual environments. In this thesis, I define empathy as an other-directed emotion motivating concern for another's welfare, and argue that virtual alterity systems are better designed to facilitate empathy when conceived in this way, as compared to avatar illusions in VR.
A number of studies have shown that observation of another person’s actions can modulate one’s own actions, such as when 2 individuals cooperate in order to complete a joint task. However, little is known about whether or not direct matching of specific movements is modulated by the goals of the actions observed. In a series of 7 experiments, we employed an action observation paradigm in which 2 coactors sat opposite each other and took turns to reach out to targets presented on a shared workspace. Importantly, coactors performed either the same goal at the reached-to location or a different goal. Although results consistently showed that the reaching action of 1 individual slows the observer’s reaching action to the same spatial location, the effect was not modulated according to the adopted goals of coactors. These findings challenge the notion that the processes involved in the imitation of specific movements code for the action goals of those movements.
1. The ventilatory and circulatory responses to electrically induced leg exercise (EEL) were studied in seven normal subjects and compared with the responses to performing the same exercise voluntarily (EV). 2. EEL was produced by surface electrode stimulation of the quadriceps and hamstring muscle groups. This produced a push-relax pattern of exercise against a spring load and was free of any pain or discomfort. EV, at the same level, was achieved by subjects copying a display of timing and force information on a storage oscilloscope. 3. Cardiac output was estimated using validated Doppler ultrasound measurements of the velocity in the ascending aorta, combined with an estimate of aortic cross-sectional area using M-mode echocardiography. 4. Data from EV and EEL exercise runs were matched, within subjects, for the increase in oxygen consumption during the first 30 s of exercise; there were no significant differences between the resting states prior to either form of exercise. 5. The first ten beats of exercise were used to study the circulatory on-transient. The cardiac output responses to both EV and EEL were similar; however, in EV alone there was an initial significant drop in stroke volume and a slightly greater rise in heart rate. 6. The first five breaths of the response were used to study the ventilatory on-transient, and by measuring cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate throughout each breath, the relationship between circulatory and ventilatory variables could be assessed. Ventilation showed a significantly greater rise at the onset of exercise during EV than during EEL; PET,CO2 (end-tidal CO2 pressure) showed small but significant falls for both EV and EEL. 7. The circulatory changes on a breath-by-breath basis are similar for EV and EEL although the ventilatory changes differ. In both EV and EEL the average increase in ventilation at the onset of exercise is proportionally greater than the average increases in cardiac output. Individual exercise runs show no particular relationship between circulatory and ventilatory change. 8. The results provide no support in man during mild leg exercise for a 'cardiodynamic' drive to breathing.
A sample of schizophrenic inpatients and a control sample of normal volunteers, matched for age and sex were tested on two tasks before and after an exposure condition in which they pointed repeatedly to a target while viewing their hands and the target through prisms. Both groups showed significant changes in both tasks--judging the straight-ahead, and pointing to a single target without sight of the hands. The groups did not differ from each other in the amount of changes in straight-ahead judgments, but normals showed greater adaptive change in the pointing task. These results contradict earlier reports that schizophrenics fail to adapt to altered visual-proprioceptive inputs; but they also help distinguish between modes of proprioceptive utilization that do and do not differentiate schizophrenics from normals.
In monkeys, the rostral part of ventral premotor cortex (area F5) contains neurons that discharge, both when the monkey grasps or manipulates objects and when it observes the experimenter making similar actions. These neurons (mirror neurons) appear to represent a system that matches observed events to similar, internally generated actions, and in this way forms a link between the observer and the actor. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and positron emission tomography (PET) experiments suggest that a mirror system for gesture recognition also exists in humans and includes Broca's area. We propose here that such an observation/execution matching system provides a necessary bridge from'doing' to'communicating',as the link between actor and observer becomes a link between the sender and the receiver of each message.