Content uploaded by Nico W. Van Yperen
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Nico W. Van Yperen
Content may be subject to copyright.
Referential Comparisons, Relational Comparisons, and Exchange Orientation: Their Relation to Marital Satisfaction
Abstract
Employing a sample of 214 individuals, this study showed that most individuals felt the input/outcome ratio in their marital relationship was better than that of most same-sex others (referential comparisons) but equal to that of their spouse (relational comparisons). Perceptions of superiority in referential comparisons and of equity in relational comparisons were accompanied by the highest level of marital satisfaction. However, further analyses showed that only for individuals high in exchange orientation was equity related to marital satisfaction and that individuals low in exchange orientation were, overall, more satisfied with their relationship. Women were more deprived and less satisfied, especially when they were high in exchange orientation. The results are related to the controversy surrounding the application of equity theory to close relationships. In addition, the cognitive mechanisms that help individuals maintain a positive view of their marital relationship are considered.
... Whereas Murstein et al. (1977) and Milardo and Murstein (1979) found indeed some evidence for a main effect of exchange orientation on dissatisfaction in relationships, Buunk and VanYperen (1991) reasoned that such an orientation would also have a moderator effect. They developed the hypothesis that for individuals high exchange orientation, equity would be more important than for individuals low in such an orientation and would thus be accompanied with more dissatisfaction than for individuals low in exchange orientation. ...
... Furthermore, they experienced less negative affect overall compared with individuals high in exchange orientation. These findings are similar to the findings of Buunk and VanYperen (1991) with regard to marital relationships. This similarity is the more noteworthy because in the present study the dependent variable was negative affect at work over the past month, whereas in the study of Buunk and VanYperen marital satisfaction was the dependent variable. ...
... In any event, it would be premature to conclude from the negative correlation between communal and exchange orientation that these orientations are just opposite poles of the same continuum. The present research as well as earlier studies by Buunk and VanYperen (1991) and VanYperen and Buunk (1991) suggest a number of differences between the two orientations. First, a high exchange orientation seems to be related to a low level of well-being, that is, a low marital satisfaction or a high degree of negative affect at work, whereas this does not seem to be true for a low communal orientation. ...
Perceived reciprocity regarding support in relationships at work was examined among employees of a psychiatric hospital (Study 1) and in a study of employees of the Dutch National Railway Company (Study 2). Relationships with colleagues were more often perceived as reciprocal than relationships with superiors, and in relationships with superiors individuals more often felt overbenefited. Lack of reciprocity—being underbenefited or being overbenefited—was in general associated with negative affect, and these effects were independent of the effect of perceived job stress. In Study 2 it was also found that these effects were moderated by the individual-differences variables exchange orientation (the general expectation of immediate reciprocity) and communal orientation (a positive regard for the needs and feelings of others).
... Rusbult, 1983;Rusbult & Van Lange, 1996). (Adams, 1965), however the greatest distress appears to be experienced by the under benefited individual (Buunk & Van Yperen, 1991;Lane & Messe, 1971 CL is "the standard against which the member evaluates the "attractiveness" of the relationship or how satisfactory it is" (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959, p. 21). This is an individual standard we all have which is shaped by factors such as past relationships and perceptions of other people's relationships. ...
... Equity theory (Adams, 1965) proposes that individuals expect a fair distribution of outcomes in a relationship based on what each have inputted into the relationship. Inequity, in terms of either receiving less than the outcomes deserved, or in terms of taking more outcomes than deserved, results in distress (Adams, 1965;Buunk & Van Yperen, 1991;Lane & Messe, 1971). A practical illustration of the effects of inequity can be seen in the experience of intimate partners of cancer patients and patients with multiple sclerosis. ...
p>In what circumstances do individual sacrifice direct self-interest for the good of their partner or their relationship? The research presented in this thesis used interdependence theory (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978; Thibaut & Kelley, 1959) as a theoretical framework for examining willingness to sacrifice in intimate relationship dilemmas.
Two person specific variables, commitment and personal relationship needs, were examined alongside three situation specific variables, the cost of sacrificing, partners’ relationship needs, and partners’ strategy. The research had a varied methodological base consisting of two laboratory-based studies (outcome matrices represented relationship dilemmas), a scenario based paradigm, and a recall paradigm.
The situation specific variables revealed tendencies for individuals to strive to maximise personal outcomes rather than joint outcomes. Individuals were consistently found to sacrifice less in dilemmas involving a high level costs and rewards, exhibited less sacrifice with a selfish partner as opposed to a sacrificial partner, and less sacrifice when paired with a partner who was described as being high in relationship needs. However, the person specific variables demonstrated factors within intimate relationships that may restrict this pursuit of self-interest. In line with previous research (e.g. Van Lange, Agnew, Harinck & Steemers, 1997) a positive relationship was found between commitment and willingness to sacrifice. However the current research demonstrated that this relationship is only found in dilemmas that involve a high level of costs and rewards (e.g. moving home). When the costs and rewards involved are low (e.g. washing up), individuals classified as low in commitment exhibit similar levels, or sometimes even greater sacrifice, than individuals classified as high in commitment.
It was demonstrated that individuals who are highly committed to their relationship hold more dyad-focused motives (e.g. concern for partner’s well-being and needs) than less committed individuals.</p
... The discrepancy noted in previous research between self-estimated intelligence and tested intelligence [Holling and Preckel 2005] provides context for our results. This notion aligns with Buunk and Van Yperen [Buunk and Van Yperen 1991], suggesting people tend to have overly positive views of their abilities, like intelligence [Yamada et al. 2013], known as Illusory Superiority. This bias could lead participants to perceive virtual characters' intelligence as lower compared to themselves, irrespective of actual capabilities. ...
The research community has long been interested in human interaction with embodied virtual characters in virtual reality (VR). At the same time, interaction with self-similar virtual characters, or virtual doppelgängers, has become a prominent topic in both VR and psychology due to the intriguing psychological effects these characters can have on people. However, studies on human interaction with self-similar virtual characters are still limited. To address this research gap, we designed and conducted a 2 (appearance: self-similar vs. non-self-similar appearance) × 2 (voice: self-similar vs. non-self-similar voice) within-group study (N = 25) to explore how combinations of appearance and voice factors influence participants' perception of virtual characters. During the study, we asked participants to collaborate with a virtual character in solving a VR jigsaw puzzle. After each experimental condition, we had participants complete a survey about their experiences with the virtual character. Our findings showed that 1) the virtual characters' self-similarity in appearance enhanced the sense of co-presence and perceived intelligence, but it also elicited higher eeriness; 2) the self-similar voices led to higher ratings on the characters' likability and believability; however, they also induced a more eerie sensation; and 3) we observed an interaction effect between appearance and voice factors for ratings on believability, where the virtual characters were considered more believable when their self-similarity in appearance matched that of their voices. This study provided valuable insights and comprehensive guidance for creating novel collaborative experiences with self-similar virtual characters in immersive environments.
... A related bias is termed the illusion of superiority. In this case people understand the risks, but believe that their own outcome will be far better than that of the average patient (Buunk and Van Yperen, 1991). Patients may also suffer from misattribution bias, where they confound their current health state with their long-term prognosis, even if the two are unrelated (Nisbett and Wilson, 1977). ...
Introduction:
Among those with advanced illness, higher levels of hope may offer physiological benefits. Yet, greater levels of hope may also encourage aggressive treatments. Therefore, higher levels of hope may lead to greater healthcare utilization, higher expenditure, and longer survival. We test these hypotheses among patients with advanced cancer.
Methods:
A secondary data analysis from a cross-sectional survey of 195 advanced cancer patients with high mortality risk linked to subsequent healthcare utilization (outpatient, day surgeries, non-emergency admissions), health expenditures, and death records. The survey collected data on hope, measured generally by the Herth Hope Index (HHI) and more narrowly by two questions on illness-related hope. Generalized linear regression and Cox models were used to test our hypotheses.
Results:
142 (78%) survey participants died during the period of analysis, with close to half (46%) doing so within a year of the survey. Contrary to expectation, HHI scores did not have a significant association with healthcare utilization, expenditure or survival. Yet, illness-related hope, defined as those who expected to live at least 2 years, as opposed to the likely prognosis of 1 year or less as determined by the primary treating oncologist, had 6.6 more planned hospital encounters (95% CI 0.90 to 12.30) in the 12-months following the survey and 41% lower mortality risk (hazard ratio: 0.59, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.99) compared to those who were less optimistic. Secondary analysis among decedents showed that patients who believed that the primary intent of their treatment is curative, had higher total expenditure (S$30,712; 95% CI S$3,143 to S$58,282) in the last 12 months of life than those who did not have this belief.
Conclusion:
We find no evidence of a relationship between a general measure of hope and healthcare utilization, expenditure, or survival among advanced cancer patients. However, greater illness-related hope is positively associated with these outcomes.
... Jednocześnie tzw. złudzenie ponadprzeciętności (określenie użyte po raz pierwszy przez Vana Yperena i B.P. Buunka w 1991 roku [Buunk, Van Yperen, 1991]) kojarzy się z kluczowym słowem definicji oceny, które musi mieć jakiś układ odniesienia [Ludwiczyński, 2006, s. 275], trudny do stosowania wobec nierespektujących go osób z wysokim poziomem narcyzmu. Celem niniejszych rozważań jest: po pierwsze, przeprowadzenie studium literatury przedmiotu pod kątem identyfikacji objaśnień sytuacji, które mogą występować przy ocenianiu narcystycznych osób i przez nie, po drugie, identyfikacja w wybranym arkuszu oceny (prezentującym m.in. ...
... Jednocześnie tzw. złudzenie ponadprzeciętności (określenie użyte po raz pierwszy przez Vana Yperena i B.P. Buunka w 1991 roku [Buunk, Van Yperen, 1991]) kojarzy się z kluczowym słowem definicji oceny, które musi mieć jakiś układ odniesienia [Ludwiczyński, 2006, s. 275], trudny do stosowania wobec nierespektujących go osób z wysokim poziomem narcyzmu. Celem niniejszych rozważań jest: po pierwsze, przeprowadzenie studium literatury przedmiotu pod kątem identyfikacji objaśnień sytuacji, które mogą występować przy ocenianiu narcystycznych osób i przez nie, po drugie, identyfikacja w wybranym arkuszu oceny (prezentującym m.in. ...
... Two very closely related biases are illusory superiority and the optimism bias (also known as unrealistic optimism). Illusory superiority is the tendency to believe that one has superior qualities and abilities compared to other people [40]. For example, a large majority of people believe their driving skills are above average [41,42]. ...
During the outbreak of COVID-19 in Italy, people often failed to adopt behaviors that could have stopped, or at least slowed down, the spread of this deadly disease. We offer cognitive explanations for these decisions, based on some of the most common heuristics and biases that are known to influence human judgment and decision-making, especially under conditions of high uncertainty. Our analysis concludes with the following recommendations: policymakers can and should take advantage of this established science, in order to communicate more effectively and increase the likelihood that people choose responsible actions in a public health crisis.
Clark and Mills (2012) proposed that communal norms characterize “healthy marriages,” whereas exchange norms indicate “troubled” ones. Using the actor–partner interdependence model, we consider this proposal. Heterosexual married partners’ exchange and communal strength are examined with several relational features including trust, commitment, relational satisfaction, and control mutuality, as well as partner-specific tendencies toward forgiveness. The findings indicate that one’s communal strength is associated with positive relational features for both oneself and one’s spouse, as well as a greater propensity to forgive and lesser tendencies toward negative forgiveness (retaliation). Exchange strength was generally associated with negative forgiveness. However, the relationship between exchange strength and relational features is more complicated. Lesser communal strength was generally associated with lower levels of the relational characteristics. Yet, exchange and communal strength interacted, indicating exchange may play a protective function by buffering against the ill effects of a lack of communal strength for some relational characteristics.
Cancer patients and their partners experience significant stressors and challenges that contribute to poor quality of life. Couple-based interventions hold great promise in cancer because they can simultaneously address patient, partner, and relationship concerns. However, they are seldom implemented in healthcare settings as part of routine care. This chapter will begin with an overview of challenges faced by couples coping with cancer. Next, different perspectives that have shaped descriptive and intervention research on couples’ psychosocial adaptation to cancer will be described. The chapter will conclude with clinical implications and directions for future research.
In the present study, we were interested in whether satisfaction with relationships is related more strongly to equity comparison with the partner or with a reference group. We tested two non-exclusive hypotheses derived from social comparison theory. First, we expected that the association between satisfaction and comparison with the partner would be stronger among individuals with egalitarian sex-role beliefts, whereas among individuals adhering to traditional sex-role beliefs, satisfaction would be related more closely to comparison with a reference group (the similarity hypothesis). Second, we predicted that comparisons with others, including the partner, would be related more strongly to satisfaction among individuals who feel uncertain about how things are going in their relationship (the uncertainty reduction hypothesis). We found partial support for both hypotheses: 1) comparison withe the partner was particularly important among women with egalitarian sex-role beliefs; and 2) the predicted differences between certain and uncertain men and women were found only with regard to comparison with a reference group. Furthermore, individuals with egalitarian sex-role beliefs felt more uncertain about their relationship and were less satisfed with their relationship, particularly among women. The results are discussed with respect to the future of egalitarian intimate relationships.
Equity theory is a social psychological theory concerned with justice in all interpersonal relationships. Until recently, however, equity principles have been examined only in casual role relations (i.e., employer-employee, philanthropist-recipient, and harmer-victim relations) and have not been examined in more personal relations (see Walster (Hatfield), Walster, & Berscheid, 1978). The distinction between role relationships and personal relationships is a long-standing and important one (see Cooley, 1902; Tonnies, 1887). Given the importance of primary, intimate relations, it would be a grave omission to overlook such relations in theory and research on interpersonal behavior.
This study investigated the relationship between perceptions of equity/inequity in marriage and marital adjustment. One hundred sixty-two couples completed the Walster Global Measure of Participant's Perceptions of Inputs. Outcomes, and Equity/Inequity and the Spanier Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Based upon equity theory it was predicted that: (a) Perceptions of equity/inequity within the marital dyad will be related to one's own and one's spouse's marital adjustment (the greater the inequity the less adjustement indicated). (b) Perceptions of equity will be related for husbands and wives; to the extent that one views oneself as overbenefited, one's spouse will view him/herself as underbenefited. (c) Relatioships which both partners view as equitable will yield the greatest average marital adjustment. With the exception of wives' marital adjustment being related to degree of overbenefitedness. support was obtained for these hypotheses. Reasons shy overbenefited wives did not behave in agreement with an equity framework are discussed.
Through application of the interactionist model of the reflexive self, his study examined the relationship between equity/inequity and the self-concept. The combination of these two perspectives was accomplished through a causal model based on path analysis and multiple regression. Three hundred and twenty-nine married coulpes were randomly selected and interviewed. A general measure of perceived equity/inequity in the marital relationship was taken. Measures of the reflexive self were: marriage partners'self-concepts, partners' perceptions of their spouses' evaluations of them and spouses' acutal evaluations of their paterns. Findings supported the prediction of a relationship between perceived equity/inequity in the marriage relationship and marriage partners' self-concepts. However, consistent with the theory of the reflexive self, much of the effect of equity/inequity in the marriage relationship and marriage partners' self-concepts. However, consistent with the theory of the reflexive self, much of the effect of equity/inequity on self-concept was mediated via partners' perceptions of their spouses' appraisals of them. These findings were analyzed by defining equity/inequity as a communication between marriage partners through which the meanings spouses have for each other are expressed and become incorporated as part of the spouses' self-identities.
A theory of the importance and effect of an exchange-orientation for marriage and friendship was developed. It was hypothesized from this theory that an exchange-orientation in both members of the pair would be inimical to marriage adjustment and facilitative of situationally determined friendships. An exchange-orientation scale was constructed and administered to married couples and same-sex friendship couples at college, along with a marriage adjustment scale to the former and a friendship-intensity scale to the latter. The data generally supported the hypotheses.
The primary purpose of this study is to examine the explanatory power of several predictors of relationship commitment. Relationship commitment was expected to vary directly with satisfaction, investments, and social support for the relationship and inversely with alternative quality and inequity. The hypotheses were tested with data collected from both partners of 197 couples. Results showed that all of the predictor variables except investments were related to relationship commitment, and in the directions predicted. The two most important predictors of relationship commitment were alternatives and satisfaction.
The role of rewards and fairness in predicting satisfaction and involvement in premarital relationships was investigated in a longitudinal study. The study used questionnaires to examine 90 respondents' premarital relationships twice during a three-month period. The findings indicate that (a) relationship rewards are a better predictor of satisfaction and involvement than fairness at both Time 1 and Time 2; (b) fairness decreases in its ability to predict satisfaction over time in premarital relationships; (c) relationship rewards increase in ability to predict involvement over time; and (d) relationship rewards at Time 1 are a better predictor than fairness of satisfaction and involvement at Time 2. Various explanations for these findings are presented.
Seventy dual-career and 42 dual-earner couples participated in a study designed to assess the influence of perception of equity, role relations and family type on marital and individual adjustment. Equity was found to be a significant factor affecting adjustment for both husbands and wives, while role relations was a significant factor only for wives. Dual-career and dual-earner families did not differ in likelihood to report equity or degree of overload. Husbands and wives did not differ in likelihood to report equity, but wives reported a significantly greater degree of overload. Results are discussed in terms of clinical intervention with these families.
The research reported here compared the extent to which relative deprivation, based on general social comparisons and perceptions of equity/inequity derived from specific comparisons in an intimate relationship, influenced the psychological well-being of men and women in one- and two-job families. Data were analyzed from interviews with 130 couples in one-job families and 135 families in two-job families. Beyond the discomfort and unfair treatment accompanying them, both relative deprivation and inequity were associated with depression when they were considered in the same model.