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A Comparative Study of Measures of Partial Knowledge in Multiple-Choice Tests
Abstract
A common belief among many test experts is that measurements obtained from multiple-choice (MC) tests can be improved by using evidence about partial knowledge. A large number of methods designed to extract such information from direct reports provided by examinees have been developed over the last 50 years. Most methods require modifications in test instructions, response modes, and scoring rules. These testing methods are reviewed and the results of a large-scale empirical study of the most promising among them are reported. Seven testing methods were applied to MC tests from four different content areas using a between-persons design. To identify the most efficient methods and the optimal conditions for their application, the results were analyzed with respect to six different criteria. The results showed a surprisingly large tendency on the part of the examinees to take advantage of the special features of the alternative methods and indicated that, on average, high ability examinees were better judges of their level of knowledge and, consequently, could benefit more from these methods. Systematic interactions were found between the testing method and the test content, indicating that no method was uniformly superior.
... It does so by measuring different types of learning outcomes in the areas of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis and synthesis. Today, multiple choice tests are the most profoundly respected and broadly utilized sort of objective test for estimation of information, ability, or accomplishment (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 2009;Lee & Winke, 2013). ...
... However, a number of scoring procedures have been actualized (Roja, 2012). Examples of those scoring methods include among others; negative marking, partial-credit method, retrospective correction for guessing, number right, logical-choice weight, confidence scoring etc. Ben-Simon et al, (2009) opined that multiple-choice items are scored using the nonconventional partial-credit scoring (PCS) method which allows a more accurate measurement of student knowledge. PCS is a method that captures information about a student's degree of level of knowledge with respect to each choice presented in relation to a test item. ...
... (c) Confidence weighting (CW) in CW, students have to indicate what they believe is the correct answer and how confident they are about their choice. Ben-Simon et al. (2009) compared seven different scoring methods awarding partial credits. However, none of the approaches could be regarded as the best methods, considering the validity and reliability. ...
This study investigated the comparison of psychometric properties of multiple-choice test usingconfidence and number right scoring among senior secondary school students in Ibadanmetropolis. The study adopted a descriptive design of survey type. The population for the studyconsisted of Senior Secondary School two (SSS II) students in Ibadan Metropolis, Oyo state,Nigeria. A sample of 400 Agricultural science students was selected across 4 Local GovernmentAreas in Ibadan metropolis, using purposive (mainly Agricultural Science Students) and randomsampling techniques. The instrument used for the study was Agricultural science Multiple-choiceTest. The 50 items Agricultural Science 4-option test was administered on the Students. Datacollected were analyzed using paired samples t-test, Kuder-Richardson (KR-21), Cronbachalpha, and Fisher z-test. The results obtained revealed that significant difference existed in thedifficulty indices with Number Right (NR) and Confidence Scoring Method (CSM) with mean of55.42 and 44.01 respectively. Also, there was a significant difference in the CSM and NR in thediscrimination indices with NR and CSM has mean of 0.57 and 0.52 respectively. It was foundthat NR significantly improved the difficulty and discrimination indices. Furthermore, the findingrevealed that there was no significant difference between NR and CSM in the reliabilitycoefficient. Based on these findings, it was recommended that number right scoring methodshould be used to assess Agricultural science students’ performances because it makes test itemappear moderate in terms of difficulty level and is very easy for students to guess the items right.Keywords: Comparison, Psychometric Properties, Multiple Choice Test, Confidence andNumber Right Scoring
(1) (PDF) COMPARISON OF PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST USING CONFIDENCE AND NUMBER RIGHT SCORING AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IBADAN METROPOLIS. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361944455_COMPARISON_OF_PSYCHOMETRIC_PROPERTIES_OF_MULTIPLE-CHOICE_TEST_USING_CONFIDENCE_AND_NUMBER_RIGHT_SCORING_AMONG_SENIOR_SECONDARY_SCHOOL_STUDENTS_IN_IBADAN_METROPOLIS [accessed Jul 13 2022].
... Students' ability to guess an answer correctly prevents the professor from determining students' level of competency. Therefore, correct answers are neither evidence of knowledge nor assurance of learning (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997). Consequently, alternative MCQ formats have been proposed, but none have been found to be dominant (Lesage et al., 2013), and NR remains the preferred format. ...
... Only students possess information on their individual state of knowledge at the time of the assessment. Ben-Simon et al. (1997) identify that students display five states of knowledge. ...
... Due to the NR feedback challenges, other MCQ formats have been proposed and studied in the literature. Table 1 shows the generic MCQ formats listed in Ben-Simon et al. (1997) and Lesage et al. (2013) and the states of knowledge for which each format allows assessment. In Table 1 the MCQ format options are grouped into three main categories. ...
Management science professors who teach large classes often assess students with multiple‐choice questions (MCQs) because it is efficient. However, traditional MCQ formats are ill‐fitted for constructive feedback. We propose the reward for omission with confidence in knowledge (ROCK) format as an original formative assessment technique to help guide feedback associated with MCQs in an introductory undergraduate management science course. Our study contributes to theory by empirically showing that students can self‐assess their state of knowledge, signal it to the professor, and use proper answering options. In practice, ROCK is an easily implementable MCQ format that allows professors to gain information on student learning based on answers selected. ROCK identifies lack of knowledge or misinformation at both individual and collective levels thus providing opportunities for better feedback in class and during office hours. Limitations of the application of ROCK are also discussed.
... Whereas MC scoring is most often dichotomous-correct or incorrect-CR items are typically scored in either continuous or polytomous scales that attempt to ascribe partial credit to the state of partial knowledge displayed by the test taker. For any given test item, nearly all students will possess some level of relevant partial knowledge, and thus scoring schemes that account for such partial knowledge should prove more reliable than ones that do not (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997;Hutchinson, 1982). Furthermore, students often view an opportunity to indicate or demonstrate their partial knowledge as more fair than situations where partial knowledge is unaccounted for (DiBattista, Gosse, Sinnige-Egger, Candale, & Sargeson, 2009). ...
... Several strategies for partial-credit scoring of MC tests have been developed, each with attendant benefits and drawbacks (Akeroyd, 1982;Ben-Simon et al., 1997;Bush, 2015;Frary, 1989). Examples of non-computerized techniques that are suitable for classroom testing include (a) subset selection (Bush, 2001;Dressel & Schmid, 1953), (b) confidence scoring (Gardner-Medwin, 1995), (c) elimination testing (Coombs, Milholland, & Womer, 1956), (d) option weighting (Guttman, 1941;Nedelsky, 1954;Serlin & Kaiser, 1978), and (e) option ordering (de Finetti, 1965;Poizner, Nicewander, & Gettys, 1978). ...
... Typically, a diminishing amount of partial credit is granted for an increasing number of selections made, with the specific scoring scheme at the discretion of the instructor. Thus, unlike many other partialcredit-granting MC techniques, the IFAT format provides straightforward partial-credit scoring that does not require students either to make introspective judgments (Ben-Simon et al., 1997) or to understand probabilities in order to make optimal selections. Rather, students' optimal test-taking strategy is simply to select the best available option, informed by their knowledge of the subject, and to continue doing so until the keyed option is revealed. ...
The answer-until-correct (AUC) method of multiple-choice (MC) testing involves test respondents making selections until the keyed answer is identified. Despite attendant benefits that include improved learning, broad student adoption, and facile administration of partial credit, the use of AUC methods for classroom testing has been extremely limited. This study presents scoring properties and item analysis for 26 AUC university course examinations, administered using a commercial scratch-card response system. Here, we show that beyond the traditional pedagogical advantages of AUC, the availability of partial credit adds psychometric advantages by boosting both the mean item discrimination and overall test-score reliability, when compared to tests scored dichotomously upon initial response. Furthermore we also find a strong correlation between students’ initial-response successes and the likelihood that they would obtain partial credit when they make incorrect initial responses. Thus, partial credit is being granted based on partial knowledge that remains latent in traditional MC tests. The fact that these advantages are realized in real-life classroom tests may motivate further expansion of the use of AUC MC tests in higher education.
... Elimination testing [26][27][28] allows for assessing partial knowledge as students can indicate for each of the offered alternatives whether they consider it correct or not. When students want to indicate one alternative as the correct answer, they eliminate all but this alternative. ...
... Elimination testing with traditional scoring results in a maximum score of +1 and a maximum penalty of -1, with different scores for different levels of partial knowledge and partial misconception (Table 3). It has been shown that elimination testing with traditional scoring results in an increased average score compared with negative marking [22,28,31,32] and in [26] (for general knowledge and mathematical reasoning questions, but not for figural reasoning and general reasoning). ...
... As a decrease in the total number of questions negatively affects test reliability, the increased required time of elimination testing with adapted scoring is of concern. Earlier studies of the reliability of elimination testing with traditional scoring showed mixed results: Hakstian and Kansup [8] and Jaradat and Tollefson [37] report little, if any, improvement of reliability with respect to traditional scoring methods while Ben-Simon et al. [26] and Bradbard et al. [31] reported more optimal reliability with respect to negative marking. ...
Background and hypotheses
This study is the first to offer an in-depth comparison of elimination testing with the scoring rule of Arnold & Arnold (hereafter referred to as elimination testing with adapted scoring) and negative marking. As such, this study is motivated by the search for an alternative for negative marking that still discourages guessing, but is less disadvantageous for non-relevant student characteristics such a risk-aversion and does not result in grade inflation. The comparison is structured around seven hypotheses: in comparison with negative marking, elimination testing with adapted scoring leads to (1) a similar average score (no grade inflation); (2) students expressing their partial knowledge; (3) a decrease in the number of blank answers; (4) no gender bias in the number of blank answers; (5) a reduction in guessing; (6) a decrease in self-reported test anxiety; and finally (7) students preferring elimination testing with adapted scoring over negative marking.
Methodology
To investigate the above hypotheses, this study implemented elimination testing with adapted scoring and negative marking in real exam settings in two courses in a Faculty of Medicine at a large university. Due to changes in the master of medicine the same two courses were taught to both students of the 1st and 2nd master in the same semester. Given that both student groups could take the same exam with different test instructions and scoring methods, a unique opportunity occurred in which elimination testing with adapted scoring and negative marking could be compared in a high-stakes testing situation. After receiving the grades on the exams, students received a questionnaire to assess their experiences.
Findings
The statistical analysis taking into account student ability and gender showed that elimination testing with adapted scoring is a valuable alternative for negative marking when looking for a scoring method that discourages guessing. In contrast to traditional scoring of elimination testing, elimination testing with adapted scoring does not result in grade inflation in comparison with negative marking. This study showed that elimination testing with adapted scoring reduces blank answers and finds strong indications for the reduction of guessing in comparison with negative marking. Finally, students preferred elimination testing with adapted scoring over negative marking and reported lower stress levels in elimination testing with adapted scoring in comparison with negative marking.
... Reviewing various competence assessments that implemented different response formats, there are two widely applied aggregation methods for polytomous variables. First, the All-or-Nothing scoring rule is very common and means that subjects only receive full credit if all answers on subtasks are correct (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997). If at least one subtask is answered incorrectly, the person receives no credit. ...
... This method makes use of a dichotomous scoring and is implemented for CMC items in the study "Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics" (TEDS-M, see Blömeke, Kaiser, & Lehmann, 2010). Another established method of dealing with CMC items is the Number Correct (NC) scoring rule, which rewards partial knowledge, meaning that partial credit is given for each correctly solved subtask of a CMC item (see Ben-Simon et al., 1997). To apply the NC scoring rule, the subtasks of CMC items are formed to a composite score, and each of the categories receives partial credit according to the number of correctly answered subtasks. ...
... In the field of CTT, different methods and principles for weighting items have been established (Ben-Simon et al., 1997;Kline, 2005;Stucky, 2009). Overall, the weighting of items is usually performed using a statistical or theoretical approach. ...
In order to precisely assess the cognitive achievement and abilities of students, different types of items are often used in competence tests. In the National Educational Panel Study (NEPS), test instruments also consist of items with different response formats, mainly simple multiple choice (MC) items in which one answer out of four is correct and complex multiple choice (CMC) items comprising several dichotomous “yes/no” subtasks. The different subtasks of CMC items are usually aggregated to a polytomous variable and analyzed via a partial credit model. When developing an appropriate scaling model for the NEPS competence tests, different questions arose concerning the response formats in the partial credit model. Two relevant issues were how the response categories of polytomous CMC variables should be scored in the scaling model and how the different item formats should be weighted. In order to examine which aggregation of item response categories and which item format weighting best models the two response formats of CMC and MC items, different procedures of aggregating response categories and weighting item formats were analyzed in the NEPS, and the appropriateness of these procedures to model the data was evaluated using certain item fit and test fit indices. Results suggest that a differentiated scoring without an aggregation of categories of CMC items best discriminates between persons. Additionally, for the NEPS competence data, an item format weighting of one point for MC items and half a point for each subtask of CMC items yields the best item fit for both MC and CMC items. In this paper, we summarize important results of the research on the implementation of different response formats conducted in the NEPS.
... If the student is correct, they receive a fractional mark relative to their 'bet' for that question. One of the bene ts noted of the subset type of test is that students can receive partial recognition for partial knowledge by eliminating at least one known incorrect choice (19). ...
... This result is complementary to previous studies (19,20). Bryman suggests that there are several key bene ts of integrating qualitative and quantitative research (21). ...
Background
Traditional single best answer multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are a proven and ubiquitous assessment tool. By their very nature, MCQs prompt students to guess a correct outcome when unsure of the answer, which may lead to a reduced ability to reliably assay student knowledge. Moreover, the traditional Single Best Answer Test (SBAT) offers binary feedback (correct or incorrect) and therefore offers no feedback or enhancement of the student learning journey. Confidence-based Answer Tests (CBATs) are designed to improve reliability because participants are not forced to guess where they cannot choose between two or more alternative answers which they may favour equally. CBATs enable students to reflect on their knowledge and better appreciate where their mastery of a particular subject may be weaker. Although CBATs can provide richer feedback to students and improve the learning journey, their use may be limited if they significantly alter student scores or grades, which may be viewed negatively. The aim of this study was to compare performance across these test paradigms, to investigate if there are any systematic biases present.
Methods
Thirty-four first-year optometry students and 10 lecturers undertook a test comprising 40 questions. Each question was completed using two specified test paradigms; for the first paradigm, they were allowed to weight their answers based on confidence (CBAT), and a single best answer (SBAT). Upon test completion, students undertook a survey comprising both Likert scale and open-ended responses regarding their experience and perspectives on the CBAT and SBAT multiple-choice test paradigms. These were analysed thematically.
Results
There was no significant difference between paradigms, with a median difference of 1.25% (p = 0.313, Kruskal-Wallis) in students and 3.33% (p = 0.437, Kruskal-Wallis) in staff. The survey indicated that students had no strong preference towards a particular method.
Conclusions
Since there was no significant difference between test paradigms, this validates implementation of the confidence-based paradigm as an equivalent and viable option for traditional MCQs but with the added potential benefit that, if coupled with reflective practice, can provide students with a richer learning experience. There is no inherent bias within one method over another.
... Before the mid-nineteenth century, oral examinations were the primary means of educational testing. Eventually, written tests in the form of essay questions were introduced to replace oral examinations (Ben-Simon et al., 1997). Studies done in the early part of the twentieth century showed that essay tests tended to be highly subjective and unreliable in measuring students' performance. ...
... Multiple choice tests were first used in 1917 for the selection and classification of military personnel for the United States Army (Ebel, 1979). Today, multiple choice (MC) tests are the most highly regarded and widely used objective test for measuring knowledge, ability, or performance (Ben-Simon et al., 1997). ...
... It does so by measuring different types of learning outcomes in the areas of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis and synthesis. Today, multiple choice tests are the most profoundly respected and broadly utilized sort of objective test for estimation of information, ability, or accomplishment (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 2009;Lee & Winke, 2013). ...
... However, a number of scoring procedures have been actualized (Roja, 2012). Examples of those scoring methods include among others; negative marking, partial-credit method, retrospective correction for guessing, number right, logical-choice weight, confidence scoring etc. Ben-Simon et al, (2009) opined that multiple-choice items are scored using the nonconventional partial-credit scoring (PCS) method which allows a more accurate measurement of student knowledge. PCS is a method that captures information about a student's degree of level of knowledge with respect to each choice presented in relation to a test item. ...
... Multiple choice tests, an assessment instrument used in assessment and evaluation activities pursued in education, are among the most frequently used tools. It can be said that multiple choice tests are one of the most objective techniques utilized in the assessment of the variables such as knowledge, skill and success (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997). Apart from being objective, the followings can be seen as the reasons why multiple choice tests are preferred: their ease of applying and scoring, their effectivity in the assessment at most levels of learning in relation to cognitive and affective field, providing reliable and valid results, the possibility of application to a large number of students at one and at the same time, the possibility of the prediction of item and test characteristics, being able to cover a wide range of contents, and applicability in a bevy of students (Kurz, 1999;Turgut, 1971). ...
... Eğitimde sürdürülen ölçme ve değerlendirme faaliyetlerinde kullanılan ölçme araçlarından çoktan seçmeli testler günümüzde en sık kullanılanlar arasındadır. Çoktan seçmeli testler bilgi, yetenek ve başarı gibi değişkenlerin ölçülmesinde kullanılan en objektif tekniklerden biridir denilebilir (Ben-Simon et al., 1997). Objektif olmalarının yanı sıra uygulama ve puanlama kolaylıkları, bilişsel ve duyuşsal alana ilişkin olarak öğrenmenin çoğu düzeyinde ölçmeyi gerçekleştirebilmeleri, güvenilir ve geçerli sonuçlar vermeleri, çok sayıda öğrenciye aynı anda uygulanabilmeleri, madde ve test özelliklerinin kestiriminin mümkün olması, geniş bir içeriği kapsayabilmesi, kalabalık gruplarda uygulanabilmesi vb. ...
This study examines the effect of self-assessment-based chance success on psychometric characteristics of the test. First, the data was cleared of chance success by means of correction-for-guessing formula and self-assessment, and then statistical analyses were conducted. Item discriminations showed an increase when the correction-for-guessing formula was used; and when self-assessment was used, they showed variability. Test validity increased when correction formula was used; and when self-assessment was used, a slight decrease was observed. Besides, this study examined the effect of correction for chance success upon corrected self-assessment based on IRT guessing parameter. It was observed that the data that were not corrected in accordance with chance scores had higher guessing parameters than those corrected in accordance with self-assessment. In addition, it was evident that the difference between the guessing parameters of the uncorrected data and the data cleared of chance scores by means of self-assessment was significant. It was also revealed that the correction of self-assessment-based chance success have an advantage over classical correction for guessing formula on psychometric characteristics of the test.
... Beyond traditional "Scantron" 6 -type formats that score MC questions dichotomously as either right or wrong, numerous alternative formats and scoring schemes have been devised over the past century to allow the granting of partial credit in an effort to better gauge the students' level of partial knowledge, 7−10 often improving test reliability. 9,11,12 Examples of such approaches include manipulation of the choices given to students so that options contain different combinations of primary responses, only some of which are true (complex multiple-choice, type K, true-false or type X, and multiple-response formats); 13 manipulation of the stems by asking students for predictive or evaluative assessments of a scenario rather than simply recounting knowledge; 13 confidence or probability weighting of options, 8 and the "multiple response format" in which multiple stages are created within each multiple-choice item, with scores weighted according to whether the reasoning is correct. 14 All these schemes suffer from, as Ben Simon et al. relate, 9 the challenge of (mis-)interpreting the intention and state of knowledge of the student. ...
... 9,11,12 Examples of such approaches include manipulation of the choices given to students so that options contain different combinations of primary responses, only some of which are true (complex multiple-choice, type K, true-false or type X, and multiple-response formats); 13 manipulation of the stems by asking students for predictive or evaluative assessments of a scenario rather than simply recounting knowledge; 13 confidence or probability weighting of options, 8 and the "multiple response format" in which multiple stages are created within each multiple-choice item, with scores weighted according to whether the reasoning is correct. 14 All these schemes suffer from, as Ben Simon et al. relate, 9 the challenge of (mis-)interpreting the intention and state of knowledge of the student. ...
There are numerous benefits to answer-until-correct (AUC) approaches to multiple-choice testing, not the least of which is the straightforward allotment of partial credit. However, the benefits of granting partial credit can be tempered by the inevitable increase in test scores and by fears that such increases are further contaminated by a large random guessing component. We have measured the effects of using the immediate feedback assessment technique (IF-AT), a commercially available AUC response system, on the scores of a typical first-year chemistry multiple-choice test. We find that with a particular commonly used scoring scheme the test scores from IF-AT deployment are 6–7 percentage points higher than from Scantron deployment. This amount is less than that suggested by previous studies, where the mark increase was calculated in a purely post hoc manner and thus neglected affective changes of students’ behavior associated with the IF-AT technique. Furthermore, we have strong evidence that partial credit is awarded in a highly rational manner in accordance with the students’ level of understanding.
... 3 [154] Fair penalty [154] Conventional-formula scoring [79] Conventional correction-for-guessing formula [80,213] Conventional correction formula [201] ‚Neutral' counter-marking [88] CG scoring [144] Negative marking [130,145] 122,124,137,176,179,195,199,204,223] Correction for chance formula [56,87,174,188] Discouraging guessing [138] Rights minus wrongs correction [37,48,55,59,68,91] Classical score [207] Mixed rule [139] 7 [6,48,62,88,224,227,228] 3 right -wrong [6] Negative marking [228] [157,164] Correct-minus-incorrect score [267] C-I score [ Right -wrong [266] T -F formula [260] Guessing penalty [154] Correction-for-guessing [76,128] Negative marking [140] Logical marking [130] 1 right minus 1 wrong [17] Penal guessing formula [55] [6, 17, 20, 21, 49, 75, Right -2 wrong [6] 1 right minus 2 wrong [17] ...
Background: Single-choice items (eg, best-answer items, alternate-choice items, single true-false items) are 1 type of multiple-choice items and have been used in examinations for over 100 years. At the end of every examination, the examinees’ responses have to be analyzed and scored to derive information about examinees’ true knowledge.
Objective: The aim of this paper is to compile scoring methods for individual single-choice items described in the literature. Furthermore, the metric expected chance score and the relation between examinees’ true knowledge and expected scoring results (averaged percentage score) are analyzed. Besides, implications for potential pass marks to be used in examinations to test examinees for a predefined level of true knowledge are derived.
Methods: Scoring methods for individual single-choice items were extracted from various databases (ERIC, PsycInfo, Embase via Ovid, MEDLINE via PubMed) in September 2020. Eligible sources reported on scoring methods for individual single-choice items in written examinations including but not limited to medical education. Separately for items with n=2 answer options (eg, alternate-choice items, single true-false items) and best-answer items with n=5 answer options (eg, Type A items) and for each identified scoring method, the metric expected chance score and the expected scoring results as a function of examinees’ true knowledge using fictitious examinations with 100 single-choice items were calculated.
Results: A total of 21 different scoring methods were identified from the 258 included sources, with varying consideration of correctly marked, omitted, and incorrectly marked items. Resulting credit varied between –3 and +1 credit points per item. For items with n=2 answer options, expected chance scores from random guessing ranged between –1 and +0.75 credit points. For items with n=5 answer options, expected chance scores ranged between –2.2 and +0.84 credit points. All scoring methods showed a linear relation between examinees’ true knowledge and the expected scoring results. Depending on the scoring method used, examination results differed considerably: Expected scoring results from examinees with 50% true knowledge ranged between 0.0% (95% CI 0% to 0%) and 87.5% (95% CI 81.0% to 94.0%) for items with n=2 and between –60.0% (95% CI –60% to –60%) and 92.0% (95% CI 86.7% to 97.3%) for items with n=5.
Conclusions: In examinations with single-choice items, the scoring result is not always equivalent to examinees’ true knowledge. When interpreting examination scores and setting pass marks, the number of answer options per item must usually be taken into account in addition to the scoring method used.
... 3 [154] Fair penalty [154] Conventional-formula scoring [79] Conventional correction-for-guessing formula [80,213] Conventional correction formula [201] ‚Neutral' counter-marking [88] CG scoring [144] Negative marking [130,145] 122,124,137,176,179,195,199,204,223] Correction for chance formula [56,87,174,188] Discouraging guessing [138] Rights minus wrongs correction [37,48,55,59,68,91] Classical score [207] Mixed rule [139] 7 [6,48,62,88,224,227,228] 3 right -wrong [6] Negative marking [228] [157,164] Correct-minus-incorrect score [267] C-I score [ Right -wrong [266] T -F formula [260] Guessing penalty [154] Correction-for-guessing [76,128] Negative marking [140] Logical marking [130] 1 right minus 1 wrong [17] Penal guessing formula [55] [6, 17, 20, 21, 49, 75, Right -2 wrong [6] 1 right minus 2 wrong [17] ...
Background: Single-choice items (eg, best-answer items, alternate-choice items, single true-false items) are one type of multiple-choice items and have been used in examinations for over 100 years. At the end of every examination, the examinees' responses have to be analyzed and scored in order to derive with an information about examinees' true knowledge.
Objective: The aim of this paper is to compile scoring methods for individual single-choice items described in the literature. Furthermore, the metric expected chance score and the relation between examinees' true knowledge and expected scoring results (averaged percentage score) are analyzed. Furthermore, implications for potential pass marks to be used in examinations to test examinees for a predefined level of true knowledge are derived.
Methods: Scoring methods for individual single-choice items including were extracted from various databases (ERIC, PsycInfo, Embase via Ovid, MEDLINE via PubMed) in September 2020. Eligible sources reported on scoring methods for individual single-choice items in written examinations including but not limited to medical education. Separately for items with n = 2 answer options (eg, alternate-choice items, single true-false items) and best-answer items with n = 5 answer options (eg, Type A items) and for each identified scoring method, the metric expected chance score and the expected scoring results as a function of examinees' true knowledge using fictitious examinations with 100 single-choice items were calculated.
Results: A total of 21 different scoring methods were identified from the 258 included sources, with varying consideration of correctly marked, omitted, and incorrectly marked items. Resulting credit varied between -3 and +1 credit points per item. For items with n = 2 answer options, expected chance scores from random guessing ranged between -1 and +0.75 credit points. For items with n = 5 answer options, expected chance scores ranged between -2.2 and +0.84 credit points. All scoring methods showed a linear relation between examinees' true knowledge and the expected scoring results. Depending on the scoring method used, examination results differed considerably: Expected scoring results from examinees with 50% true knowledge ranged between 0.0% (95% CI: 0% to 0%) and 87.5% (95% CI: 81.0% to 94.0%) for items with n = 2 and between -60.0% (95% CI: -60% to -60%) and 92.0% (95% CI: 86.7% to 97.3%) for items with n = 5.
Conclusions: In examinations with single-choice items, the scoring result is not always equivalent to examinees' true knowledge. When interpreting examination scores and setting pass marks, the number of answer options per item must usually be taken into account in addition to the scoring method used.
... It has also been suggested [13, 3, 1, 11, 8, 44, 32, 20, 18, 22, 37, among others] that the space of possible responses to a multiple-choice test item can be scored in a much more nuanced way by assigning "partial credit" to test-takers who indicate correctly that they know some options are wrong, rather than hazard a guess on the right answer. The added complexity of choice does not seem to pose any significant problems for the test-takers [4]. Besides the greater discriminatory power that the test is supposed to achieve like this by extending the effective scoring range, it is also an instrument to penalize blind guessing by rewarding the expression of "partial knowledge". ...
In multiple-choice tests, guessing is a source of test error which can be suppressed if its expected score is made negative by either penalizing wrong answers or rewarding expressions of partial knowledge. Starting from the most general formulation of the necessary and sufficient scoring conditions for guessing to lead to an expected loss beyond the test-taker’s knowledge, we formulate a class of optimal scoring functions, including the proposal by Zapechelnyuk (Econ. Lett. 132 , 24–27 (2015)) as a special case. We then consider an arbitrary multiple-choice test taken by a rational test-taker whose knowledge of a test item is defined by the fraction of the answer options which can be ruled out. For this model, we study the statistical properties of the obtained score for both standard marking (where guessing is not penalized), and marking where guessing is suppressed either by expensive score penalties for incorrect answers or by different marking schemes that reward partial knowledge.
... Among many solutions, the one to develop partial-credit MC items is expected to improve the science test reliability and the validity (Fulmer et al., 2014). Though the prior work on PCS shows some promising findings, the uses of such partial-credit MC items are limited because of various reasons such as time and administration cost (Ben-Simon et al., 1997). One main criticism is concerned that few of the proposed PCS approaches directly and explicitly link the partial credits to students' cognitive proficiency. ...
... The proposed HERA measurement model was designed to assess knowledge when feedback and hints were provided. Examples of previous work in this area are assessing partial knowledge (Ben-Simon et al., 1997), assessing knowledge when feedback and multiple attempts are provided (Attali and Powers, 2010;Attali, 2011), and assessing knowledge/ability when a hint is used (Bolsinova and Tijmstra, 2019). In addition, ACT is considering the application of the learning models; these include the Bayesian Knowledge Tracing applied to a subset of (correct/incorrect) responses and the Elo algorithm. ...
In the past few years, our lives have changed due to the COVID-19 pandemic; many of these changes resulted in pivoting our activities to a virtual environment, forcing many of us out of traditional face-to-face activities into digital environments. Digital-first learning and assessment systems (LAS) are delivered online, anytime, and anywhere at scale, contributing to greater access and more equitable educational opportunities. These systems focus on the learner or test-taker experience while adhering to the psychometric, pedagogical, and validity standards for high-stakes learning and assessment systems. Digital-first LAS leverage human-in-the-loop artificial intelligence to enable personalized experience, feedback, and adaptation; automated content generation; and automated scoring of text, speech, and video. Digital-first LAS are a product of an ecosystem of integrated theoretical learning and assessment frameworks that align theory and application of design and measurement practices with technology and data management, while being end-to-end digital. To illustrate, we present two examples—a digital-first learning tool with an embedded assessment, the Holistic Educational Resources and Assessment (HERA) Science, and a digital-first assessment, the Duolingo English Test.
... It may also be that it is unreasonable to expect CA to have a measurable impact on a distant outcome, such as overall mathematics attainment in a summative assessment. The CA process could also be contrary to equity if, as is plausible, high-attaining students are more likely to be better judges of their level of knowledge, and therefore more able to benefit (Ben-Simon et al., 1997). It may also be that teacher professional development is necessary in order to see students' attainment improve measurably from CA. ...
Confidence assessment (CA) involves students stating alongside each of their answers a confidence rating (e.g. 0 low to 10 high) to express how certain they are that their answer is correct. Each student’s score is calculated as the sum of the confidence ratings on the items that they answered correctly, minus the sum of the confidence ratings on the items that they answered incorrectly; this scoring system is designed to incentivize students to give truthful confidence ratings. Previous research found that secondary-school mathematics students readily understood the negative-marking feature of a CA instrument used during one lesson, and that they were generally positive about the CA approach. This paper reports on a quasi-experimental trial of CA in four secondary-school mathematics lessons ( N = 475 students) across time periods ranging from 3 weeks up to one academic year, compared to business-as-usual controls. A meta-analysis of the effect sizes across the four schools gave an aggregated Cohen’s d of –0.02 [95% CI –0.22, 0.19] and an overall Bayes Factor B 01 of 8.48. This indicated substantial evidence for the null hypothesis that there was no difference between the attainment gains of the intervention group and the control group, relative to the alternative hypothesis that the gains were different. I conclude that incorporating confidence assessment into low-stakes classroom mathematics formative assessments does not appear to be detrimental to students’ attainment, and I suggest reasons why a clear positive outcome was not obtained.
... Among many solutions, the one to develop partial-credit MC items is expected to improve the science test reliability and the validity (Fulmer et al., 2014). Though the prior work on PCS shows some promising findings, the uses of such partial-credit MC items are limited because of various reasons such as time and administration cost (Ben-Simon et al., 1997). One main criticism is concerned that few of the proposed PCS approaches directly and explicitly link the partial credits to students' cognitive proficiency. ...
This study provides a partial credit scoring (PCS) approach to awarding students’ performance on multiple-choice items in science education. The approach is built on fundamental ideas, the critical pieces of students’ understanding and knowledge to solve science problems. We link each option of the items to several specific fundamental ideas to capture their mastery patterns when an option is selected. Using these mastery patterns to order the options of items and accordingly assign credits to students, we measure students’ cognitive proficiency without including additional measures (e.g., times of trial) to the test or requiring extra support (e.g., technology). Using many-facet Rasch analysis, we find that the ordered options students selected were aligned with their ability measures. The PCS yields robust psychometric quality; compared to the dichotomous scoring of multiple-choice items, it generates better item fit and separation parameters. Besides, this PCS approach helps address construct validity by modelling student responses at the option level to reflect students’ mastery of fundamental ideas.
... Among many solutions, the one to develop partial-credit MC items is expected to improve the science test reliability and the validity (Fulmer et al., 2014). Though the prior work on PCS shows some promising findings, the uses of such partial-credit MC items are limited because of various reasons such as time and administration cost (Ben-Simon et al., 1997). One main criticism is concerned that few of the proposed PCS approaches directly and explicitly link the partial credits to students' cognitive proficiency. ...
This study provides a partial credit scoring (PCS) approach to awarding students’ performance on multiple-choice items in science education. The approach is built on fundamental ideas, the critical pieces of students’ understanding and knowledge to solve science problems. We link each option of the items to several specific fundamental ideas to capture their mastery patterns when an option is selected. Using these mastery patterns to order the options of items and accordingly assign credits to students, we measure students’ cognitive proficiency without including additional measures (e.g., times of trial) to the test or requiring extra support (e.g., technology). Using many-facet Rasch analysis, we find that the ordered options students selected were aligned with their ability measures. The PCS yields robust psychometric quality; compared to the dichotomous scoring of multiple-choice items, it generates better item fit and separation parameters. Besides, this PCS approach helps address construct validity by modelling student responses at the option level to reflect students’ mastery of fundamental ideas.
... There is a large body of work asking people about their level of confidence in answering a question (see Wright & Ayton, 1994). While the confidence level people provide is a window into their subjective feeling of knowing, research has shown that people are often miscalibrated; typically, confidence judgments are found to be systematically biased and reflecting overconfidence (e.g., Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997;Koriat & Lieblich, 1977;Koriat, Lichtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1980;Lichtenstein, Fischhoff & Phillips, 1982;Wallsten & Budescu, 1983;Wright & Ayton, 1994). In an SAT setting with feedback about correctness of responses, TTs might learn to be more calibrated as the test progress, and choices may be changed as a result. ...
... With essays and other types of constructed-response test items, it is common practice to reward students' partial knowledge by awarding partial credit. However, the awarding of partial credit in the context of MC testing is quite uncommon, and although several methods have been developed for this purpose, these tend to be cumbersome and to have a variety of shortcomings (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997). In contrast, the IFAT's answer-until-correct format makes it a simple matter for the instructor to award partial credit on MC items. ...
The Immediate Feedback Assessment Technique (IFAT) is a new multiple-choice response form that has advantages over more commonly used response techniques. The IFAT, which is commercially available at reasonable cost and can be used conveniently with large classes, has an answer-until-correct format that provides students with immediate, corrective, item-by-item feedback. Advantages of this learner-centered response form are that it: (a) actively promotes learning; (b) allows students’ partial knowledge to be rewarded with partial credit; (c) is strongly preferred by students over other response techniques; and (d) lets instructors more easily maintain the security of multiple choice (MC) items so that they can be reused from one semester to the next. The IFAT’s major shortcoming is that grading must be done manually because it does not yet have a compatible optical scanning device. Helpful suggestions are presented for instructors who may be considering using the IFAT for the first time. RÉSUMÉ La Technique D’Évaluation Immédiat (Immediate Feedback Assessment Technique ou IFAT) est un nouveau formulaire pour examens à choix multiple qui a plusieurs avantages. Le IFAT, disponible à un prix raisonable et convenable pour les cours suivis par de nombreux étudiants, est constitué d’un format dans lequel les édudiants selectionnent alternative-par- alternative parmi les choix disponibles jusqu’à ce que la réponse correcte soit indiquée. En suite, la correction est automatique et informe la réponse correcte immédiatement. Le IFAT a plusieurs avantages: (a) il favorise l’apprentissage; (b) les étudiants peuvent obtenir des points partiels avec connaissances partiels; (c) les étudiants préferent ce formulaire à comparer à autres formats à choix multiple; et (d) les instructeurs peuvent maintenir plus facilement leurs questions et alternatives en sécurité et les réutiliser au cours des prochaines sessions. Le défaut principal du IFAT est que la notation est manuele car il n’y a pas encore de lecteur optique compatible avec ce formulaire. Des suggestions utiles sont ici données pour les instructeurs qui envisagent d’utiliser cette technique pour la première fois.
... The questions for Part 2 and Part 3 were developed based on a multiple questions because it is the most common and widely used assessment tool for the measurement of knowledge, ability and complex learning outcomes (Gronlund, 1993;Ben-Simon, Budescu and Nevo, 1997) and extensively used (Merwe, 2015). (Teck et al., 2015). ...
... Each item type has its own advantages and disadvantages. The advantages that multiple choice items provide can be listed as follows: (a) scoring the items and analysing these scores easily (Bible, Simkin, & Kuechler, 2008), (b) preventing students from losing points based on language deficiencies such as grammar, writing or punctuation errors (Zeidner, 1987), (c) being free of scorer bias (Walstad, 1998), (d) being able to construct the test with empirical proof (item analyses etc.) (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997), (e) being able to collect data from a large scale in an effective and easy way (Dufresne, Leonard, & Gerace, 2002). However, it also has disadvantages, such as the requirement of a large sample size to develop a MC test with a high degree of reliability (Bacon, 2003), the possibility of arriving at the correct answer by eliminating the other alternatives (Bush, 2001;Hobson & Ghoshal, 1996), the difficulty of preparing the test when there is no test bank at reach (Brown, Bull, & Pendlebury, 1997) and the fact that items of MC tests that are not written in accordance with test writing principles conceal students' knowledge rather than disclose it (Dufresne et al., 2002). ...
The aim of the present study was to reveal the psychometric properties of the items in the cognitive test of PISA 2015 assessing scientific literacy according to different item types and to examine scientific literacy in relation to different independent variables. In the sample of PISA 2015 Turkey, 175 students from 5895 students were included in the study with the aim of researching. Descriptive statistics and various hypothesis tests were used to obtain the findings of the research. When scientific literacy and item difficulty averages for all three item types were examined, students with a high level of scientific literacy level were more successful at responding to constructed response (CR) items, while students with a low level of scientific literacy were more successful at answering multiple choice (MC) items. Male students were more successful than female students in responding to MC and complex multiple choice (CMC) items, while female students were more successful than male students in answering CR items. It was found that students with a high level of economic, social and cultural status were more successful than those with a low level of economic, social and cultural status.
... Sometimes, subjects who have partial knowledge omit items with positive expected reward when they are penalized for wrong answers, while they might respond under a reward formula scoring rule. According to Ben-Simon, Budescu, and Nevo (1997), the correction for guessing formula ignores the partial knowledge of students in many cases. Therefore, by providing a method that allows students to choose the scoring rule in an MCQ exam, we contribute to the debate in the literature on the educational measurement of knowledge in relation to the appropriate method of correction (Bar-Hillel, Budescu, & Attali, 2005;Diamond & Evans, 1973;Frary, 1988). ...
This article presents a novel experimental methodology in which groups of students were offered the option to choose between two equivalent scoring rules to assess a multiple‐choice test. The effect of choosing the scoring rule on marks is tested. Two major contributions arise from this research. First, it contributes to the literature on the value of choice. Second, it also contributes to the literature on the educational measurement of knowledge. The results suggest that choice could positively affect students' scores. However, students need to learn to choose the assessment method. Moreover, women seem to obtain greater benefits from the option of choosing the scoring rule.
... Safety in construction sites is of utmost importance which makes it fundamental to distinguish the competency level, training and knowledge among Malaysian's construction personnel. This is necessary because incompetency and inadequacy in these areas among construction personnel may increase the risk factors in the occurrences of accidents, incidents, injuries, fatalities and loss of properties on construction sites [1][2][3][4]. It is worthy to mention that there are a total of 763 cases of construction accidents filed in Malaysia between 2007 to 2012 and 422 or a concerning 55% of the number involved fatality accidents as recorded by the Department of Occupational Safety and Health Malaysia, Ministry of Human Resources [5]. ...
Competency in safety is important for construction personnel and it is compulsory for all construction personnel in Malaysia to attend safety training/courses. A literature review of the recommended safety module revealed gaps in evaluating the effectiveness of safety cognition among construction personnel. Therefore, this paper investigates the safety cognition based on safety education. A structured, self-administered questionnaire was designed and used to assess the level of safety cognition in safety education. The results show the safety cognition of construction personnel is still at a moderate level and there is a difference level of safety cognition among construction personnel on Occupational Safety module.
... Multiple choice questions can be difficult to write, especially if a teacher wants his/her students to go beyond recall of information, but the exams are easier to grade than an essay or short-answer exams [5]. Multiple choice tests are the most common and perhaps the best tool for objective measurement of knowledge, ability or achievement because of its objectivity, simplicity, and automatic scoring, as well as the possibility of modifying a test based on empirical evidence [6]. Additionally, Multiple choicebased tests create a lower level of anxiety among students in comparison to Essay type test because options on multiple choice tests are made available to students [7][8]. ...
In the field of education, students' assessment provides important data on the knowledge, skill, attitudes, and beliefs of students which are used to refine programs and improve student learning. With the help of assessment data, a teacher can track students' progress, plan his/her lessons more effectively and can also motivate his/her students by providing an accurate measure of his/her progress. Assessment can be done by using many methods such as multiple-choice question-based test and essay or short answer type test, etc.Whichever assessment method is used, it should enhance student learning in relation to educational goals. Assessment should correctly evaluate students' performance against curricular goals. The present research paper analyzes the two popular methods of assessment in India which are Essay/short answer type assessment and Multiple-choice question-based assessment. A small study was conducted on 108 students of Bachelor of Technology 8th Semester (IV Year) in order to investigate the two methods. The group of students was examined by using Essay type method and MCQ type method in TCIE-1 and TCIE-2 respectively for the same subject which is power system design.Wilcoxon signed rank test was applied using MATLAB to test the hypothesis of significant difference between scores of students in these two assessments.Moreover, correlation coefficient was also calculated to prove that students require a different skill set to secure good marks in these two methods. So, these two methods should be used to address different assessment purposes. © 2019, Rajarambapu Institute Of Technology. All rights reserved.
... Second, our participants did not receive any specific scoring instructions. Test-taker responses are known to be influenced by factors such as how incorrect selections and omissions are scored (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997;Lord, 1975). The results on affirmative selections may have been different had we provided explicit scoring instructions. ...
The current study investigated how item formats and their inherent affordances influence test‐takers’ cognition under uncertainty. Adult participants solved content‐equivalent math items in multiple‐selection multiple‐choice and four alternative grid formats. The results indicated that participants’ affirmative response tendency (i.e., judge the given information as True) was affected by the presence of a grid, type of grid options, and their visual layouts. The item formats further affected the test scores obtained from the alternatives keyed True and the alternatives keyed False, and their psychometric properties. The current results suggest that the affordances rendered by item design can lead to markedly different test‐taker behaviors and can potentially influence test outcomes. They emphasize that a better understanding of the cognitive implications of item formats could potentially facilitate item design decisions for large‐scale educational assessments.
... Given their widespread use, there are ample opportunities for integrating assessments of student uncertainties into multiple-choice questions, which can be particularly useful in large engineering classes. Of course, the consideration of student uncertainties, self-confidence, partial knowledge, and guessing on multiple choice tests is not new and has been studied in the educational literature (e.g., Burton 2005;Bereby-Meyer et al. 2003;Burton 2001;Burton & Miller 1999;Ben-Simon et al. 1997;Hassmén & Hunt 1994). ...
... It is also useful in providing both examinees and examiners with more differentiated feedback on what kind of misconception or problems examinees have, and facilitate remedial instructions for future learning. Ben-Simon, Budescu, and Nevo [13] concluded in their comparative study of several scoring methods in MC tests that no response method was uniformly best across criteria and content domains, but the current study shows that elimination scoring can be a more neutral (with respect to risk aversion), and hence, a good alternative to correction for guessing in MC tests. ...
Administering multiple-choice questions with correction for guessing fails to take into account partial knowledge and may introduce a bias as examinees may differ in risk-taking to guess the correct answer when not having full knowledge. In the latter case, elimination scoring gives examinees the opportunity to express their partial knowledge as this alternative scoring procedure requires examinees to eliminate all the response alternatives they consider to be incorrect. The current simulation study investigates how these two scoring procedures affect response behaviors of examinees who differ not only in ability but also in their attitude toward risk. Combining a psychometric model accounting for ability and item difficulty with the decision theory accounting for individual differences in risk aversion, a two-step response-generating model is proposed to predict the expected answering patterns on given multiple-choice questions. The results of the simulations show that overall there are no substantial differences in the answering patterns for examinees at both ends of the ability continuum under two scoring procedures, suggesting that ability has a predominant effect on the response patterns. Compared to correction for guessing, elimination scoring leads to fewer full score response and more demonstration of partial knowledge, especially for examinees with intermediate success probabilities on the items. Only for those examinees, risk aversion has a decisive impact on the expected answering patterns.
... In this scoring method, the level of knowledge of the student by identifying the correct answer is Full Knowledge, and Absence of Knowledge estimate of the knowledge of a when incorrect answer is identified. 3 But, using the NR scoring method in MC test fails to provide a "true" student 4 because of guessing 5 and failure to credit partial knowledge. 6 Thus, Coombs 7 proposed Elimination Testing (ET) where partial knowledge is introduced as one of the levels of knowledge. ...
This study proposed a new scoring method with the integration of confidence level into Number Right Elimination Testing (NRET) which is called the Confidence-weighted Number Right Elimination Testing (CWNRET). This paper tried to investigate how comprehensive can CWNRET scoring method determine the level of knowledge of students in Multiple Choice (MC) Test. Results showed that CWNRET scores were equivalent to NRET and Elimination Testing (ET) scores. It also showed that not all students who have Full Knowledge using NRET are the same students who have Full Knowledge in CWNRET. Some of these students only have Partial Knowledge. Not all students who have Full Misconception in NRET also have Full Misconception in CWNRET. Some of them fall between Partial Knowledge and Partial Misconception. Furthermore, findings revealed that students who have mastery usually have Full Knowledge and sometimes Partial Knowledge. Students who have doubt on their responses commonly have Partial Knowledge, misinformed students have Partial Misconception, and students who are uninformed usually lie between Partial Knowledge and Partial Misconception. This shows that CWNRET can detect the quality of knowledge, and a more comprehensive level of knowledge compared to NRET scoring method. Hence, CWNRET scoring method is an effective tool for evaluating the level and quality of knowledge of students accurately in MC test.
... However, applying metacognitive strategies may pose the other serious assessment problem: if students can eliminate some responses based on critical analysis, they can get the correct answer with partial guessing, the level of which is often difficult to assess correctly (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997;Kubinger, Holocher-Ertl, Reif, Hohensinn, & Frebort, 2010). An extensive body of literature puts forward different scoring procedures to examine partial guessing (Arnold & Arnold, 1970;Bereby-Meyer, Meyer, & Budescu, 2003;Espinosa & Gardeazabal, 2010;Lord, 1980). ...
Collaborative learning is a promising avenue in education research. Learning from others and with others can foster deeper learning at a multiple-choice assignment, but it is hard to control the level of students' pure guessing. This paper addresses the problem of promoting collaborative learning through regulation of guessing, when students use clickers to answer multiple-choice questions of various levels of difficulty. The study is aimed at identifying how the difficulty of the task and students' levels of knowledge influence on the degree of partial guessing. To answer this research question, we developed two research models and validated them by testing 84 students with regard to the students' level of knowledge and the penalty announcement. The findings of this research reveal that: a) the announcement of penalty has a negative effect on promoting collaborative learning even if it leads to reducing pure guesses in test results; b) questions that require higher-order thinking skills promote collaborative learning to a greater extent; c) creating mixed level groups of students seems advisable to enhance learning from collaboration and, thus, to decrease the degree of pure guessing.
... To address the perceived drawbacks of multiple-choice testing a number of variants have been introduced; specifically in order to assess complex cognitive processes and/or to reward partial knowledge. These include manipulating the choices given to students so that options contain different combinations of primary responses only some of which are true (complex multiple choice, type K, true-false or type X, and multiple-response formats) (Berk, 1996), manipulating the stems by asking students for predictive or evaluative assessments of a scenario rather than simply recounting knowledge (Berk, 1996), confidence or probability weighting of options (Ben-Simon, Budescu, & Nevo, 1997), and the "multiple response format" in which multiple stages are created within each multiple-choice item, with scores weighted according to whether the reasoning is correct (Wilcox & Pollock, 2014). Interpretive exercises consist of a series of items based on a common set of information/data/tables, with each item requiring students to demonstrate a particular interpretive skill to be measured (Linn & Miller, 2005). ...
Integrated testlets are a new assessment tool that encompass the procedural benefits of multiple-choice testing, the pedagogical advantages of free-response-based tests, and the collaborative aspects of a viva voce or defence examination format. The result is a robust assessment tool that provides a significant formative aspect for students. Integrated testlets utilize an answer-until-correct response format within a scaffolded set of multiple-choice items that each provide immediate confirmatory or corrective feedback while also allowing for the granting of partial credit. We posit here that this testing format comprises a form of expert-student collaboration, we expand on this significance and discuss possible extensions to the approach.
Bu çalışmanın amacı okuma becerisi maddelerinin güçlük indeksini etkileyen madde özelliklerini belirlemektir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda madde formatı, madde bilişsel alan düzeyi ve bu iki değişkene ait etkileşimin madde güçlüğü üzerindeki etkileri incelenmiştir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu PISA 2015 Türkiye uygulamasında okuma becerisi alt testine yanıt veren 2418 öğrenci oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmanın analizleri çok seviyeli bir yöntem olan Açıklayıcı MTK modelleri ile yürütülmüştür. Elde edilen sonuçlar açık uçlu maddelerin çoktan seçmeli maddelere göre, anlama ve yorumlama bilişsel alanında yer alan maddelerin ise bilgi ve değerlendirme basamağında yer alan maddelere göre anlamlı derecede daha zor olduğunu göstermektedir. Madde formatı ve madde bilişsel alan kesişimi incelendiğinde ise, bilişsel alanı anlama ve yorumlama olan maddelerinin açık uçlu sorulmasının maddeleri kolaylaştıracağı, bilgi basamağında yer alan maddelerin ise açık uçlu sorulmasının maddeleri zorlaştıracağı saptanmıştır.
iq. اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﻠص اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺒﺤث ﯿﻬدف ﻤن اﺨﺘﯿﺎر ذي ﺘﺤﺼﯿﻠﻲ ﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر اﻟﻘﯿﺎﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺼﺎﺌص ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻌرف ﺒ ﻤﺘﻌدد ﺎ ، ﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ اﻟﺘر ﯿﻘﺔ اﻟطر ، اﻟﺘﻘﻠﯿدﯿﺔ ﯿﻘﺔ اﻟطر) اﻟﻤﻔردات درﺠﺎت ﺘﻘدﯿر طرق ﺨﺘﻼف ﯿﻘﺔ طر اﻟﻌﻘﺎب و اﻟﻤﻛﺎﻓﺄة. اﻻﺤﯿﺎء ﻋﻠم ﻤﺎدة ﻓﻲ ﺘﺤﺼﯿﻠﻲ اﺨﺘﺒﺎر ﺒﺒﻨﺎء اﻟﺒﺎﺤث ﻗﺎم اﻟﻬدف ﻫذا وﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿق ﻟﻠﺼ (اﻻﺤﯿﺎﺌﻲ) اﻻﻋدادي اﻟﺨﺎﻤس ف ، ﻋدد ﺒﻠﻎ ﻤﻔردات) اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ٥٠ (ﻤﻔردة ﻨوع ﻤن ﻤﺘﻌدد ﻤن اﻻﺨﺘﯿﺎر ﻛل ﺘﻀﻤﻨت ﻤﻔردة ﺨﺎطﺌﺔ ﺘﺒﻘﻰ وﻤﺎ ﺼﺤﯿﺤﺔ اﺤدﻫﺎ ﺒداﺌل ﺒﻌﺔ ار. ا ﺼﻼﺤﯿﺔ ﻤن وﻟﻠﺘﺤﻘق ﻟﻤﻔردات ﻋرض ﻓﻘد ﻟﻼﺨﺘﺒﺎر، اﻟظﺎﻫري اﻟﺼدق اج اﺴﺘﺨر و ً ﻤﻨطﻘﯿﺎ) ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ١٩ ﻤﺤﻛﻤ (ً ﺎ ﯿس ﺘدر اﺌق وطر اﻟﻨﻔﺴﯿﺔ و ﺒوﯿﺔ اﻟﺘر اﻟﻌﻠوم ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﯿن ﻤن أﯿﺔ ﺘﺴﺘﺒﻌد وﻟم اﻵﺨر، ﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺼﯿﺎﻏﺔ أﻋﯿد و ﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎ، ﻋدﻟت ﻤﻼﺤظﺎﺘﻬم ﻀوء وﻓﻲ اﻻﺤﯿﺎء ﻤﻔردة ﻤن ﻤﻔردات ﻋ ﻟﺤﺼوﻟﻬﺎ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ا ﻟﻘﺒول اﻟﻤطﻠوب اﻻﺘﻔﺎق ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻠﻰ ﻟﻤﻔردة ﺒﻨﺴﺒ ـ ـ ـ ـ ﺔ) ١٠٠ (% ﻟﻼ اﻟظﺎﻫري اﻟﺼدق ﻤن اﻟﺘﺄﻛد ﺘم وﺒذﻟك ﺨﺘﺒﺎر ، ﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت وﻀوح ﻤن وﻟﻠﺘﺄﻛد و ﻤﻔردات اﻟﺒﺤث ﻋﯿﻨﺔ ﻟدى اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر) ﺘﺒﻠﻎ ﻋﯿﻨﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر طﺒق ، ٤٠ اﺌﯿﺎ ﻋﺸو ا اﺨﺘﯿرو وطﺎﻟﺒﺔ ً طﺎﻟﺒﺎ (اﻟﺨﺎﻤس طﻠﺒﺔ ﻤن اﻻﻋدادي) اﻻﺤﯿﺎﺌﻲ (ﺒﻐداد ﻤﺤﺎﻓظﺔ ﺒﯿﺔ ﺘر ﯿﺎت ﻤدﯿر ﻓﻲ ﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت ﺒﺎن وظﻬر ، و ﻤﻔردات ﻟﻠ اﻟﻘﯿﺎﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺼﺎﺌص وﻟﺘﺤدﯿد اﻀﺤﺔ،. و اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ﻤﻔردات طﺒق اﻟﻛﻠﻲ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر و) ﻤن ﻤﻛوﻨﺔ ﻋﯿﻨﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ٤٠٠ ، اﻻﺤﯿﺎﺌﻲ اﻟﺨﺎﻤس اﻟﺼف طﻠﺒﺔ ﻤن وطﺎﻟﺒﺔ طﺎﻟب (ﺒﺎﻷ اﻟﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻫذﻩ اﺨﺘﯿرت اﻟﻤر ﺴﻠوب اﻟﻌ ﺤﻠﻲ اﻻﻋدادﯿﺔ اﻟﻤرﺤﻠﺔ طﻠﺒﺔ ﻤن اﺌﻲ ﺸو ، اﻟﺒﺎﺤث اﻋﺘﻤد و اﻟﻘﯿﺎس ﯿﺔ ﻨظر ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟك ﻓﻲ اﻟﻛﻼﺴﯿﻛﯿﺔ ﻟﻼﺨﺘﺒﺎ اﻟﻘﯿﺎﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺼﺎﺌص اﯿﺠﺎد ﻓﻲ ر ، و اﻟﺘﺤﻘق ﺒﻌد ﻤن ﺨﺼﺎﺌص ا ﻤن ﻋدد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ﺒﺘطﺒﯿق اﻟﺒﺎﺤث ﻗﺎم اﻟﺒﺤث ﻫدف وﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿق ، ﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻻﺤﯿﺎﺌﻲ اﻟﺨﺎﻤس اﻟﺼف طﻠﺒﺔ ﻤن اﻟﻌﯿﻨﺎت ﻛﺎﻻﺘﻲ وﻫﻲ ﺒﻐداد ﺒﯿﺔ ﺘر ﯿﺎت ﻤدﯿر : ﻗﺎم : ً اوﻻ) ﻋﯿﻨﺔ ﺤﺠم ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر ﺒﺘطﺒﯿق اﻟﺒﺎﺤث ٢٠٠ ذﻟك ﺒﻌد ، وطﺎﻟﺒﺔ طﺎﻟب (أﺠرى ﻟ اﻹﺤﺼﺎﺌﻲ اﻟﺘﺤﻠﯿل ﻤﻔردات. ﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ اﻟﺘر ﯿﻘﺔ ﻟﻠطر ً وﻓﻘﺎ اﻻﺨﺘﺒﺎر
Accuracy in estimating knowledge with multiple-choice quizzes largely depends on the distractor discrepancy. The order and duration of distractor views provide significant information to itemize knowledge estimates and detect cheating. To date, a precise and accurate method for segmenting time spent for a single quiz item has not been developed. This work proposes process mining tools for test-taking strategy classification by extracting informative trajectories of interaction with quiz elements. The efficiency of the method was verified in the real learning environment where the difficult knowledge test items were mixed with simple control items. The proposed method can be used for segmenting the quiz-related thinking process for detailed knowledge examination.
Many countries are currently making the transition from CAD modeling to BIM modeling and project management. There are considerable challenges for a society to integrate these new methodologies in an industry that is so changing, where many professional disciplines are involved, and whose economic contribution is relevant for the growth of a nation. There are different authors in the global context that have documented the advantages in the implementation of the methodology, but this does not mean that it is a simple process. In this sense, the undergraduate programs of universities play a fundamental role. This document describes the exercise that was done, on the recognition of the process that would be required to achieve the implementation of the BIM methodology in the current Civil Engineering program of the Catholic University of Colombia, in this, it reflects on the most relevant aspects to consider in the approach of BIM from the academy, particularly from Engineering.
We investigated whether and to what extent different scoring instructions, timing conditions, and direct feedback affect performance and speed. An experimental study manipulating these factors was designed to address these research questions. According to the factorial design, participants were randomly assigned to one of twelve study conditions. We collected data from 2,484 participants on 20 quantitative reasoning items obtained from an admissions test for graduate and professional schools. The results showed that there were significant differences in both performance and speed between the conditions. Both item time limits and feedback led to faster but less accurate responses. The results for scoring instructions with an emphasis on speed and test time limits were mixed with respect to accuracy, but the responses in these conditions were generally faster. Notwithstanding these experimental effects, measurement invariance held for models fitted to response accuracy and response time, which means that the manipulations could reasonably be summarized through impact on structural parameters (latent means and variances) of the studied models. This finding is supported by the lack of differences between conditions in the correlations with an external measure of quantitative reasoning.
When a response to a multiple-choice item consists of selecting a single-best answer, it is not possible for examiners to differentiate between a response that is a product of knowledge and one that is largely a product of uncertainty. Certainty-based marking (CBM) is one testing format that requires examinees to express their degree of certainty on the response option they have selected, leading to an item score that depends both on the correctness of an answer and the certainty expressed. The expected score is maximized if examinees truthfully report their level of certainty. However, prospect theory states that people do not always make rational choices of the optimal outcome due to varying risk attitudes. By integrating a psychometric model and a decision-making perspective, the present study looks into the response behaviors of 334 first-year students of physiotherapy on six multiple-choice examinations with CBM in a case study. We used item response theory to model the objective probability of students giving a correct response to an item, and cumulative prospect theory to estimate their risk attitudes when students choose to report their certainty. The results showed that with the given CBM scoring matrix, students’ choices of a certainty level were affected by their risk attitudes. Students were generally risk averse and loss averse when they had a high success probability on an item, leading to an under-reporting of their certainty. Meanwhile, they were risk seeking in case of small success probabilities on the items, resulting in the over-reporting of certainty.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan: 1) karakteristik tes UN mata pelajaran matematika tingkat SLTP tahun 2007/2008, 2) karakteristik distribusi skor sesungguhnya hasil estimasi beberapa model penskoran, 3) hubungan antara skor kemampuan dan skor tampak dengan skor sesungguhnya, dan 4) implikasi penerapan model penskoran terhadap estimasi skor sesungguhnya. Data penelitian ini berupa respons siswa SMP/MTs terhadap tes Ujian Nasional (UN) mata pelajaran matematika tahun 2007/2008 di Propinsi Nusa Tenggara Barat. Analisis dilakukan dengan pendekatan kuantitatif. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa tes UN mata pelajaran matematika tahun 2007/2008 tingkat SMP/MTs pada kategori sulit, memiliki rerata daya pembeda baik, tetapi rerata indeks pseudo-guessing kurang baik. Rerata skor sesungguhnya yang paling tinggi diperoleh pada model penskoran jumlah benar sesungguhnya, sedangkan rerata paling kecil terjadi pada model penskoran koreksi terhadap tebakan. Hubungan antara skor kemampuan () dengan skor sesungguhnya menunjukkan korelasi positif dengan nilai koefisien korelasi sangat tinggi. Rerata hasil estimasi skor sesungguhnya dari ketiga model penskoran menunjukkan perbedaan yang signifikan. Kata kunci: skor tampak, skor kemampuan, skor sesungguhnya, model penskoran
Bu çalışmada Örtük Sınıf Analizinin farklı puanlama durumlarındaki işleyişini incelemek amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda çoktan seçmeli maddelerden oluşan ve seçenekleri ikili, uzman yargısına dayalı ağırlıklı ve deneysel ağırlıklı puanlanabilen bir test kullanılarak Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi’nde öğrenim görmekte olan toplam 595 öğrenciden veri toplanmıştır. Öğrencilerin test maddelerine vermiş oldukları yanıtlar ikili, deneysel ağırlıklı ve uzman yargısına dayalı ağırlıklı olarak ayrı ayrı puanlanmış ve elde edilen veriler üzerinde örtük sınıf analizi yapılmıştır. Ulaşılan bulgular ikili ve uzman yargısına dayalı ağırlıklı puanlama için örtük sınıf analizinde aynı sınıf sayısına ulaşıldığını göstermiştir. En az sınıf sayısına ise en az parametre kestirimiyle deneysel ağırlıklı puanlama için ulaşılmıştır. İkili ve uzman yargısına dayalı ağırlıklı puanlama için ise elde edilen sınıf sayısı ve kestirilen parametre sayısı deneysel ağırlıklı puanlamayla ulaşılandan daha yüksektir. Örtük sınıf analizinde en uygun model, en az örtük sınıf sayısıyla ve en az parametre kestirimiyle model veri uyumunu yakalayan modeldir. Bu nedenle deneysel ağırlıklı puanlama yöntemiyle ulaşılan modelin örtük sınıf analizi için en uygun model olduğu ifade edilebilir.
Single‐best answers to multiple‐choice items are commonly dichotomized into correct and incorrect responses, and modeled using either a dichotomous item response theory (IRT) model or a polytomous one if differences among all response options are to be retained. The current study presents an alternative IRT‐based modeling approach to multiple‐choice items administered with the procedure of elimination testing, which asks test‐takers to eliminate all the response options they consider to be incorrect. The partial credit model is derived for the obtained responses. By extracting more information pertaining to test‐takers’ partial knowledge on the items, the proposed approach has the advantage of providing more accurate estimation of the latent ability. In addition, it may shed some light on the possible answering processes of test‐takers on the items. As an illustration, the proposed approach is applied to a classroom examination of an undergraduate course in engineering science.
When diagnostic assessments are administered to examinees, the mastery status of each examinee on a set of specified cognitive skills or attributes can be directly evaluated using cognitive diagnosis models (CDMs). Under certain circumstances, allowing the examinees to have at least one opportunity to correctly answer the questions and assessments, with repeated attempts on the items, provides many potential benefits. A sequential process model can be extended to model repeated attempts in diagnostic assessments. Two formulations of the sequential generalized deterministic-input noisy-“and”-gate (G-DINA) model were developed in this study. The first extension uses the latent transition analysis (LTA) approach to model changes in the attributes over attempts, and the second extension constructs a higher order structure of latent continuous variables and latent attributes to account for the dependences of the attributes over attempts. Accurate model parameter estimation and correct classifications of attributes were observed in a series of simulations using Bayesian estimation. The effectiveness of the developed sequential G-DINA model was demonstrated by fitting real data from a longitudinal mathematical test to the developed model and the longitudinal G-DINA model using the LTA approach. Finally, this article closes by discussing several important issues associated with the developed models and providing suggestions for future directions.
Multiple-choice tests are among the most widely used test formats throughout the world due to their ease of administration and other advantages; however, one of the shortcomings of this test format is the role of guessing inherent in it. To solve this problem, different scoring methods have been proposed. Confidence-based scoring is a scoring method that both removes uninformed guesses from multiple-choice tests and takes partial knowledge into account. This scoring method, however, has been criticized for being biased against gender and specific personality traits. The present study was an attempt to examine the self-esteem and gender bias of confidence-based scoring compared to number-right scoring while testing English grammar. The participants were forty-nine freshman students who were taking their English grammar course. At the end of the semester, they were given an eighty-item multiple-choice test based on the content of the course. The test was scored in two ways: confidence-based scoring and number-right scoring. The participants were also given the Self-Esteem Inventory. To examine the self-esteem bias of these two scoring methods, Pearson correlation was used. To investigate their gender bias, the means of scores in male and female participants were calculated, and the significance of the difference was tested by independent-samples t-test. The results showed that both confidence-based scoring and number-right scoring were biased against self-esteem. In other words, confidence-based scores were no more biased than number-right scores against self-esteem. The results also showed that neither confidence-based scores nor number-right scores were biased against gender. © Common Ground Research Networks, Lirije Olluri, Sejdi Sejdiu.
Cognitive diagnosis models (CDMs) allow for the extraction of fine-grained, multidimensional diagnostic information from appropriately designed tests. In recent years, interest in such models has grown as formative assessment grows in popularity. Many dichotomous as well as several polytomous CDMs have been proposed in the last two decades, but there has been only one continuous-response model, the C-DINA, proposed to date. The C-DINA model offers a promising first step at modeling continuous process data, but the application of a model with a strong conjunctive assumption may be limited. Thus, the generalized version of the C-DINA model is proposed, and its viability is demonstrated with both a simulation study and a real data example.
Test-wiseness gilt bereits seit langem als wichtiger Einflussfaktor auf die Ergebnisse von Multiple-Choice Tests. So scheinen Personen mit Wissen über test-wiseness besser in Multiple-Choice Tests abzuschneiden als Personen ohne dieses Wissen. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass test-wiseness trainiert bzw. erlernt werden kann. Obwohl test-wiseness für das Abschneiden in einem Multiple-Choice Test von entscheidender Bedeutung zu sein scheint, stammen die vorhandenen Erkenntnisse und Befunde fast ausschließlich aus dem amerikanischen Sprachraum. Im deutschsprachigen Raum dagegen liegen kaum Befunde zu test-wiseness vor. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurde anhand einer englischen Testversion ein deutschsprachiger Test entwickelt. Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es, den Einfluss thematischen Wissens sowie den Einfluss einer Schulung zu test-wiseness auf das Testergebnis zu untersuchen. Hierzu beantworteten 252 Studierende 24 deutschsprachige Multiple-Choice Aufgaben zur Erfassung ihres Wissens über test-wiseness. Es wurde ein 2 (mit vs. ohne Expertise) x 2 (mit vs. ohne Schulung) Versuchsdesign realisiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Personen mit thematischem Wissen bessere Ergebnisse erzielen als Personen ohne thematisches Wissen und Personen mit Schulung bessere Ergebnisse als Personen ohne Schulung. Insgesamt machen die Befunde deutlich, dass ein deutschsprachiger Test zur Erfassung von test-wiseness entstanden ist, der der Güte vorhandener internationaler Tests entspricht. Zusätzlich wird deutlich, dass auch im deutschsprachigen Sprachraum zukünftig ein stärkerer Fokus auf die Kontrolle von test-wiseness gerichtet werden sollte.
Nondichotomous response models have been of greater interest in recent years due to the increasing use of different scoring methods and various performance measures. As an important alternative to dichotomous scoring, the use of continuous response formats has been found in the literature. To assess finer-grained skills or attributes and to extract information with diagnostic value from continuous response data, a multidimensional skills diagnosis model for continuous response is proposed. An expectation-maximization implementation of marginal maximum likelihood estimation is developed to estimate its parameters. The viability of the proposed model is shown via a simulation study and a real data example. The proposed model is also shown to provide a substantial improvement in attribute classification when compared to a model based on dichotomized continuous responses.
This study scrutinized the interaction between gender and risk taking variables in test performance of Iranian EFL learners. The research was conducted on 120 male and female EFL learners from Islamic Azad university of Isfahan (khorasgan). The participants received a Venturesomeness subscale of Eysenck `s IVE questionnaire and were asked to rate each item on a 5point Likert-scale. The total score for this questionnaire ranges from 16 to 80. Students who were lower than 30 were considered as low risk-takers, those who were more than 70 as high risk-takers, and those between 30 and 70 as moderate risk-takers. In a weeks’ time, a complete TOEFL PBT test comprising 140- multiple-choice items as the second instrument was administrated. The results revealed that the female EFL students were lower risk takers and left questions unanswered more frequently and skipped questions a lot more than their male counterparts. Finally, it was found out that low risk takers answered the least number of questions in comparison to high and moderate risk takers, and consequently, had the most number of questions left unanswered which had a negative effect on test takers’ performance.
Different scoring methods have been introduced through time whose objective is to address partial knowledge in Multiple Choice (MC) test. One of these is the Number Right Elimination Testing (NRET). This study tried to investigate the effectiveness of NRET scoring method in a pen-and-paper MC test in evaluating the level of knowledge of students and in minimizing guessing. Results showed that NRET scores were not similar to Number Right (NR) scores while NRET and Elimination Testing (ET) scores were equivalent to each other. It also showed that not all correct answers in NR scoring method were based on Full Knowledge, while not all incorrect answers were based on Lack of Knowledge or Full Misconception. Furthermore, NRET scoring method also reduced guessing in the low-ability group. Hence, NRET scoring method is an effective tool for evaluating a more comprehensive level of knowledge of students in paper-and-pen MC test.
Answer-until-correct (AUC) tests have been in use for some time. Pressey (1950) pointed to their ad vantages in enhancing learning, and Brown (1965) proposed a scoring procedure for AUC tests that appears to increase reliability (Gilman & Ferry, 1972; Hanna, 1975). This paper describes a new scoring procedure for AUC tests that (1) makes it possible to determine whether guessing is at ran dom, (2) gives a measure of how "far away" guess ing is from being random, (3) corrects observed test scores for partial information, and (4) yields a mea sure of how well an item reveals whether an ex aminee knows or does not know the correct re sponse. In addition, the paper derives the optimal linear estimate (under squared-error loss) of true score that is corrected for partial information, as well as another formula score under the assumption that the Dirichlet-multinomial model holds. Once certain parameters are estimated, the latter formula score makes it possible to correct for partial infor mation using only the examinee's usual number- correct observed score. The importance of this for mula score is discussed. Finally, various statistical techniques are described that can be used to check the assumptions underlying the proposed scoring procedure.
Reviews 55 studies in which self-evaluations of ability were compared with measures of performance to show a low mean validity coefficient (mean
r = .29) with high variability (
SD = .25). A meta-analysis by the procedures of J. E. Hunter et al (1982) calculated sample-size weighted estimates of
–- r and
SDr and estimated the appropriate adjustments of these values for sampling error and unreliability. Among person variables, high intelligence, high achievement status, and internal locus of control were associated with more accurate evaluations. Much of the variability in the validity coefficients (
R = .64) could be accounted for by 9 specific conditions of measurement, notably (a) the rater's expectation that the self-evaluation would be compared with criterion measures, (b) the rater's previous experience with self-evaluation, (c) instructions guaranteeing anonymity of the self-evaluation, and (d) self-evaluation instructions emphasizing comparison with others. It is hypothesized that conditions increasing self-awareness would increase the validity of self-evaluation. (84 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite the common reliance on numerical probability estimates in decision research and decision analysis, there is considerable interest in the use of verbal probability expressions to communicate opinion. A method is proposed for obtaining and quantitatively evaluating verbal judgments in which each analyst uses a limited vocabulary that he or she has individually selected and scaled. An experiment compared this method to standard numerical responding under three different payoff conditions. Response mode and payoff never interacted. Probability scores and their components were virtually identical for the two response modes and for all payoff groups. Also, judgments of complementary events were essentially additive under all conditions. The two response modes differed in that the central response category was used more frequently in the numerical than the verbal case, while overconfidence was greater verbally than numerically. Response distributions and degrees of overconfidence were also affected by payoffs. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
This paper presents the development of scoring functions for use in conjunction with standard multiple-choice items. In addition to the usual indication of the correct alternative, the examinee is to indicate his personal probability of the correctness of his response. Both linear and quadratic polynomial scoring functions are examined for suitability, and a unique scoring function is found such that a score of zero is assigned when complete uncertainty is indicated and such that the examinee can expect to do best if he reports his personal probability accurately. A table of simple integer approximations to the scoring function is supplied.
Theories are put forward that attempt to answer the practical question of ‘How should we correct for guessing in multiple choice tests?’ and the theoretical question of ‘How can we mathematically describe partial knowledge so as to predict behaviour in tasks which enable it to be shown?’. Empirical findings relating to performance on variants of the multiple choice task are reviewed, and compared to the predictions of the theories.
This review covers multiple-choice response and scoring methods that attempt to capture information about an examinee's degree or level of knowledge with respect to each item and use this information to produce a total test score. The period covered is mainly from the early 1970s onward; earlier reviews are summarized. It is concluded that there is little to be gained from the complex responding and scoring schemes that have been investigated. Although some of them have confirmed potential to increase internal-consistency reliability, this outcome is often obtained only at the expense of validity. Also, the extra responding time required by some methods would permit lengthening a conventional multiple-choice test sufficiently to obtain the same reliability improvement. Partial-credit response and scoring methods that continue to be used will probably earn this status due to secondary characteristics such as providing feedback to enhance learning.
Six response/scoring methods for multiple-choice tests are analyzed with respect to expected item scores under various levels of information and mis information. It is shown that misinformation always and necessarily results in expected item scores lower than those associated with complete igno rance. Moreover, it is shown that some re sponse/scoring methods penalize all conditions of misinformation equally, and others have varying penalties according to the number of wrong choices the misinformed examinee has categorized with the correct choice. One method exacts the greatest pen alty when a specific wrong choice is believed cor rect ; two other methods provide the maximum pen alty when the examinee is confident only that the correct choice is incorrect. Partial information is shown to yield substantially different expected item scores from one method to another. Guessing is an alyzed under the assumption that examinees guess whenever it is advantageous to do so under the scoring method used and that these conditions would be made clear to the examinee. Additional guessing is shown to have no effect on expected item scores in some cases, though in others it is shown to lower the expected item score. These out comes are discussed with respect to validity and reliability of resulting total scores and also with re spect to test content and examinee characteristics.
An important but usually neglected aspect of the training of teachers is instruction in the art of writing good classroom tests. Such training should emphasize various forms of objective items (e.g., multiple- choice, master list, matching, greater-less-same, best- worst answer, and matrix format). The proper formu lation and accurate grading of essay items should be included, as should the use of various types of free- answer items (e.g., the brief answer, interlinear, and "fill in the blanks in the following paragraph" forms). For courses involving laboratory work, such as sci ence, machine shop, and home economics, perfor mance and identification tests based on the laboratory work should be used.
A second point is that organizations developing ap titude tests for nonacademic areas, such as police work, fire fighting, and licensing tests, should empha size the use by the client of a valid, reliable, and un biased criterion. Organizations developing academic aptitude tests should also (1) be alert to the accuracy of criterion measures, grades, rank in class, and so forth; (2) call teachers' attention to defects in grading; and (3) help guide teachers and schools in improving these procedures. In recent decades, there have been few instances in which a testing organization has ap prised teachers of the fact that their criteria—among others, grades on tests and student papers—are often quite unreliable based on characteristics such as work habits and attitude in class, and could be improved by using better tests to evaluate student performance. Characteristics of the group used for determining va lidity are also critical.
Binary, probability, and ordinal scoring proce dures for multiple-choice items were examined. In a situation where true scores were experimentally controlled by the manipulation of partial informa tion, it was found that both the probability and or dinal scoring systems were more reliable than the binary scoring method. A second experiment using vocabulary items and standard reliability estimation procedures also showed higher reliability for the two partial information scoring methods relative to binary scoring.
This study compares various item option scoring methods with respect to coefficient alpha and a concurrent validity coefficient. The scoring methods under consideration were: (1) formula scoring, (2) a priori scoring, (3) empirical scoring with an internal criterion, and (4) two modifications of formula scoring. The study indicates a clear superiority of the empirically determined scoring system with respect to both coefficient alpha and the concurrent validity.
The validity of a confidence scored vocabulary test was investigated by demonstrating an increase in its reliability without changing the relative difficulty of the test items and without detecting any personality bias in the confidence scoring system. The reliability estimate of the vocabulary test increased from .57 using a traditional scoring system to .85 using a confidence scoring system. No significant interaction was found between the difficulty of the test items and the type of scoring system. Three personality measures failed to correlate significantly with the confidence scores of the vocabulary test.
This study compared the reliability and validity indexes of randomly parallel tests administered under inclusion, exclusion, and correction for guessing directions. It also compared the criterion-referenced grading decisions based on the different scoring methods. Inclusion and exclusion scores were not so highly correlated as theory would predict. There were no significant differences in the reliability and validity indices for the three scoring methods. However, the scoring methods differed substantially in the proportion of students assigned to different grade categories.
Sixty-three graduate students, taking an elementary statistics course in education and having previous experience with confidence weighting, utilized confidence weighting in recording their test responses to the objective, 65-item final examination, administered on the first of two consecutive final examination days. On the second day of testing a short-answer examination covering the same material was given. Examinees were directed to attempt all items on both tests. Since response styles and chance had virtually no opportunity to affect performance on the short-answer final examination, it served as the criterion. The observed reliability of the scores using confidence weighting was slightly higher than the scores from conventional scoring (.91 vs. 88). The validity coefficient for the confidence-weighted scores was lower than for the conventional scores (.67 vs.70), but the differences did not attain statistical significance. The findings suggest that the added reliable variance often observed in confidenceweighting studies may be irrelevant response style variance and does not increase validity, in fact, it may actually diminish validity.
The literature on a priori and empirical weighting of test items and test-item options is reviewed. While multiple regression is the best known technique for deriving fixed empirical weights for component variables (such as tests and test items), other methods allow one to derive weights which equalize the effective weights of the component variables (their individual contributions to the variance of the composite). Fixed weighting is most effective, in general, when there are few variables in the composite, and when these variables are not highly correlated. Variable weighting methods are those in which there is no nominal weight, constant over subjects, applied to a single item or response option. Of most interest are variable response-weighting methods such as those recently suggested by de Finetti (1965) and others. To be effective, such weighting methods require that the subject be able to maximize his expected score only if he reports his subjective probabilities honestly. Variable response-weighting methods, perhaps in conjunction with fixed response-weighting methods, show promise for increasing the reliability and validity of test scores. (Author/CJ)
In a confidence weighting situation, the examinee is asked to indicate the correct answer, and how certain he or she is of the correctness of that answer. This paper reviews the bases for confidence marking, its validity and accuracy in evaluating students, and it's use in research. (BW)
2 forms of the Dominion Vocabulary Test were administered to 667 9th graders in either AB or BA orders. The directions for the 1st administration were reward for omitting otherwise guessed replies (PR), penalty for guessing (P), no penalty for guessing (G), and no reference to cues (NR). Instruction were randomized by blocks. When tests were scored for corrects only, P and PR attained lower scores than G and NR. PR, however, had significantly fewer wrong answers than the others. Interform r for the G group was .93; for PR, .92, for NR, .90; and for P, .89. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Cites highlights of the history of item weighting. Although recent history suggests that on the whole item weighting affects validity to a small degree, Birnbaum's model for differential weighting on the basis of ability and de Finetti's personal probability approach to item alternatives may prove to be exceptions. (43 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Administered 3 sets of scoring instructions (1 promising a small reward for omitted questions, a 2nd threatening a small penalty for wrong answers, and a 3rd encouraging the examinee to guess) to 1,091 8th grade Canadian children to test the effect of instructions with speededness varied. Measures of risk taking, test anxiety, need achievement, intelligence, and school achievement also were available. Analysis of variance yielded significant differences between scoring instructions, speededness, and sex. Estimates of reliability and validity under varying conditions are provided and discussed, along with correlations of the tests with the personality variables. Results support the assertion that the reward instruction more effectively encourages omissive behavior than the penalty instruction, and also the assertion that the reward instruction yields scores with higher reliability and criterion validity than the penalty instruction. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The material in this book is based on my several years' experience in construction and evaluation of examinations, first as a member of the Board of Examinations of the University of Chicago, later as director of a war research project developing aptitude and achievement tests for the Bureau of Naval Personnel, and at present as research adviser for the Educational Testing Service. During this time I have become aware of the necessity for a firm grounding in test theory for work in test development. When this book was begun the material on test theory was available in numerous articles scattered through the literature and in books written some time ago, and therefore not presenting recent developments. It seemed desirable to me to bring the technical developments in test theory of the last fifty years together in one readily available source. Although this book is written primarily for those working in test development, it is interesting to note that the techniques presented here are applicable in many fields other than test construction. Many of the difficulties that have been encountered and solved in the testing field also confront workers in other areas, such as measurement of attitudes or opinions, appraisal of personality, and clinical diagnosis. The major part of this book is designed for readers with the following preparation: (1) A knowledge of elementary algebra, including such topics as the binomial expansion, the solution of simultaneous linear equations, and the use of tables of logarithms; (2) Some familiarity with analytical geometry, emphasizing primarily the equation of the straight line, although some use is made of the equations for the circle, ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola; and (3) A knowledge of elementary statistics, including such topics as the computation and interpretation of means, standard deviations, correlations, errors of estimate, and the constants of the equation of the regression line. It is assumed that the students know how to make and to interpret frequency diagrams of various sorts, including the histogram, frequency polygon, normal curve, cumulative frequency curve, and the correlation scatter diagram. Familiarity with tables of the normal curve and with significance tests is also assumed. In textbook fashion, each chapter concludes with problems and exercises. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this paper was to provide an empirical test of the hypothesis that elimination scores are more reliable and valid than classical corrected for-guessing scores or weighted-choice scores. The evidence presented supports the hypothesized superiority of elimination scoring.
In order to review the empirical literature on subjective probability encoding from a psychological and psychometric perspective, it is first suggested that the usual encoding techniques can be regarded as instances of the general methods used to scale psychological variables. It is then shown that well-established concepts and theories from measurement and psychometric theory can provide a general framework for evaluating and assessing subjective probability encoding. The actual review of the literature distinguishes between studies conducted with nonexperts and with experts. In the former class, findings related to the reliability, internal consistency, and external validity of the judgments are critically discussed. The latter class reviews work relevant to some of these characteristics separately for several fields of expertise. In die final section of the paper the results from these two classes of studies are summarized and related to a view of vague subjective probabilities. Problems deserving additional attention and research are identified.
An approximate statistical test is derived for the hypothesis that the reliability coefficients (Cronbach's ) associated with two measurement procedures are equal. Control of Type I error is investigated by comparing empirical sampling distributions of the test statistic with the theoretical model derived for it. The effect of platykurtosis in the test-score distribution on the test statistic is also considered.
In a world characterized by uncertainty, the study of how people assess probabilities carries both theoretical and practical implications. Much of the research efforts in this area, especially in psychology, has focused on calibration studies (Lichtenstein, Fischhoff and Phillips 1982). The present article offers an extensive review of conceptual and methodological issues involved in the study of calibration and probability assessments. It is claimed that most calibration studies have focused on technical formal issues and are in this respect a-theoretical. The reason for this state of affairs is the adoption of a strict perspective which assumes that uncertainty is a reflection of the external world, and relies heavily on normative and formal considerations. Several unresolved problems within this strict outlook are pointed out. The present paper assumes that calibration (and assessments of subjective probabilities in general) is not a characteristic of the event(s), but rather of the assessor (Lad 1984), and advocates a more loose perspective, which is broader and more descriptive in nature. Possible discrepancies between a strict and a more loose perspective, as well as reconciliation attempts, are presented.
On a multiple-choice test in which each item hask alternative responses, the test taker is permitted to choose any subset which he believes contains the one correct answer. A scoring system is devised that depends on the size of the subset and on whether or not the correct answer is eliminated. The mean and variance of the score per item are obtained. Methods are derived for determining the total number of items that should be included on the test so that the average score on all items can be regarded as a good measure of the subject's knowledge. Efficiency comparisons between conventional and the subset selection scoring procedures are made. The analogous problem ofr > 1 correct answers for each item (withr fixed and known) is also considered.
The earlier two-sample procedure of Feldt [1969] for comparing independent alpha reliability coefficients is extended to the case ofK 2 independent samples. Details of a normalization of the statistic under consideration are presented, leading to computational procedures for the overallK-group significance test and accompanying multiple comparisons. Results based on computer simulation methods are presented, demonstrating that the procedures control Type I error adequately. The results of a power comparison of the case ofK=2 with Feldt's [1969]F test are also presented. The differences in power were negligible. Some final observations, along with suggestions for further research, are noted.
Admissible probability measurement procedures utilize scoring systems with a very special property that guarantees that any student, at whatever level of knowledge or skill, can maximize his expected score if and only if he honestly reflects his degree-of-belief probabilities. Section 1 introduces the notion of a scoring system with the reproducing property and derives the necessary and sufficient condition for the case of a test item with just two possible answers. A method is given for generating a virtually inexhaustible number of scoring systems, both symmetric and asymmetric, with the reproducing property. A negative result concerning the existence of a certain subclass of reproducing scoring systems for the case of more than two possible answers is obtained. Whereas Section 1 is concerned with those instances in which the possible answers to a query are stated in the test itself, Section 2 is concerned with those instances in which the student himself must provide the possible answer(s). In this case, it is shown that a certain minor modification of a scoring system with the reproducing property yields the desired admissible probability measurement procedure.
Two multiple-choice tests, one with five alternatives for each question and one with four alternatives for each question, were scored as a Three-decision Multiple-choice Test and as a conventional multiple-choice test. In addition, the five-alternative test was scored as a modified conventional multiple-choice test by giving half marks if the correct alternative was picked as the second choice. The different scoring systems were evaluated by correlating the scores with the average mark obtained by each student in all his courses during the year. The results indicated that the conventional multiple-choice test was not improved by scoring methods which gave credit for partial knowledge.
Confidence testing: Is it reliable? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Council on Measurement in Education
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