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Chronic exposure of arsenic via drinking water and its adverse health impacts on humans
Abstract
Worldwide chronic arsenic (As) toxicity has become a human health threat. Arsenic exposure to humans mainly occurs from the ingestion of As contaminated water and food. This communication presents a review of current research conducted on the adverse health effects on humans exposed to As-contaminated water. Chronic exposure of As via drinking water causes various types of skin lesions such as melanosis, leucomelanosis, and keratosis. Other manifestations include neurological effects, obstetric problems, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, diseases of the respiratory system and of blood vessels including cardiovascular, and cancers typically involving the skin, lung, and bladder. The skin seems to be quite susceptible to the effects of As. Arsenic-induced skin lesions seem to be the most common and initial symptoms of arsenicosis. More systematic studies are needed to determine the link between As exposure and its related cancer and noncancer end points.
... Since heavy metals are taken into the human body in 3 different ways as above, their excretion from the body is slow, heavy metals can accumulate in the body over time and reach toxic doses in the organism (32). ...
... The effects of heavy metals in the body vary depending on the way they are taken into the body, which organism they affect, how long they remain in the organism, the structure of the ion, the frequency of its presence in the environment, the chemical structure and solubility of the metal. The reason for the toxic effect in the body is due to the metabolic disorders they create in the cell (32). ...
... These diseases can be treated with early treatment. However, death may occur as a result of heavy metals with a high concentration in the body (32). ...
... Most of these studies have been about the chemistry of major ions, trace elements, and multivariate statistical methods. Researchers have conducted a number of studies on the potential health risks linked to the presence of heavy metals in groundwater as well (Nguyen et al. 2009;Rahman et al. 2009;Wongsasuluk et al. 2014;Celebi et al. 2014;Li et al. 2014;Liang et al. 2016; Barzegar et al. 2018Barzegar et al. , 2019. ...
... Using water contaminated with arsenic for irrigation might lead to arsenic deposits in soil and plants, increasing the possibility of arsenic entering the food chain (Arco-Lazaro et al. 2018). The threat of contaminated arsenic is a matter of worldwide concern, with several countries, including India, China, Bangladesh, Thailand, Taiwan, Mexico, Chile, Argentina, and USA facing continuing risks of widespread harm as a result of growing levels of arsenic in water, soil, and food sources (Rahman et al. 2009;Wang et al. 2012a, b). Considering these variances, heavy metal pollution has been identified throughout Indian climatic seasons, including semi-arid, tropical wet, and dry and humid subtropical (Coyte et al. 2019;Kumar et al. 2018Sharma et al. 2019;Sridharan and Nathan 2018). ...
The production of oil and natural gas has recently played a significant role in boosting the economy. In this process, the discharge of industrial waste through activities like exploration and extraction operations cause elevated levels of dissolved chemicals, which severely degrade water sources and render them unsafe for human consumption. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the distribution of nineteen physicochemical parameters including heavy metals (pH, EC, TDS, TH, As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, F⁻, SO4²⁻, NO3⁻ and HCO3⁻) in groundwater samples collected around oil and natural gas drilling sites and assess the knowledge gap for a sustainable and safe environment. Groundwater quality was assessed using various hydrogeochemical parameters and pollution indices such as the geoaccumulation index (Igeo), enrichment factor (EF), contamination factor (CF), degree of contamination (Cdeg) with principal component (PCA) and regression coefficient analysis to identify the collective contamination source. The potential ecological risk indices (PERI) and health risk assessments were made using exposure factors references from USEPA’s database. The major findings indicated the Piper diagram is predominantly characterised by the Ca–Cl type whereas, Gibb’s plot showed evaporation and rock–water interaction influencing groundwater chemistry. Water quality index (WQI) results indicated 2% of samples were excellent, 22% were good, 20% were poor, 8% were extremely poor, and 48% were unsuitable for drinking. The pollution index of groundwater (PIG) showed that 50% of samples from the study area were unsafe to drink. The human health risk assessment revealed significant noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic effects to both adults and children. The study area's geology indicates that the presence of elements in groundwater is primarily due to drilling activities, as no geological formations show high concentrations. The implications of this study highlighted the current status of groundwater quality by identifying the main pollutants arising due to drilling extraction methods and developing a strategy aimed at mitigating both point and non-point sources of contamination.
... Arsenic (As) in crude petroleum has caused various problems for oil companies. The personnel handling the crude oil are prone to skin lesions, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases and cancer [7]. The As-containing particles clog pipes and valves and cause catalyst poisoning during steam cracking and natural gas processing [7][8][9][10]. ...
... The personnel handling the crude oil are prone to skin lesions, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases and cancer [7]. The As-containing particles clog pipes and valves and cause catalyst poisoning during steam cracking and natural gas processing [7][8][9][10]. Metals are frequently removed from crude oil through chemical methods, physical methods, and catalytic hydroprocessing. ...
Magnetised attapulgite (ATP-Fe3O4) adsorbent was synthesised using a sonochemistry approach for the solid phase extraction of As³⁺ from stimulated and unrefined crude oil samples. The average size of the Fe3O4 nanoparticles estimated from the Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) image was 10 nm. The TEM analysis also showed that Fe3O4 nanoparticles agglomerated in the ATP’s tube and on its surface. The X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) indicates that the crystallinity of the ATP reduced after the magnetisation process. The saturation magnetisation of the ATP-Fe3O4 was determined to be only 2.8 emu g⁻¹. Under the optimum conditions (pH = 7, adsorbent dosage = 0.6 g, contact time = 90 min and sample volume = 50 mL), the As³⁺ removal was more than 98% for both types of oil. The limits of detection (LOD) and relative standard deviations (RSD%) were 2.88 ng mL⁻¹ and 0.3423%, respectively. The adsorption process follows the pseudo-first-order kinetic model (R² = 0.9696) and adheres to the Langmuir isotherm model (R² = 0.9925). The reusability study showed that ATP-Fe3O4 is highly stable and can be reused five times with almost 100% removal efficiency. This research outcome aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Goal 7, Affordable and Clean Energy.
... On average, the annual global emission of arsenic is 7.8 x 10 7 kg/year [84]. Fresh water contains more inorganic arsenic compared to organic arsenic [85]. In plants, roots have the highest arsenic concentration. ...
... Hence, the energy-intensive or chemical nature of these processes renders them economically unusable in rural areas. Currently, research has mainly been focused on the development of simple, user-friendly, environment-friendly and cost-effective arsenic remediation technologies [85]; [94]. Other techniques like SORAS, ArsIron Nilogon, and AMRIT offer higher arsenic removal efficiencies and are economical and eco-friendly. ...
... Nonetheless, the large s t portion of arsenic exposure in the general population is via consuming foods. Arsenic causes different human toxicities, including neurotoxicity, mental impairment, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease, respiratory toxicity, diabetes, liver and pancreatic lesion, and skin problems such as hyperpigmentation and keratosis [12][13][14]. Moreover, epidemiological s tudies revealed that exposing to arsenic compounds are accompanying with the risk of cancers in different human organs including the skin, lung, dige s tive tract, liver, bladder, kidney, as well as lymphatic and hematopoietic sy s tems. ...
... These are our concerns and thus we addressed these issues in this paper. following consuming foods such as rice [12][13][14]19,20] ...
Determining the level of contaminants in rice is very important because it is one of the staple foods consumed by most people worldwide. Therefore, the quantity of arsenic in rice has become a health concern because rice cultivars have the property of accumulating arsenic in their grains. As a result, various societies have mandated the measurement of arsenic in rice by using different analytical chemistry methodologies, including atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS, ETAAS, HG-AAS) after sample preparation methods such as solid phase microextraction (SPME) and dispersive liquid-liquid extraction (DLLE). The content of arsenic in rice is an essential prerequisite data to incorporate in the health risk assessment. By having such information, it can be possible to determine the risk ratio calculations and identify which countries produce rice with less risk for human consumption. This review aimed to present the analytical methods used for the analysis of inorganic, organic, and total arsenic contents in rice and introduced the methodology for health risk assessment and its related calculations by using the data of inorganic and total arsenic quantifications in the rice along with the per capita of the consumption of rice.
... The hazardous effects of exposure to metals like arsenic (As), gallium (Ga), and lead (Pb) have been extensively studied, and there has been significant investment in strategies to lower human exposure [5,6]. Chronic exposure to As has been linked to lung and bladder malignancies, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and intellectual disability in children [7][8][9]. Pb has mostly raised concerns about poor intellectual growth in infancy and youth, but there may also be effects on adult cognitive function [10]. There is proof that elevated Pb levels are linked to adult mortality, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease, and aging-related cognitive impairment [11,12]. ...
... As a result, the chemosensor PyAP demonstrated a significant response at a biologically relevant pH. (7). So, the overall outcomes of the pH test show that the chemo-sensor PyAP operates as a selective detector for Ga 3+ ions under physiological pH, revealing the sensor's suitability with biological applications. ...
... Cd has also been implicated in the development of various conditions including cancer, itai-itai disease, myocardial infarction, peripheral artery disease, hypertension, and diabetic nephropathy (Ghosh and Indra, 2018). Chronic exposure to arsenic (As) results in diverse symptoms such as high blood pressure, neurological disorders, obstetric complications, diabetes mellitus, diseases affecting blood vessels and the respiratory system, along with skin abnormalities like melanosis, leucomelanosis, and keratosis (Rahman et al., 2009). Additionally, lead (Pb) is non-essential to human physiology, and excessive intake can detrimentally affect the nervous, skeletal, enzymatic, endocrine, immune, and circulatory systems (Kankia and Abdulhamid, 2014). ...
The study of soil science stands as a cornerstone in understanding the intricate relationships between terrestrial ecosystems and sustainable environmental management. As we navigate through an era characterized by rapid environmental transformations, the significance of soil science in addressing the challenges and fostering innovations for effective ecosystem management has never been more profound. This comprehensive volume, "Current Trends in Soil Science: Challenges and Innovations for Effective Ecosystem Management," encapsulates a collective effort to illuminate the multifaceted dimensions of soil science and its pivotal role in contemporary environmental stewardship. Comprising a compendium of scholarly contributions, this book traverses a diverse landscape of topics essential for comprehending, managing, and conserving our planet's invaluable soil resources. The book is structured into fifteen chapters, each meticulously crafted to unravel the complexities and nuances within the realm of soil science and ecosystem management. From foundational aspects like understanding the interplay between Soil Science and Ecosystem Management to addressing critical concerns such as Soil Degradation, Climate Change Impacts, and Soil Pollution, this book delves into the challenges confronting our soils while offering innovative solutions. Readers will explore a rich tapestry of topics encompassing Soil Health Assessment, Sustainable Soil Management Practices, the pivotal role of Soil Microorganisms, Soil Erosion, and Conservation Strategies, among others. Moreover, this compendium extends its purview to contemporary agricultural paradigms, including Natural Farming, Precision Agriculture, Organic Farming, and the integration of Agroforestry for enhanced ecosystem resilience. As we stand at the precipice of unprecedented environmental changes, the need for informed, science-driven approaches to soil management becomes increasingly urgent. This book aspires to serve as a beacon for researchers, academicians, policymakers, and environmental enthusiasts alike, providing a roadmap towards sustainable soil practices, holistic ecosystem management, and a deeper comprehension of the intricate dynamics governing our planet's vital soil ecosystems. The contributors to this volume bring forth a wealth of knowledge, expertise, and innovative perspectives, laying the foundation for envisioning a future where soil science remains a bedrock for fostering thriving ecosystems and ensuring environmental sustainability. We extend our gratitude to all the contributors whose dedication and scholarly insights have culminated in this comprehensive volume. It is our hope that this book will inspire readers and stakeholders to embark on a collective journey towards safeguarding our soils and nurturing resilient ecosystems for generations to come.
... Moreover, Rahman et al. (2021a, b) described the higher As content in children's food composites in groundwater contaminated in Bangladesh compared to uncontaminated areas as a great health concern. Consumption of As-containing water and food is a great concern for skin lesions, neural effects, obstetric problems, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers of different organs (Rahman et al., 2009). ...
Arsenic (As) is a recognized naturally hazardous metalloid that has long been linked to human poisoning. Bangladesh is now dealing with a major public health crisis, with arsenic contamination in drinking water and food crops putting millions of people at risk. Arsenic accumulates in large quantities in Bangladesh’s farmlands. Arsenic accumulates in edible tissues ingested by people and animals when vegetables and other crops are cultivated in As-contaminated irrigation water and soil. Various ongoing mitigation methods have been implemented in Bangladesh to reduce arsenic exposure and consumption. Some strategies have shown to be successful on their own, while others remain contentious.
... Arsenic contamination of groundwater has been a significant public health issue since the mid-twentieth century (Shankar et al., 2014;Podgorski and Berg, 2020;Ravenscroft et al., 2009;Ng et al., 2003). Extensive evidence indicates that chronic exposure to arseniccontaminated water can lead to various adverse health conditions and diseases (Mandal and Suzuki, 2002;Ratnaike, 2003;Kapaj et al., 2006;Rahman et al., 2009;Abdul et al., 2015;Naujokas et al., 2013). Furthermore, epidemiological studies have established a link between arsenic in drinking water and increased cancer incidence and mortality (Zhou and Xi, 2018;Palma-Lara et al., 2020). ...
Background: Epidemiological evidence has demonstrated an association between arsenic in drinking water and increased cancer incidence. This population-based study investigates the impact of a tap water supply system installation in Blackfoot disease-endemic regions of Taiwan on cancer incidence. Methods: By using the Taiwan Cancer Registry dataset, we enrolled patients aged 40-84 diagnosed with arsenic-related cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma, small and squamous cell lung cancer, Bowen's disease, basal and squamous cell skin cancer, urothelial bladder cancer, and upper tract urothelial carcinoma between 1995 and 2019. Random-effects age-period-cohort models were used to estimate the cancer incidence data, and a stabilized kriging method was employed to interpolate incidence rates to more precise spatiotemporal units. Results: The results showed that the age-standardized incidence rates of all six types of studied cancers were consistently higher in Blackfoot disease-endemic areas than those in other areas from 1995 to 2019. However, the gap in incidence rates between Blackfoot disease-endemic areas and the remaining regions began to narrow approximately after the 1960 birth cohort when the tap water supply system installation commenced. For small and squamous cell lung cancer, Bowen's disease, and urothelial bladder cancer, the excess incidence rates sharply declined to null for those born after the year of arsenic mitigation. For upper tract urothelial carcinoma, the excess incidence rates decreased more gradually for those born after the year of arsenic mitigation. For hepatocellular carcinoma and basal and squamous cell skin cancer, the excess incidence rates remained constant. Spatiotemporal clusters of high incidence rates were identified in the core townships of Blackfoot disease-endemic areas. These clusters began to dissipate mainly after the 1960 birth cohort. Conclusion: Arsenic mitigation from drinking water in Taiwan is associated with a reduced burden of small and squamous cell lung cancers, Bowen's disease, urothelial bladder cancer, and upper tract urothelial carcinoma.
... Drinking water and food are two major exposure routes of arsenic (As) to human. Health effects due to the exposure of As-contaminated water and food has been reported from many regions including Taiwan, Chile, Argentina, Bangladesh, India where millions are exposed to As and suffering from various As-related diseases (Rahman et al., 2009a). In a study, it was reported that consumption of cooked rice with >200 mg/kg may cause DNA damage in a section of population from As-affected area of West Bengal, India (Banerjee et al., 2013). ...
... Arsenic (As) contamination in groundwater aquifers is a global health concern because As is a toxic element and human carcinogen (Ahmed et al., 2004). The toxicity of As largely depends on its chemical species, with its inorganic forms (arsenite and arsenate) being more toxic than the organo-As compounds (e.g., monomethyl arsenate (MMA)) (Rahman et al., 2009). ...
... Daily use of arsenic-contaminated water at the Bangladeshi standard of 50 parts per billion (ppb) is associated with an additional 1 in 100 lifetime risk of cancer, rising to more than 1 in 10 for higher contamination levels (Smith, Lingas, and Rahman 2000). There is also evidence of health impacts from exposure at lower levels, including levels below the more conservative WHO standard of 10 ppb (Rahman et al. 2009). The epidemic of arsenic-related disease in Bangladesh has been called "the largest poisoning of a population in history" (Smith, Lingas, and Rahman 2000). ...
... Dermal impacts are the most sensitive and are considered the endpoint of arsenic exposure. Often, arsenic toxicity is manifested through the skin [43]. Often it takes about more than 20 years for its manifestation [44]. ...
Arsenic poisoning and groundwater exposure are not regional hazards; we can call them a “silent global hazard.” The victims are not always aware of arsenic-exposed daily life and the use of contaminated groundwater. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that several countries, including Bangladesh, India, Argentina, Chile, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Pakistan, China, the United States of America (USA), and Mexico, have inorganic arsenic naturally present at high levels in the groundwater. Many of these countries exceeded the typical toxic risk index of arsenic level of the WHO standard of 10 μg L−1. The skin is the primary barrier of the body, and compromising the function of the skin is the beginning of psychosocial and physiological discomfort in humans. Hair loss, skin pigmentation, and skin irritation are the leading psychosocial and physiological facts induced by exposure to arsenic contamination. Like hair, nails are susceptible to external harm from arsenic because they may absorb and accumulate arsenic in vitro. The normal architecture of the skin changes to form epithelial hyperplasia, epidermal erosion, hyperkeratosis, degeneration of skin glands, and gradual replacement of hair shaft to keratinized substance. The extreme condition of arsenic exposure ultimately result in various skin carcinomas and alopecia.
... Maintaining arsenic levels within the specified limit is essential for ensuring the safety and health of individuals consuming the water. High levels of arsenic in drinking water can lead to severe health issues, including arsenicosis, making the absence of arsenic a positive indicator of water quality [95]. ...
The increasing demand for water resources in urban areas, such as Bangladesh, due to population growth is a significant concern. One potential solution under consideration is the use of air conditioning (AC) condensate water. A study conducted at the European University of Bangladesh (EUB) focused on assessing the quality and quantity of AC condensate water from various systems. The results indicate that the collected water generally adhered to the quality standards established for drinking and household use in Bangladesh. Parameters such as pH (averaging 6.8), turbidity (1.08 NTU), total dissolved solids (TDS) (averaging 219 mg/L), iron content (0 mg/L), alkalinity (averaging 41.67 mg/L), arsenic (0 mg/L), chemical oxygen demand (COD) (averaging 3.67 mg/L), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (averaging 1.33 mg/L), chloride content (averaging 30.77 mg/L), and other factors were evaluated. Moreover, the AC units at EUB, varying in cooling capacity (1 ton, 2 tons, and 4 tons), produced substantial monthly volumes of 96, 177, and 354 liters of condensate water, respectively. This underscores the potential of AC condensate water as a valuable resource for addressing urban water scarcity. As a result, there is a pressing need for local decision-makers and policymakers to establish well-defined guidelines for the effective utilization of AC condensate water to mitigate water scarcity issues in urban areas.
... Maintaining arsenic levels within the specified limit is essential for ensuring the safety and health of individuals consuming the water. High levels of arsenic in drinking water can lead to severe health issues, including arsenicosis, making the absence of arsenic a positive indicator of water quality [95]. ...
The growing demand for water resources in urban areas like Bangladesh is a pressing concern due to population growth. Air conditioning condensate water is being considered as a potential solution. A study at the European University of Bangladesh (EUB) examined the quality of AC condensate water from various systems. Results showed that the water generally met quality standards for drinking and household use in Bangladesh, with average parameters like pH (6.8), turbidity (1.08 NTU), total dissolved solid (TDS) (219 mg/L), iron (0 mg/L), alkalinity (41.67 mg/L), arsenic (0 mg/L), COD (3.67 mg/L), BOD (1.33 mg/L), chloride (30.77 mg/L), and more. AC units at EUB (1 ton, 2 tons, 4 tons) produced monthly volumes of 96, 177, and 354 L, highlighting the potential of AC condensate water. This emphasizes the need for local decision-makers to establish guidelines for its effective use in combating urban water scarcity.
... In recent times, arsenic toxicity has adversely affected several countries and become a global health problem for millions of people worldwide (Guha Mazumder 2008;Rahman et al. 2009;Jomova et al. 2011). Acute and chronic exposure to arsenic has been reported in many countries where a large proportion of drinking water is contaminated with high concentrations of arsenic (Tchounwou et al. 2003;Jha et al. 2023). ...
Selenium is an essential antioxidative micronutrient. This study was conducted to characterise the arsenic toxicity induced on African fig fly, Zaprionus indianus and its possible amelioration by selenium. We used computational tools and in vivo experiments to elucidate the mechanism of action of arsenic and selenium on Z. indianus larvae. We conducted experiments to study neuro-behavioural parameters including learning and memory ability test, crawling and contractions assays. Our in silico study revealed twelve primary targets of arsenic trioxide. The gene ontology annotation of primary and secondary targets of arsenic trioxide revealed selenocysteine metabolic processes as one of the most reliable targets. To validate our in silico data, we analysed the effect of arsenic trioxide on larvae of Z. indianus and tested the possible amelioration by sodium selenite supplementation. Our data demonstrated that the arsenic trioxide deteriorated the learning and memory ability of 2nd instar larvae of Z. indianus and such effect was reversed by sodium selenite supplementation. Furthermore, crawling and contractions assay done on 3rd instar larvae showed that there was reduction in both parameters upon arsenic trioxide exposure, which was restored with sodium selenite supplementation. Altogether, our computational and in vivo results strongly indicated that the neurobehavioral defects induced by arsenic trioxide on the larvae of Z. indianus can be successfully alleviated in presence of sodium selenite.
... Significant studies have attributed the sources of the toxic elements to several factors, such as rock erosion and weathering (Kaushik et al., 2009;Hanif et al., 2016), atmospheric deposits (Alloway, 2013;Rai et al., 2019), fertilizers and pesticides (Li et al., 2014;Jiang et al., 2020), mining (Kim et al., 2002;Boularbah et al., 2006;Li et al., 2014) and runoff caused by agricultural, industrial and urban activities (Zahra et al., 2014;Xiao et al., 2017;Mandeng et al., 2019). The transmission of toxic elements to the food chain through plants and animals increases the risk to human health (Bhattacharya et al., 2007;Rahman et al., 2009a;Khan et al., 2015;Ali and Khan, 2019). The naturally-occurring contamination of water resources with specific toxic elements can be related to bedrock geology, because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that causes anaerobic conditions in the aquifer leading to the microbial dissolution of iron oxides in sediments and thus releasing of elements bound to iron oxides (Schmoll et al., 2006). ...
The Sefidrud sub-basin, extending from Kurdistan to the southern Caspian Sea, is the main drainage basin of the Kurdistan Province. Based on previous works and new field investigation, potentially contaminated areas were identified and approximately sixty groundwater samples were collected from wells and springs during the dry (October 2020) and wet (April 2021) seasons; along with 40 rock and soil samples. After analyzing the samples by coupled plasma mass spectrometry and modeling in ArcGIS software, we present a new dataset of toxic element contamination in the water resources of Kurdistan Province. Higher toxic element concentrations include arsenic, antimony, and lead of which 80, 28, and 13.3% of samples had concentrations higher than WHO guidelines, respectively. The severely contaminated sites mainly include east Qorveh, north and northeast Dehgolan, and south and southwest Bijar, which, based on the data of rock and rock samples, are associated with geological phenomena. A review of published research and comparison of the geology of northwest Iran with that of western and southern Iran implies that the high incidence of gastric and esophagus cancers in northwest Iran is mainly linked to the geology of the contaminated areas, which increases the exposure of the toxic element through drinking and irrigation water. Results indicate that the main sources of toxic elements are geogenic, and are primarily related to geothermal processes and contributions from altered young acidic rocks (mainly resulted from Miocene-Quaternary volcanic activities) of northwest Iran.
... Alongside the other issues, arsenic-contaminated drinking water has become a main universal public health consideration [24]. Human exposure to arsenic (Ars) has been confirmed to be associated with severe clinical manifestations including various cancer types and a broad range of non-cancerous diseases such as CVDs [24][25][26][27][28]. Investigations has indicated a positive relationship between long-term arsenic exposure and an elevated risk of CVD-correlated morbidity/mortality [24]. ...
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are known as the first causes of death throughout the world, and mainly myocardial infarction (MI), lead to 7.4 million deaths annually. Atherosclerosis is the major underlying cause of most CVDs. However, exposure to heavy metals, among other factors, deserves further attention as a risk factor for CVDs. This study was designed to evaluate the levels of arsenic (Ars) in myocardial infarction (MI) patients and healthy individuals as well as assess the association between the incidence of MI and Ars, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and oxidative stress. This case–control study was conducted among patients with MI (n = 164) and normal individuals (n = 61) at Shafa Hospital in Kerman, Iran. Patients were classified into two groups, including coronary artery blocks above 50% (CAB > 50%, n = 83) and coronary artery blocks less than 50% (CAB < 50%, n = 83) based on their angiography findings. The demographic characteristics, clinical history, biochemical parameters, and serum Ars and TAC levels were evaluated. In the present study, both CAB groups had significantly reduced levels of TAC compared with the control. Furthermore, TAC was lower in the CAB > %50 group compared to the CAB < %50 group. Ars levels were significantly higher in both CAB groups compared with the control. There was a significant positive relationship between CAB and Ars, BG, HbA1c, urea, creatinine, TG, TC, and LDL-c, as well as a negative relationship between HDL-c and TAC. Moreover, TAC levels showed a significant inverse correlation with Ars, HbA1c, and creatinine, and a positive correlation with HDL-c. As risk factors, Ars, hs-CRP, TG, TC, and LDL-c enhance the severity of the disease, and HDL-c and TAC decrease the disease severity. Moreover, ROC curve analysis revealed that the highest AUC for the CAB > %50 (AUC = 78.29), and cytotoxic levels for both CAB groups (Ars ≥ 0.105 ppm), and no significant differences were found between the two groups. Our findings suggest that Ars at ≥ 0.105 ppm is able to increase the risk of MI through the increased OS and decreased TAC.
... Some metallic elements such as cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) or chromium (Cr), and metalloids such as arsenic (As) can represent a serious public concern in animal and human health (Engwa et al., 2019;Tchounwou et al., 2012). Effects on the digestive, renal, nervous, immune, and cardiovascular dysfunction, skin disorders, teratogenic effects, or cancer are some examples of toxicity caused by the exposure to these elements (Dastgiri et al., 2010;Martinez et al., 2011;Niño et al., 2019;Rahman et al., 2009;Singh et al., 2011;Tchounwou et al., 2012). In this regard, continued exposure to metals such as cobalt (Co) and aluminum (Al) is mainly related to neurotoxic effects such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (Catalani et al., 2012;Exley, 2016;Igbokwe et al., 2019;Simonsen et al., 2012;Skalny et al., 2021). ...
There are numerous publications describing the mineral content of row rice and its impact on human health. However, there are scarce studies about the bioaccessibility and health risk assessment of metallic and metalloid elements from cooked and digested rice. Thus, the aims of the present study were i) to determine the concentration of toxic metals (Al, As, Cd, Pb) and trace and essential elements (Ni, Se, Cr, Cu, Mn and Zn) in cooked and digested rice; ii) to evaluate the adult daily intake and iii) to estimate the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic human risk related to cooked and digested rice consumption. The bioavailability of the elements studied and their contribution to human health risk was obtained by an in vitro digestion method simulating the human digestion. The results obtained evidenced that Pb had the lowest bioavailability, in contrast with As, which had the highest. Concerning the non-carcinogenic risk test, all values obtained in cooked and digested rice were below the toxic threshold. Furthermore, Pb was the smallest contributor to carcinogenic risk, while Cr-values are the closest to the limit (10⁻⁴). Thus, it could be stated that human metallic exposure through rice consumption is overestimated when metals are measured in row rice.
... [16,50A] (c) Cardiovascular Effects Studies show that prolonged arsenic exposure may cause ischemic heart disease, black foot disease, gangrene, systemic arteriosclerosis and hypertension. Many cases of gangrene affected legs are observed in India and Bangladesh (Rahman et al., 2009). ...
Introduction Water is no doubt the most important natural resource on this planet. It is required for household, industrial and agricultural activities. The oldest civilizations of this world were located near the fresh water sources. The production of food resources whether plant products or animal products largely depend on availability of freshwater in the area. For industrial activities in an area also water is required in such large volumes that no one can afford arranging it from anywhere else. Out of the total water available on mother Earth, less than even one percent is the freshwater. A very significant amount of the freshwater (around 97.58 %) is available in form of groundwater. So, the importance of the underground water is much more than the surface water. Also, the groundwater is less prone to any contamination in comparison to the surface water. This is the reason why we hardly doubt on the quality of groundwater and use it even for drinking without any prior treatment. But what if we came to know that the groundwater that we were using for a long time is toxic and contaminated with heavy dose of a toxic metal. Water pollution is one of the most complex worldwide environmental problems. When we talk about groundwater pollution, it can be a result of human activities or sometimes can even have a natural phenomenon responsible for it. The groundwater pollutants can be organic compounds or even the inorganic metal ions. The commonly found heavy metals in soil and groundwater are Cd, As, Cr, Zn, Ni, Pb, V and Hg. In water these are diluted easily and found as sparingly soluble precipitates of metal sulfates, sulfides or carbonates. When the adsorption capacity of sediments is exhausted, it results in an increase in the concentration of these metal ions (Zhu et al., 2020, Ravindra and Mor, 2019, Tutic et al., 2015). The presence and vital levels of hazardous pollutants in underground water can be predicted by using appropriate methodological principles. Using statistical information system, laboratory methods and appropriate technology it is possible to attenuate the toxic level and effects of heavy metals (Ustaoğlu and Tepe, 2019, Jusufranic et al., 2014). Arsenic comprises of over 200 naturally occurring minerals in the earth's crust (Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002).Arsenic adsorbs into mineral surfaces. Groundwater arsenic contamination is a result of dissolution of these minerals into water or desorption of arsenic from such mineral surfaces. Sometimes human activities like mining also become a cause of groundwater arsenic contamination.
... Diseases from arsenic is not only limited to cancers but may also include white or black spots in the body, keratosis, hyperkeratosis and melanosis (Guha Mazumdar, 2003;Rahman, Ng & Naidu, 2009.) gangrene, non-pitting oedema, dorsum, skin lesions and other malignant neoplasms skin cancer (Chakraborti et al., 2003;Lindberg et al., 2008;Pierce et al., 2011), Peripheral artery disease (PAD), reproductive disorders and probably diabetes (Chattopadhyay, Bhaumik, Chaudhury & Gupta, 2002;Chakraborti et al., 2003;Zimmermann, Krause & Chowdhury, 2015;Mayer & Goldman, 2016) and high blood pressure (WHO, 2011). ...
Arsenic contaminated groundwater is a major public health problem in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Situation is worst in Bihar where 17 out of 38 districts are arsenic prone. Arsenic-induced cancer is the most prevalent fatal disease reported here. Unfortunately, the literature is depleted of findings about its' psychological consequences. Objective of the study is to explore depression, anxiety and stress level of arsenic-induced cancer patients from arsenic affected gangetic plains of Bihar state. Comparative survey research was conducted with a sample of 112 participants (aged 32-60 years) drawn through purposive sampling. Out of which 52 were arsenic-induced cancer patients (without visible symptoms of arsenicosis) from middle gangetic arsenic prone area and 60 were healthy counterparts from non-arsenic districts of Bihar. Depression, stress and anxiety was assessed with Hindi adapted version of depression, anxiety and stress scales. Descriptive statistics (Mean & SD) and inferential statistics (t-test) were applied. The two groups were significantly different on the three emotional states of depression (t-value=6.986, p <0.001), anxiety (t-value=6.833, p <0.001) and stress (t-value=7.540, p <0.001). Anxiety, depression and stress were comparatively higher in the arsenic-induced cancer patients. The emotional states of arsenic-induced cancer patients are relatively poor thus salient and warrant immediate attention from the policy makers and service providers. This research provides base line findings related to stress, anxiety and depression experienced by arsenic-induced cancer patients. Further, could help policy makers to conceptualize and promote psychological interventions for this population keeping their emotional states in mind.
... Arsenic-induced toxicity is also reported to affect the reproductive system adversely; pre-mature birth, stillbirth, neonatal and perinatal mortality are some of the instances (Chakraborti et al., 2013). Continuous intake of arsenic causes thickening of the skin, hyperpigmentation, keratosis, melanosis, black-foot disease, and gangrene followed by cancer (Abdul et al., 2015;Rahman et al., 2009;Ratnaike, 2003). The toxicity level is diagnosed by estimation of arsenic concentration in the biomarkers of the human body, i.e. urine, hair and nail (RGI, 2003;Vahter et al., 1994). ...
The suffering from arsenic toxicity is a long-standing concern in Asian countries. The role of the key factors (arsenic intake, age and sex) regulating arsenic toxicity is aimed to evaluate for a severely exposed population from Murshidabad district, West Bengal. Mean arsenic concentrations in drinking water supplied through tube well, Sajaldhara treatment plant and pipeline were observed as 208, 27 and 54 µg/l, respectively. Urinary arsenic concentration had been observed as < 3–42.1, < 3–56.2 and < 3–80 µg/l in children, teenagers and adults, respectively. Mean concentrations of hair and nail arsenic were found to be 0.84 and 2.38 mg/kg; 3.07 and 6.18 mg/kg; and 4.41 and 9.07 mg/kg, respectively, for the studied age-groups. Water arsenic was found to be associated with hair and nail (r = 0.57 and 0.60), higher than urine (r = 0.37). Arsenic deposition in biomarkers appeared to be dependent on age; however, it is independent of sex. Principal component analysis showed a direct relationship between dietary intake of arsenic and chronic biomarkers. Nail was proved as the most fitted biomarker of arsenic toxicity by Dunn’s post hoc test. Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis and cluster analysis showed that the most significant factor regulating health risk is ‘concentration of arsenic’ than ‘exposure duration’, ‘body weight’ and ‘intake rate’. The contribution of arsenic concentration towards calculated health risk was highest in teenagers (45.5–61.2%), followed by adults (47.8–49%) and children (21–27.6%). Regular and sufficient access to arsenic-safe drinking water is an immediate need for the affected population.
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... To the Editor, Chronic arsenic toxicity is a public hazard. 1 We present a case of arsenicosis in a young woman who presented with concerns of cosmetic disfigurement. ...
Arsenic (As) poisoning in agroecosystem is a major concern globally because rice is a main food source for a vital community in As-polluted areas. This effort is notable for its thorough examination of an extensive series of topics, including the health concerns allied with As disclosure; As sources in soil-rice systems; As toxicity symptoms at various stages of rice growth; As uptake, metabolism, and detoxification; and strategies to reduce As bioaccumulation. Moreover, significant efforts are being made to reduce As accumulation. The effectiveness of mitigation strategies has been thoroughly investigated, with a focus on soil amendments, irrigation management, electrokinetic remediation, exogenous application of chemicals and hormones, phytoremediation, bioremediation, transgenic variety development, and other agronomic techniques. Furthermore, among the various methods currently in use, biotechnology may be a good strategy for reducing As accretion in rice grains. Molecular engineering could be a feasible method for identifying the genes involved in the As metabolic route in plants. Despite this, the majority of these novel approaches are still being researched. As a result, this study explores into As accessibility in paddy soil, the mechanism of plant As uptake, the effects on humans and plants, and remediation approaches for mitigating As accretion.
Biomarkers were investigated to assess the effects of metal accumulation in Sparus aurata and Chelon labrosus in the ˙Izmir Bay. Fish were collected from the Inner and Outer Bays in November 2020 and May 2021. According to the metal and biomarker measurements found in the organs, it was observed that the levels were higher in the liver and gill tissues than in the muscle tissues. Significant differences between tissues were found for all metals and biomarkers. In addition, biochemical biomarkers were found to be significant predictors of metal bioaccumulation. Histological changes were observed in liver and gills in each species and location. Although the metal levels determined according to the health risk assessment were below the threshold limits, the As levels for the lifetime cancer risk were with
Arsenic exposure may lead to severe health problems for human beings. It affects both males and females non-selectively. The primary signs of arsenic exposure include nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, and muscular discomfort while chronic exposure may lead to raindrop pigmentation, keratosis, gastrointestinal imbalances, neurological disorder, and cancer. Raindrop pigmentation is the first sign of arsenicosis followed by hyperkeratosis. At present, hairs, nails, and urine are effective biomarkers of arsenic exposure detection while blood, hematological parameters, hormones, tumour markers, and immunological parameters may act as a biomarker for arsenic toxicity in the future. Since, the increase in level of arsenic is directly correlated with an increase in different hormone levels including metabolic hormones including T3, T4, TSH, and steroidal hormones including testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone. The rise in the level of these hormones is directly correlated with the dose and duration of arsenic exposure which showed that not only female hormone estrogen and progesterone but male hormones testosterones are also increased by an increase in arsenic levels. Arsenic is associated with RBCs and it may act as an effective biomarker in finding arsenic load in an individual. Blood arsenic is a very good biomarker to detect arsenic mobilization between different tissues. Free oxygen radicals are showing overexpression due to arsenic exposure. Levels of hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, peroxyl radicals, and glutathione peroxidase is showing high increase in people getting arsenic exposure. The expression is directly proportional to concentration and duration of exposure which indicate that it may also act as a biomarker for detecting arsenic toxicity. Many tumour markers are increasing in arsenic-induced cancer which showed a direct correlation of these tumour markers with carcinogenesis. The level of arsenic determines the expression of these tumour markers. So, it is concluded that haematological, biochemical, hormonal, and tumour markers may work as biomarkers for future detection of arsenic among people residing in the arsenic hit areas.KeywordsArsenicBiomarkersBloodTumour
A hydrophobic deep eutectic solvent-based liquid-phase microextraction approach for the determination of ultra-trace arsenic (total) in foods by an electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry was developed. Various deep eutectic solvents based on tetraoctylammonium bromide and fatty acids (heptanoic, octanoic, nonanoic, decanoic acids) were studied as extraction solvents for preconcentration of arsenic (V) from mineralizates obtained after a microwave digestion of food samples. Phenomenon of ion-pairs formation between dihydroarsenate and precursor of deep eutectic solvent (tetraoctylammonium) and mass-transfer of the ion-pairs into deep eutectic solvent phase was presented for the first time. The proposed approach allowed to preconcentrate analyte into the deep eutectic solvent phase without the use of additional organic solvents (emulsifier agents or dispersive solvent), chelating and reducing agents. It was found, that the deep eutectic solvent based on tetraoctylammonium bromide and heptanoic acid provided more effective preconcentration of analyte from mineralizates (95% extraction recovery, 57-fold enrichment factor). The obtained limit of detection, calculated as a triple signal-to-noise ratio, was 10 ng L-1. The microextraction procedure was applied for the determination of trace arsenic in rice and wheat grains samples.
Selenium is an essential antioxidative micronutrient. This study was conducted to characterise the arsenic toxicity induced on African fig fly, Zaprionus indianus and its possible amelioration by selenium. We used computational tools and in vivo experiments to elucidate the mechanism of action of arsenic and selenium on Z. indianus larvae. We conducted experiments to study neuro-behavioural parameters including learning and memory ability test, crawling and contractions assays. Our in silico study revealed twelve primary targets of arsenic trioxide. The gene ontology annotation of primary and secondary targets of arsenic trioxide revealed selenocysteine metabolic processes as one of the most reliable targets. To validate our in silico data, we analysed the effect of arsenic trioxide on larvae of Z. indianus and tested the possible amelioration by sodium selenite supplementation. Our data demonstrated that the arsenic trioxide deteriorated the learning and memory ability of 2nd instar larvae of Z. indianus and such effect was reversed by sodium selenite supplementation. Furthermore, crawling and contractions assay done on 3rd instar larvae showed that there was reduction in both parameters upon arsenic trioxide exposure, which was restored with sodium selenite supplementation. Altogether, our computational and in vivo results strongly indicated that the neurobehavioral defects induced by arsenic trioxide on the larvae of Z. indianus c an be successfully alleviated in presence of sodium selenite.
Our book is about heavy metal toxicity.
Arsenic is found in the natural environment in some abundance in the Earth"s crust and in small quantities in rock, soil, water and air. It is present in many different minerals. About one third of the arsenic in the atmosphere comes from natural sources, such as volcanoes, and the rest comes from man-made sources. Arsenic (As) is a potentially pollutant metalloid released by geological activities, smelting operations, fossil-fuel combustion, and the use of pesticides and herbicides. This chapter mainly discuss about the different industrial sources of arsenic exposures as well as their toxicity mechanism. Arsenic toxicity is a global issue, addressed by the World Health Organization as one of the major natural calamities faced by humans. The chapter also focuses on the impacts of arsenic as heavy metal on human health which create a valuable question how can we riddle out from this problem and what prevention measures should be taken out to overcome from this polluted world? With such interesting facts the chapter also emphasis on the case study related to the arsenic toxicity.When arsenic is inhaled due to its presence in airborne particles, the amount absorbed into the blood stream depends on two things-how soluble the particular form of arsenic is and how small the particles are. This said, most arsenic in the body comes from the diet. In the gut, soluble arsenic compounds present in food are rapidly absorbed into the blood stream. Many arsenic compounds are quickly transformed and eliminated from the body via the urine. However, there are differences from one person to another in the ability to get rid of arsenic compounds.
Arsenic (As) is one of the toxic metalloids therefore can cause health risk in the consumers through consumption of contaminated food and rice. The current study focused on As speciation in rice, bioavailability, mechanisms and its potential human health risk. For this purpose, rice and soil samples were collected from 16 different districts (non-mining and mining) of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan). Soil physicochemical characteristic such as texture, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter (OM), pH, iron (Fe) and phosphorus (P) were determined. Total arsenic (As T ) concentrations were analyzed using ICP-MS, while the arsenite (As ³⁺ ), arsenate (As ⁵⁺ ), arsenobetine (BAs), dimethylarsenic (DMA) and monomethyl arsenic (MMA) were determined by HPLC–ICP-MS method. Results showed the highest As T (0.28 mg/kg) was observed in the rice samples of DI Khan District and lowest (0.06 mg/kg) in Shangla District. However, these findings were found within the permissible limits set by various authorities. Furthermore, results showed higher concentrations of inorganic As (As i ) than organic As (As o ) species in rice. The estimated daily intake (EDI) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILTCR) were used to evaluate the potential human health risk for As consumption in rice. Results revealed that the rice samples collected from the district having mining activities had higher value of As (0.28 mg/kg of As T ) as compared to non-mining (0.072 mg/kg of As T ). The highest ILTCR value (0.00196) was observed for rice collected from mining districts. This study revealed that mining activities have great influence on the As contamination of soil and grown rice. This study recommends the soil amendment in districts having mining activities to lower As availability in soil and its bioaccumulation in growing rice that will help to keep lower the potential risk.
Arsenic is one of the heavy metals that acts as an environmental pollutant when mobilized. Arsenic poisoning through enrichment and mobilization in soil, water, and sediments is a burgeoning global issue. The study is an attempt to chalk out the geographical distribution of arsenic‐contaminated regions in India and to develop an understanding of its mobilization in terms of natural versus anthropological causes in the region. We conducted a systematic review using the electronic databases of SCOPUS, Web of Science along with peer‐reviewed journals. Our findings show arsenic contamination issue to be varied across states in India with certain highly prone states. Reasons of arsenic mobilization were also found to be different at different locations. It is more of a natural occurrence in north‐eastern states and human induced in western and southern states of India. The study gives an understanding of arsenic zones in India with a backdrop of its mobilizing factors and probable future arsenic contamination zones, which is significant for informed and better policy making.
The ubiquitous metalloid Arsenic (As) is naturally present in the different ecosystem. The high level of metalloid arsenic in water bodies are frequently being reported from different parts of the globe in the recent past mainly due to anthropogenic activity. Arsenic poisoning is well known for affecting the human health, causing a range of skin diseases, black foot, encephalopathy, peripheral neuropathy, and carcinogenicity. This chapter focuses on the various sources of arsenic contamination, diseases caused, and possible remediation strategy including phytoremediation for combating arsenic pollution, in brief.
The objective of the present study was to assess historical emissions of Pb to air around a number of glassworks sites in southeastern Sweden, and the possible implications for human exposure. To do so, a four-step method was applied. First, emissions of Pb to air around 10 glassworks were modelled for the 20th century. Second, an assessment of the resulting exposure was made for a number of scenarios. Third, the number of people potentially exposed at different times was estimated, and fourth, measurements of “current” Pb concentrations in PM10 material from four sites were conducted in 2019. The results show that the highest emissions, and exposures, occurred from 1970 to1980. It coincides with the time period when the highest number of people resided in the villages. At this time, the average Pb concentration in air around the six largest factories was about 2.4 μg Pb/m³, i.e. 16 times the present US national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) of 0.15 μg Pb/m³. By year 2000 the modelled average concentration had dropped to 0.05 μg Pb/m³, a level that is normal for urban regions today. The PM10 measurements from 2019 indicate a further decline, now with a mean value of about 0.02 μg Pb/m³. Over the entire study period, inhalation hazard quotients (HQs) exceeded the dietary HQ by many orders of magnitude, indicating that inhalation has been the most prevalent exposure pathway in the past. At present, both pathways are judged to be associated with low exposures. Even if only roughly approximated, a picture of the historical exposure can increase our understanding of the connection between exposure and disease, and can be valuable when risks are to be communicated to residents near contaminated areas.
The presence of arsenic in natural gas and liquid hydrocarbons is of great concern for oil companies. In addition to health risks due to its toxicity as well as environmental issues, arsenic is responsible for irreversible poisoning of catalysts and clogging of pipes via the accumulation of As-containing precipitates. To address these problems and to better design treatment units, robust methods for the analysis of arsenic and its compounds in oil streams are required. In addition, the use of feedstocks as a novel source of energy is becoming increasingly important. Most biomasses used as feedstocks are contaminated with arsenic. To avoid problems related to the presence of this element, it is therefore also necessary to have reliable methods for the analysis of arsenic and its compounds in these new fluids. This review outlines the sampling techniques, sample preparation methods, and arsenic analysis techniques developed during recent decades and commonly used in the oil industry and in the new feedstock energy domain.
Arsenic (As) compounds can be classified as organic or inorganic, with inorganic arsenic (iAs) having significantly higher toxicity than organic As. As may accumulate in food materials that have been exposed to As-contaminated environments. Thus, the "Sanitation Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Foods" published by the Ministry of Health and Welfare set the standard limits for iAs content in rice, seaweed, seafood, and marine oils to safeguard public health. Therefore, a robust analytical method must be developed to selectively and quantitatively determine iAs content in rice, seaweed, seafood, and marine oils. Herein, we reported and verified the method of combined high-performance liquid chromatography/inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (HPLC/ICP-MS) to determine iAs content in a wide variety of food. The fish oil samples were spiked with different concentrations of the As(III) standard solution, and their iAs analyzes were obtained via extraction procedures using the 1% (w/w) nitric acid (HNO 3) solution containing 0.2 M hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2) under sonication. The extracts were subsequently analyzed for their As(V) contents using HPLC/ICP-MS with aqueous ammonium carbonate as the mobile phase. The As(III) species had completely oxidized into the As(V) species, which prevented interferences between organic and iAs during chromatography. The method showed good extraction efficiencies (generally >90%) for the iAs samples, and their limits of quantification in fish oil were 0.02 mg/kg. The method was verified via the iAs speciation analytes of rice, seaweed, seafood, and marine oil matrices. The average recoveries for the fortified samples of each matrix ranged from 87.5 to 112.4%, with their coefficients of variation being less than 10%. Surveillance studies were conducted on the iAs contents of food samples purchased from local Taiwanese markets. The results showed that the only Hijiki (Sargassum fusiforme) higher than the maximum limit of the sanitation standard for iAs in seaweed, whereas the remaining samples met their corresponding requirements. This method is quick and straightforward, and it can be applied for the routine analysis of iAs content in a wide variety of food products to ensure public health safety.
Preservation of wood is essential for the increase the life service of wood during the utilization. At the present time different type of chemical wood preservatives are used viz. copper sulfate, zinc chloride, mercuric chloride and oil born preservative (creosote) are used for the protect the wood from the different wood degrading agencies, but chemicals leach out from the wood and may negatively affect the environment, soil health, ecology and biodiversity. Due to the hazardous effect of chemical wood preservatives, it is essential need to replace with alternative eco-friendly wood preservative. Now chemical wood preservatives are replaced with the natural preservatives. Natural wood preservatives are consisting by resin, tannin and dye which are extract from the different parts of plants. Researchers conduct the research on the testing the efficiency of the natural preservatives against to the wood degrading agencies and find out the significant results. This review paper aims to compare the efficiency of bio preservatives with traditional available preservatives and promote the natural preservatives for the wood preservation.
The chemistry and occurrence of arsenic (As) worldwide are described in this chapter, mainly in waters. Most environmental As contamination is natural, but an important amount originates from anthropogenic activities. This issue leads millions of human beings to health complications by ingesting poisoned water and meals, coming from soils contaminated with As or irrigated with water polluted with As. This leads to millions of people's health complications by consumption of poisoned water and food produced using water contaminated with As. The worldwide occurrence of As is also described. At present, over 220 million people coming from more than 105 countries are exposed to As pollution. The most important affected countries are Argentina, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Germany, Hungary, India, Japan, Laos, Mexico, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Taiwan, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, and Vietnam, i.e. countries that present the highest concentrations. Arsenic occurs naturally in several chemical forms of different toxicity; the inorganic and predominant oxidation states are the trivalent (As(III)) and the pentavalent (As(V)) forms, which are also the most toxic, especially As(III). Arsenic is widely distributed on the earth. The occurrence and mobilization of As in natural media and their biological impact on organisms are also important issues. The element is part of more than 200 minerals; the natural As mostly comes from hydrothermal mineral deposits, volcanic rocks, marine sedimentary rocks, ash, geothermal waters, and fossil fuels (e.g. coal and oil). Anthropogenic activities (agriculture, mining, glass and ceramics industry, feed additives of poultry and swine, electronics, pharmaceuticals, coal combustion, etc.) also contribute importantly. The toxicity of As coming from different chemical forms is also discussed together with its implications on human health.
This study aimed to estimate arsenic (As) and iron (Fe) content in tubewell water (n = 58) in primary educational institutions and subsequently assess the health risks to school-going children. Results described that the As concentration ranged between 0.002 and 0.994 mg∙L-1 with an average value of 0.044 mg∙L-1; which exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) provisional guideline value of 0.01 mg∙L-1. Similarly, the Fe content varied from 0.05 to 10 mg∙L-1 averaging to 2.84 mg∙L-1. Samples of 55.17 % contained a greater As concentration than 0.01 mg∙L-1 and 18.97% greater than Bangladesh drinking water quality (BDWQ) standardof 0.05 mg∙L-1, respectively. Meanwhile, 75.86 % of samples contained a higher Fe concentration than the maximum Bangladesh permissible limit of 1 mg∙L-1. Health risk assessment indicated that girls are more vulnerable than boys are. The average hazard quotients (HQs) for As intake through drinking water were 6.01 ± 17.85 and 7.41 ± 22.03 for boys and girls, respectively, implying non-carcinogenic health risks to both genders. The HQs for Fe intake were less than threshold value of 1 indicating no health issues may arise from Fe intake alone. However, consumption of As and Fe may trigger health risks to students as indicated by the hazard index (HI), which was higher than 1.The average cancer risk (CR) values for both boys (0.0027 ± 0.008) and girls (0.0033 ± 0.0099) exceeded the threshold limit of 10-6–10-4, suggesting a possibility of lifetime cancer risks to the school-going children. Consequently, school authorities should find alternative ways to ensure safe drinking water for school-going children to avoid possible cancer and non-cancer health risks through consumption of As-poisoning water.
Chronic ,Arsenic Poisoning ,and Respiratory Effects in Bangladesh: Abul Hasnat MILTON, et al.Arsenic Cell, NGO Forum for Drinking Water Supply & Sanitation, Bangladesh—A large population in Bangladesh ,have ,been ,exposed ,to naturally occurring inorganic arsenic through their drinking water. A prevalence comparison,study of respiratory disorders among,subjects with and without arsenic,exposure ,through ,drinking ,water ,was conducted in Bangladesh. Characteristic skin lesions, keratoses and pigmentation alteration, and the water arsenic level confirmed the arsenic exposure. Three villages were ,selected ,from ,health awareness campaign,programs. Participants in these courtyard meetings who had suspected skin lesions. i.e., keratosis, hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation, were examined,by a,well-trained medical officer to confirm the diagnosis. Unexposed,subjects were randomly selected from another village, where tubewells were not contaminated,with arsenic. We interviewed and examined,218 individuals irrespective of age and sex from these villages. The arsenic level in their drinking water was measured,and the mean arsenic level was 614 µg/l(ranging from 136 µg/lto 1,000 µg/l). Information regarding respiratory system signs and symptoms,was also collected. There were few smokers, and analyses were therefore confined to nonsmokers. The overall crude prevalence (or risk)
An investigation was carried out on arsenic contamination of groundwater and prevalence of arsenical dermatosis in the Hetao plain of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. Based on the screening of water samples from 96 randomly selected wells in this Region, two areas (Wuyuan and Alashan) were chosen as highly contaminated areas because arsenic in the water samples was higher than 50 g/l. Arsenic was measured using an arsenic silver diethyl dithiocarbamate method for 326 water samples from all the wells in these areas. The results show arsenic contaminated groundwater from tubuletype wells of depths about 15–30 m was serious compared with open-type wells where depth is about 3–5 m. In the Wuyuan area, 96.2% of water samples from tubule-type wells contained arsenic above 50 g/l and 69.3% in Alashan area; the highest value was 1354 g/l and 1088 g/l, respectively. In these two areas, a health survey was carried out for arsenical dermatosis. The results show the prevalence of arsenical dermatosis in the Wuyuan area was 44.8%, higher than 37.1% prevalence of arsenical dermatosis in the Alashan area. The prevalence of arsenical dermatosis was highest in the over 40yearold age group. There was no sex difference in the prevalence. Further investigation is needed to clarify the actual situation of arsenic pollution of groundwater in Inner Mongolia, China in order to reduce the adverse health effect among residents exposed to arsenic.
Inorganic arsenic is naturally occurring in groundwaters throughout the United States. This study investigated arsenic exposure and self-report of 9 chronic diseases. We received private well-water samples and questionnaires from 1185 people who reported drinking their water for 20 or more years. Respondents with arsenic levels of 2 microg/L or greater were statistically more likely to report a history of depression, high blood pressure, circulatory problems, and bypass surgery than were respondents with arsenic concentrations less than 2 microg/L.
Ingestion of arsenic, both from water supplies and medicinal preparations, is known to cause skin cancer. The evidence assessed here indicates that arsenic can also cause liver, lung, kidney, and bladder cancer and that the population cancer risks due to arsenic in U.S. water supplies may be comparable to those from environmental tobacco smoke and radon in homes. Large population studies in an area of Taiwan with high arsenic levels in well water (170-800 micrograms/L) were used to establish dose-response relationships between cancer risks and the concentration of inorganic arsenic naturally present in water supplies. It was estimated that at the current EPA standard of 50 micrograms/L, the lifetime risk of dying from cancer of the liver, lung, kidney, or bladder from drinking 1 L/day of water could be as high as 13 per 1000 persons. It has been estimated that more than 350,000 people in the United States may be supplied with water containing more than 50 micrograms/L arsenic, and more than 2.5 million people may be supplied with water with levels above 25 micrograms/L. For average arsenic levels and water consumption patterns in the United States, the risk estimate was around 1/1000. Although further research is needed to validate these findings, measures to reduce arsenic levels in water supplies should be considered.
Hepatic damage caused by chronic exposure to arsenic has been frequently described. Here we report on 13 patients from West Bengal, India, who consumed large amounts of arsenic in drinking water. An epidemiological investigation of the study area showed evidence of chronic arsenical dermatosis and hepatomegaly in 62 (92.5%) of 67 members of families who drank contaminated water (arsenic level, 0.2-2 mg/l). In contrast, only six (6.25%) of 96 persons from the same area who drank safe water (arsenic level, <0.05 mg/l) had non-specific hepatomegaly, while none had skin lesions. Hepatomegaly occurred in all the 13 patients who were studied in detail, although five had splenomegaly. Biopsy of samples of liver from these patients revealed various degrees of fibrosis and expansion of the portal zone that resembled non-cirrhotic portal fibrosis (NCPF).
Mortality from several cancers, including bladder cancer, is elevated in a Taiwanese population exposed to high levels of arsenic in drinking water. Data from the Utah respondents to the National Bladder Cancer Study conducted in 1978 were used to evaluate these associations in a US population exposed to measurable, but much lower, levels of drinking water arsenic. Two indices of cumulative arsenic exposure were used, one representing total cumulative exposure (index 1) and the other, intake concentration (index 2). Overall, there was no association of bladder cancer with either measure; however, among smokers, but not among nonsmokers, positive trends in risk were found for exposures estimated for decade-long time periods, especially in the 30- to 39-year period prior to diagnosis. Exposures were in the range 0.5-160 micrograms/liter (mean, 5.0 micrograms/liter). The data raise the possibility that smoking potentiates the effect of arsenic on risk of bladder cancer. However, the risk estimates obtained are much higher than predicted on the basis of the results of the Taiwanese studies, raising concerns about bias or the role of chance. Confirmatory studies are needed.
The objective of this study was to assess whether arsenic exposure is a risk factor for diabetes mellitus as indicated in a few earlier studies. Arsenic in drinking water is known to occur in western Bangladesh, and in 1996, two of the authors conducted a survey of the prevalence of diabetes mellitus among 163 subjects with keratosis taken as exposed to arsenic and 854 unexposed individuals. Diabetes mellitus was determined by history of symptoms, previously diagnosed diabetes, glucosuria, and blood sugar level after glucose intake. The crude prevalence ratio for diabetes mellitus among keratotic subjects exposed to arsenic was 4.4 (95% confidence interval 2.5-7.7) and increased to 5.2 (95% confidence interval 2.5-10.5) after adjustment for age, sex, and body mass index. On the basis of a few earlier measurements of arsenic concentrations in drinking water by the authorities in Bangladesh and another 20 new ad hoc analyses, approximate time-weighted exposure levels to arsenic in drinking water could be estimated for each subject. Three time-weighted average exposure categories were created, i.e., less than 0.5, 0.5-1.0, and more than 1.0 mg/liter. For the unexposed subjects, the corresponding prevalence ratios were 1.0, 2.6, 3.9, and 8.8, representing a significant trend in risk (p < 0.001). The result corroborates earlier studies and suggests that arsenic exposure is a risk factor for diabetes mellitus.
A cross-sectional survey was conducted between April 1995 and March 1996 to investigate arsenic-associated skin lesions of keratosis and hyperpigmentation in West Bengal, India, and to determine their relationship to arsenic water levels.
In all, 7683 participants were examined and interviewed, and the arsenic levels in their drinking water measured.
Although water concentrations ranged up to 3400 microg/l of arsenic, over 80% of participants were consuming water containing <500 microg/l. The age-adjusted prevalence of keratosis was strongly related to water arsenic levels, rising from zero in the lowest exposure level (<50 microg/l) to 8.3 per 100 for females drinking water containing >800 microg/l, and increasing from 0.2 per 100 in the lowest exposure category to 10.7 per 100 for males in the highest exposure level (> or =800 microg/l). However, 12 cases with keratosis (2 females and 10 males) were drinking water containing <100 microg/l of arsenic. Findings were similar for hyperpigmentation, with strong dose-response relationships. Among those with hyperpigmentation, 29 cases were exposed to drinking water containing <100 microg/l. Calculation by dose per body weight showed that men had roughly two to three times the prevalence of both keratosis and hyperpigmentation compared to women apparently ingesting the same dose of arsenic from drinking water. Subjects who were below 80% of the standard body weight for their age and sex had a 1.6 fold increase in the prevalence of keratoses, suggesting that malnutrition may play a small role in increasing susceptibility.
The surprising finding of cases who had arsenic-associated skin lesions with apparently low exposure to arsenic in drinking water needs to be confirmed in studies with more detailed exposure assessment. Further research is also needed concerning susceptibility factors which might be present in the exposed population.
-A prevalence comparison of hypertension among subjects with and those without arsenic exposure through drinking water was conducted in Bangladesh to confirm or refute an earlier observation of a relation in this respect. Wells with and without present arsenic contamination were identified, and we interviewed and examined 1595 subjects who were depending on drinking water from these wells for living, all >/=30 years of age. The interview was based on a questionnaire, and arsenic exposure was estimated from the history of well-water consumption and current arsenic levels. Of the 1595 subjects studied, 1481 had a history of arsenic-contaminated drinking water, whereas 114 had not. Time-weighted mean arsenic levels (in milligrams per liter) and milligram-years per liter of arsenic exposure were estimated for each subject. Exposure categories were assessed as <0.5 mg/L, 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L, and >1.0 mg/L and alternatively as <1.0 mg-y/L, 1.0 to 5.0 mg-y/L, >5.0 but </=10.0 mg-y/L, and >10.0 mg-y/L, respectively. Hypertension was defined as a systolic blood pressure of >/=140 mm Hg in combination with a diastolic blood pressure of >/=90 mm Hg. Corresponding to the exposure categories, and using "unexposed" as the reference, the prevalence ratios for hypertension adjusted for age, sex, and body mass index were 1.2, 2.2, 2.5 and 0.8, 1.5, 2.2, 3.0, in relation to arsenic exposure in milligrams per liter and milligram-years per liter, respectively. The indicated dose-response relationships were significant (P<0.001) for both series of risk estimates. These results suggest that arsenic exposure may induce hypertension in humans.
The association of drinking water arsenic and mortality outcome was investigated in a cohort of residents from Millard County, Utah. Median drinking water arsenic concentrations for selected study towns ranged from 14 to 166 ppb and were from public and private samples collected and analyzed under the auspices of the State of Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Division of Drinking Water. Cohort members were assembled using historical documents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Standard mortality ratios (SMRs) were calculated. Using residence history and median drinking water arsenic concentration, a matrix for cumulative arsenic exposure was created. Without regard to specific exposure levels, statistically significant findings include increased mortality from hypertensive heart disease [SMR = 2.20; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.36-3.36], nephritis and nephrosis (SMR = 1.72; CI, 1.13-2.50), and prostate cancer (SMR = 1.45; CI, 1.07-1. 91) among cohort males. Among cohort females, statistically significant increased mortality was found for hypertensive heart disease (SMR = 1.73; CI, 1.11-2.58) and for the category of all other heart disease, which includes pulmonary heart disease, pericarditis, and other diseases of the pericardium (SMR = 1.43; CI, 1.11-1.80). SMR analysis by low, medium, and high arsenic exposure groups hinted at a dose relationship for prostate cancer. Although the SMRs by exposure category were elevated for hypertensive heart disease for both males and females, the increases were not sequential from low to high groups. Because the relationship between health effects and exposure to drinking water arsenic is not well established in U.S. populations, further evaluation of effects in low-exposure populations is warranted.
Our objective was to evaluate the activities of some enzymes of the heme biosynthesis pathway and their relationship with the profile of urinary porphyrin excretion in individuals exposed chronically to arsenic (As) via drinking water in Region Lagunera, Mexico. We selected 17 individuals from each village studied: Benito Juarez, which has current exposure to 0.3 mg As/l; Santa Ana, where individuals have been exposed for more than 35 years to 0.4 mg As/l, but due to changes in the water supply (in 1992) exposure was reduced to its current level (0.1 mg As/l), and Nazareno, with 0.014 mg As/l. Average arsenic concentrations in urine were 2058, 398, and 88 microg As/g creatinine, respectively. The more evident alterations in heme metabolism observed in the highly exposed individuals were: (1) small but significant increases in porphobilinogen deaminase (PBG-D) and uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase (URO-D) activities in peripheral blood erythrocytes; (2) increases in the urinary excretion of total porphyrins, mainly due to coproporphyrin III (COPROIII) and uroporphyrin III (UROIII); and (3) increases in the COPRO/URO and COPROIII/COPROI ratios. No significant changes were observed in uroporphyrinogen III synthetase (UROIII-S) activity. The direct relationships between enzyme activities and urinary porphyrins, suggest that the increased porphyrin excretion was related to PBG-D, whereas the increased URO-D activity would enhance coproporphyrin synthesis and excretion at the expense of uroporphyrin. None of the human studies available have reported the marked porphyric response and enzyme inhibition observed in rodents. In conclusion, chronic As exposure alters human heme metabolism; however the severity of the effects appears to depend on characteristics of exposure not yet fully characterized.
Exposure to arsenic causes keratosis, hyperpigmentation, and hypopigmentation and seemingly also diabetes mellitus, at least in subjects with skin lesions. Here we evaluate the relations of arsenical skin lesions and glucosuria as a proxy for diabetes mellitus.
Through existing measurements of arsenic in drinking water in Bangladesh, wells with and without arsenic contamination were identified. Based on a questionnaire, 1595 subjects > or = 30 years of age were interviewed; 1481 had a history of drinking water contaminated with arsenic whereas 114 had not. Time weighted mean arsenic concentrations and mg-years/l of exposure to arsenic were estimated based on the history of consumption of well water and current arsenic concentrations. Urine samples from the study subjects were tested by means of a glucometric strip. People with positive tests were considered to be cases of glucosuria.
A total of 430 (29%) of the exposed people were found to have skin lesions. Corresponding to drinking water with < 0.5, 0.5-1.0, and > 1.0 mg/l of arsenic, and with the 114 unexposed subjects as the reference, the prevalence ratios for glucosuria, as adjusted for age and sex, were 0.8, 1.4, and 1.4 for those without skin lesions, and 1.1, 2.2, and 2.6 for those with skin lesions. Taking exposure as < 1.0, 1.0-5.0, > 5.0-10.0 and > 10.0 mg-years/l of exposure to arsenic the prevalence ratios, similarly adjusted, were 0.4, 0.9, 1.2, and 1.7 for those without and 0.8, 1.7, 2.1, and 2.9 for those with skin lesions. All series of risk estimates were significant for trend, (p < 0.01).
The results suggest that skin lesions and diabetes mellitus, as here indicated by glucosuria, are largely independent effects of exposure to arsenic although glucosuria had some tendency to be associated with skin lesions. Importantly, however, glucosuria (diabetes mellitus) may occur independently of skin lesions.
A historical cohort study was conducted to investigate the long-term effect of exposure to ingested arsenic. The 454 residents who had been identified in a list made in 1959 were followed until 1992. They lived in an arsenic-polluted area, called Namiki-cho, Nakajo-machi, in Niigata Prefecture, Japan, and used well water containing inorganic arsenic. The exposure period was estimated to be about 5 years (1955–1959). Death certificates for the people who died between 1959 and 1992 were examined, and a total of 113 of the 454 residents were estimated to have drunk well water containing a high dose of arsenic (≥1 ppm). The standardized mortality rate ratios of these 113 residents were 15.69 for lung cancer (observed/expected = 8/0.51; 95% confidence interval (CI) 7.38–31.02) and 31.18 for urinary tract cancer (observed/expected = 3/0.10; 95% CI 8.62–91.75). Cox's proportional hazard analyses demonstrated that the hazard ratios of the highest exposure level group (≥1 ppm) versus the background exposure level group (0.001 ppm) were 1.74 (95% CI 1.10–2.74) for all deaths and 4.82 (95% CI 2.09–11.14) for all cancers. The analysis according to the skin signs of chronic arsenicism in 1959 showed that they were useful risk indicators for subsequent cancer development. In the development of lung cancer, there was evidence of synergism between arsenic intake and smoking habit.
Patients from the affected area in West Bengal, India, have been treated at our institute since 1983. This chapter presents data on the basis of studies on 156 patients. Eleven patients who stopped drinking arsenic-contaminated water for 12 years were re-examined and the results are also presented.
This review deals with environmental origin, occurrence, episodes, and impact on human health of arsenic. Arsenic, a metalloid occurs naturally, being the 20th most abundant element in the earth's crust, and is a component of more than 245 minerals. These are mostly ores containing sulfide, along with copper, nickel, lead, cobalt, or other metals. Arsenic and its compounds are mobile in the environment. Weathering of rocks converts arsenic sulfides to arsenic trioxide, which enters the arsenic cycle as dust or by dissolution in rain, rivers, or groundwater. So, groundwater contamination by arsenic is a serious threat to mankind all over the world. It can also enter food chain causing wide spread distribution throughout the plant and animal kingdoms. However, fish, fruits, and vegetables primarily contain organic arsenic, less than 10% of the arsenic in these foods exists in the inorganic form, although the arsenic content of many foods (i.e. milk and dairy products, beef and pork, poultry, and cereals) is mainly inorganic, typically 65-75%. A few recent studies report 85-95% inorganic arsenic in rice and vegetables, which suggest more studies for standardisation. Humans are exposed to this toxic arsenic primarily from air, food, and water. Thousands and thousands of people are suffering from the toxic effects of arsenicals in many countries all over the world due to natural groundwater contamination as well as industrial effluent and drainage problems. Arsenic, being a normal component of human body is transported by the blood to different organs in the body, mainly in the form of MMA after ingestion. It causes a variety of adverse health effects to humans after acute and chronic exposures such as dermal changes (pigmentation, hyperkeratoses, and ulceration), respiratory, pulmonary, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, hepatic, renal, neurological, developmental, reproductive, immunologic, genotoxic, mutagenetic, and carcinogenic effects. Key research studies are needed for improving arsenic risk assessment at low exposure levels urgently among all the arsenic research groups.
From observations in the Republic of Argentina it is concluded that the regular intake of drinking water containing more than 0.1 ppm of arsenic leads to clearly recognizable signs of intoxication and ultimately in some cases to skin cancer.
To examine the association between ingested inorganic arsenic and prevalence of diabetes mellitus, in 1988, the authors studied 891 adults residing in villages in southern Taiwan where arseniasis is hyperendemic. The status of diabetes mellitus was determined by an oral glucose tolerance test and a history of diabetes regularly treated with sulfonylurea or insulin. The cumulative arsenic exposure in parts per million-years was calculated from the detailed history of residential addresses and duration of drinking artesian well water obtained through standardized interviews based on a structured questionnaire and the arsenic concentration in well water. The body mass index was derived from body height and weight measured according to a standard protocol, while the physical activity at work was also obtained by questionnaire interviews. Residents in villages where the chronic arseniasis was hyperendemic had a twofold increase in age- and sex-adjusted prevalence of diabetes mellitus compared with residents in Taipei City and the Taiwan area. There was a dose-response relation between cumulative arsenic exposure and prevalence of diabetes mellitus. The relation remained significant after adjustment for age, sex, body mass index, and activity level at work by a multiple logistic regression analysis giving a multivariate-adjusted odds ratio of 6.61 and 10.05, respectively, for those who had a cumulative arsenic exposure of 0.1-15.0 and greater than 15.0 ppm-year compared with those who were unexposed. These results suggest the chronic arsenic exposure may induce diabetes mellitus in humans.
The well water in Lanyang Basin, which is located in the northeastern portion of Taiwan island, was found to have high levels of arsenic ranging from undetectable levels (<0.15 ppb) to 3.59 ppm. We performed a study to compare the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes (preterm delivery and birthweight) between an area with historic high well water arsenic levels (arsenic-exposed area (AE)) and a comparison area with no historic evidence of arsenic water contamination (non-arsenic-exposed area (NAE)). The mean birth weight in the AEs and NAEs were 3132.6 and 3162.6 g, respectively. Babies born in AEs were on average 30 g lighter than those born in NAEs. AEs had a higher rate of preterm delivery than NAEs (3.74% vs 3.43%). The results of this study suggest that, after adjustment for potential confounders, arsenic exposure from drinking well water was associated, although not significantly, with the risk of preterm delivery, with an odds ratio of 1.10 (0.91-1.33). The estimated reduction in birth weight was 29.05 g (95% CI=13.55-44.55). The findings from this investigation provide evidence for a potential role for arsenic exposure through drinking water in increasing the risk of low birthweight.
We demonstrate in this study the cytotoxic effects of inorganic arsenicals, arsenite and arsenate, and organic arsenic compounds, monomethylarsonic acid (MAA), dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA), and trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO), which are metabolites of inorganic arsenicals in human bodies, using murine macrophages in vitro. Inorganic arsenicals, both arsenite and arsenate, are strongly toxic to macrophages, and the concentration that decreased the number of surviving cells to 50% of that in untreated controls (IC50) was 5 or 500 microM, respectively. These inorganic arsenicals mainly caused necrotic cell death with partially apoptotic cell death; about 80% of dead cells were necrotic, and 20% were apoptotic. The inorganic arsenicals also induced marked release of an inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha), at cytotoxic doses. This strong cytotoxicity of an inorganic arsenical, arsenite, might be mediated via active oxygen and protease activation because it was inhibited by the addition of some antioxidant reagents, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and GSH, or by a peptide inhibitor of interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme (ICE). It is likely that these immunotoxic effects of inorganic arsenicals may evoke both immunosuppression and inflammation, and they may be central factors causing carcinogenesis and severe inflammatory responses, such as hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, in chronic arsenicosis patients who daily ingested arsenic-contaminated well water. In contrast, the cytotoxic effects of methylated arsenic compounds were lower than those of inorganic arsenicals. The IC50 value of DMAA was about 5 mM, and MAA and TMAO had no toxicity even at concentrations over 10 mM. Additionally, these methylated chemicals suppressed the TNFalpha release from macrophages. DMAA induced mainly apoptotic cell death in macrophages as indicated by cellular morphological changes, condensed nuclei, terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL), and DNA fragmentation. However, the cytotoxicity of DMAA might be induced via a different mechanism from that of inorganic arsenicals because it was not abolished by the additions of SOD, catalase, or ICE inhibitor. Conversely, GSH enhanced the toxicity of DMAA. These data suggest that methylation of inorganic arsenicals in mammals plays an important role in suppression of both severe immunosuppression and inflammatory responses caused by inorganic arsenicals.
Groundwater arsenic (As) contamination in West Bengal (WB, India) was first reported in December 1983, when 63 people from three villages of two districts were identified by health officials as suffering from As toxicity. As of October 2001, the authors from the School of Environmental Studies (SOES) have analyzed >105 000 water samples, >25 000 urine/hair/nail/skin-scale samples, screened approximately 86 000 people in WB. The results show that more than 6 million people in 2700 villages from nine affected districts (total population approximately 42 million) of 18 total districts are drinking water containing >/=50 mug l(-1) As and >300 000 people may have visible arsenical skin lesions. The As content of the physiological samples indicates that many more may be sub-clinically affected. Children in As-affected villages may be in special danger. In 1995, we had found three villages in two districts of Bangladesh where groundwater contained >/=50 mug l(-1) As. The present situation is that in 2000 villages in 50 out of total 64 districts of Bangladesh, groundwater contains As above 50 mug l(-1) and more than 25 million people are drinking water above >/=50 mug l(-1) As. After years of research in WB and Bangladesh, additional affected villages are being identified on virtually every new survey. The present research may still reflect only the tip of iceberg in identifying the extent of As contamination. Although the WB As problem became public almost 20 years ago, there are still few concrete plans, much less achievements, to solve the problem. Villagers are probably in worse condition than 20 years ago. Even now, many who are drinking As-contaminated water are not even aware of that fact and its consequences. 20 years ago when the WB government was first informed, it was a casual matter, without the realization of the magnitude this problem was to assume. At least up to 1994, one committee after another was formed but no solution was forthcoming. None of the expert reports has suggested solutions that involve awareness campaigns, education of the villagers and participation of the people. Initially, international aid agencies working in the subcontinent simply did not consider that As could be present in groundwater. Even now, while As in drinking water is being highlighted, there have been almost no studies on how additional As is introduced through the food chain, as large amounts of As are present in the agricultural irrigation water. Past mistakes, notably the ceaseless exploitation of groundwater for irrigation, continue unabated today; at this time, more groundwater is being withdrawn than ever before. No efforts have been made to adopt effective watershed management to harness the extensive surface water and rainwater resources of this region. Proper watershed management and participation by villagers are needed for the proper utilization of water resources and to combat the As calamity. As in groundwater may just be nature's initial warning about more dangerous toxins yet to come. What lessons have we really learned?
We studied villagers with and without diabetes from arsenic-endemic areas and a nearby control site in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, PR China. Water and urinary arsenic were assayed for exposure measurement. Urinary NAG (N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase), a kidney function test, blood glucose, triglyceride, cholesterol, high density lipid and low density lipid were measured. Villagers from endemic areas were found to have higher urinary arsenic concentrations. The NAG results also suggest that chronic arsenic exposure presents a significant adverse impact on the kidney function of villagers in the endemic areas. However, blood glucose levels of diabetes individuals were lower than those from the control site. These observations were validated in rats which were chronically exposed to arsenic in drinking water. The distinct relationship between chronic arsenic exposure and diabetes mellitus requires further investigation. A rodent model is a useful tool for study of this type.
Following the discovery of high concentrations of arsenic (up to 10,000 μg/liter) in well water of a residential area near Fairbanks, Alaska, an epidemiologic study was undertaken in September, 1976, to assess exposure, absorption, and clinical sequelae of chronic arsenic ingestion. Two hundred eleven (91%) of 232 area residents completed questionnaires relating to water consumption history and to the signs and symptoms of arsenicalism. Physical examinations were conducted, and complete blood counts performed. Urine, hair, nail, and well water samples were analyzed for arsenic content. Urine arsenic levels above 2μg/100 ml were found in 130/198 (66%) of the study population. Hair arsenic levels above 1μg/g occurred in 74/181 (41%), and nail arsenic levels above 4μg/g in 49/132 (37%). In well-water drinkers, a close correlation was found between well water arsenic levels and levels of arsenic in urine (r=0.58, p<10 -8). Mean urine arsenic levels (17.83 μg/100 ml) in persons who drank well water containing ≥100 μg arsenic/liter were significantly greater than levels in bottled water drinkers or in well-water drinkers exposed to <100 μg arsenic/liter (mean 4.09 μg/100 ml; p<10 -10). Hair arsenic levels also correlated positively with well water arsenic levels (r=0.43; p<10 -6), but may have reflected external contamination of hair during washing. Nail arsenic levels correlated poorly with well water arsenic exposure. Despite the chronic increased exposure of the study population to arsenic, no clinical or hematologic abnormalities were found. Although the study did not consider long-term carcinogenic effects, based on the water level of arsenic (100 μg/liter) above which urine arsenic in drinkers increases, the EPA standard (50 μg/liter) seems reasonable and conservative.
This is a second report of epidemiological and clinical investigation, related to the arsenic health problem, unique in the world, occurring in the city of Antofagasta, Chile. The arsenic problem originates in the chronic contamination of water supply in the city during 12 years. This phenomena, investigated clinically and epidemiologically and first reported in 1971, prompted the installation of a water treatment plant. This report aims to evaluate the working efficiency of the plant. The study was carried out through the examination of arsenic content in hair and nail clipping samples of the inhabitants of Antofagasta and the determination of this element in cultivated vegetables and carbonated beverages. Also a clinical study in school children, looking for cutaneous lesions attributed to arsenicism, was made. Results are encouraging. They reveal that contamination persists but in significantly lower levels.
In the search for early biological markers to detect genetic damage, a pilot study on a hydroarsenicism-exposed group was designed. Blood and urine samples were taken from 11 individuals chronically exposed and from 13 individuals with lower exposure to the metal. Lymphocyte cultures for cytogenetic studies and HGPRT assay were done with coded peripheral blood samples, while arsenic levels and the "rec assay" in B. subtilis were determined in urine samples. The highly exposed group excreted greater amounts of As, nevertheless the rec assay showed negative results. An interesting finding is that the cell-cycle kinetics exhibited a significant difference between the groups studied, the average generation time (AGT) was longer in the highly exposed group. The percentages of chromosomal aberrations and the frequencies of sister-chromatid exchanges were similar in both populations, although complex aberrations were more frequent in the highly exposed group, which also showed a higher average variation frequency in the HGPRT assay, but the 2 latter observations were not statistically significant. The lag in lymphocyte proliferation could mean an impairment of the immune response due to arsenic exposure.
To investigate the relationship between community drinking water quality and spontaneous abortion, we compared trace element levels in the drinking water of 286 women having a spontaneous abortion through 27 wk gestation with that of 1,391 women having livebirths. Trace element levels were gathered from routine analyses of public tap water supplies from the communities where the women resided during pregnancy. After adjustment for potential confounders, an increase in the frequency of spontaneous abortion was associated with detectable levels of mercury; high levels of arsenic, potassium, and silica; moderately hard water, and surface water. In contrast, a decrease in the frequency of spontaneous abortion was associated with high levels of alkalinity and sulfate, and any detectable level of nitrate. These results require further corroboration because there is a paucity of data investigating this issue.
Age-adjusted mortality rates were analyzed to examine the dose-response relation between ingested arsenic levels and risk of cancers and vascular diseases among residents in the endemic area of blackfoot disease, a unique peripheral vascular disease associated with long-term exposure to high-arsenic artesian well water and confined to the southwestern coast of Taiwan. The arsenic levels in well water determined in 1964-1966 were available in 42 villages of the study area, while mortality and population data during 1973-1986 were obtained from the local household registration offices and Taiwan Provincial Department of Health. Age-adjusted mortality rates from various cancers and vascular diseases by sex were calculated using the 1976 world population as the standard population. A significant dose-response relation was observed between arsenic levels in well water and cancers of the bladder, kidney, skin, and lung in both males and females, and cancers of the prostate and liver in males. However, there was no association for cancers of the nasopharynx, esophagus, stomach, colon, and uterine cervix, and for leukemia. Arsenic levels in well water were also associated with peripheral vascular diseases and cardiovascular diseases in a dose-response pattern, but not with cerebrovascular accidents. The dual effect of arsenic on carcinogenesis and arteriosclerosis and the interrelation between these two pathogenic mechanisms deserve more intensive study.
The objective of this study is to elucidate the association between high-arsenic artesian well water and cancers in endemic area of blackfoot disease, a unique peripheral vascular disease related to continuous arsenic exposure. As compared with the general population in Taiwan, both the standardized mortality ratio (SMR) and cumulative mortality rate were significantly high in blackfoot disease-endemic areas for cancers of bladder, kidney, skin, lung, liver, and colon. The SMRs for cancers of bladder, kidney, skin, lung, liver, and colon were 1100, 772, 534, 320, 170, and 160, respectively, for males, and 2009, 1119, 652, 413, 229, and 168, respectively, for females. A dose-response relationship was observed between SMRs of the cancers and blackfoot disease prevalence rate of the villages and townships in the endemic areas. SMRs of cancers were greater in villages where only artesian wells were used as the drinking water source than in villages using both artesian and shallow wells, and even greater than in villages using shallow wells only.
A historical cohort study was conducted to investigate the long-term effect of exposure to ingested arsenic. The 454 residents who had been identified in a list made in 1959 were followed until 1992. They lived in an arsenic-polluted area, called Namiki-cho, Nakajo-machi, in Niigata Prefecture, Japan, and used well water containing inorganic arsenic. The exposure period was estimated to be about 5 years (1955-1959). Death certificates for the people who died between 1959 and 1992 were examined, and a total of 113 of the 454 residents were estimated to have drunk well water containing a high dose of arsenic (> or = 1 ppm). The standardized mortality rate ratios of these 113 residents were 15.69 for lung cancer (observed/expected = 8/0.51; 95% confidence interval (CI) 7.38-31.02) and 31.18 for urinary tract cancer (observed/expected = 3/0.10; 95% CI 8.62-91.75). Cox's proportional hazard analyses demonstrated that the hazard ratios of the highest exposure level group (> or = 1 ppm) versus the background exposure level group (0.001 ppm) were 1.74 (95% CI 1.10-2.74) for all deaths and 4.82 (95% CI 2.09-11.14) for all cancers. The analysis according to the skin signs of chronic arsenicism in 1959 showed that they were useful risk indicators for subsequent cancer development. In the development of lung cancer, there was evidence of synergism between arsenic intake and smoking habit.
To examine the association between long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic and the prevalence of hypertension, we studied a total of 382 men and 516 women residing in villages where arseniasis was hyperendemic. Hypertension was defined as a systolic blood pressure of 160 mm Hg or greater, a diastolic blood pressure of 95 mm Hg or greater, or a history of hypertension treated regularly with antihypertensive drugs. The long-term arsenic exposure was calculated from the history of artesian well water consumption obtained through standardized interviews based on a structured questionnaire and the measured arsenic concentration in well water. Residents in villages where long-term arseniasis was hyperendemic had a 1.5-fold increase in age- and sex-adjusted prevalence of hypertension compared with residents in nonendemic areas. Duration of artesian well water consumption, average arsenic concentration in drinking water, and cumulative arsenic exposure were all significantly associated with hypertension prevalence. The higher the cumulative arsenic exposure, the higher the prevalence of hypertension. This dose-response relation remained significant after adjustment for age, sex, diabetes mellitus, proteinuria, body mass index, and serum triglyceride level. The results suggest that long-term arsenic exposure may induce hypertension in humans.
Chronic arsenic consumption can cause vascular diseases. Adverse vascular effects of arsenic in drinking water in the United States have not been studied. This study investigated the ecological relationship between the population-weighted mean arsenic concentration in public drinking water supplies and mortality from circulatory diseases in 30 U.S. counties from 1968 to 1984. Mean arsenic levels ranged from 5.4 to 91.5 micrograms/l. Standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) for diseases of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries (DAAC) (ICD 8th/9th revision, 440-448) for counties exceeding 20 micrograms/l were 1.9 (90% confidence interval [CI] = 1.7-2.1) for females and 1.6 (90% CI = 1.5-1.8) for males. The SMRs for the three subgroups of DAAC--arteriosclerosis, aortic aneurysm, and all other DAAC--tended to be elevated. With respect to the same arsenic group, the SMRs for congenital anomalies of the heart (ICD-8/9, 746/745-746) and circulatory system (ICD-8/9, 747) also tended to be elevated. Two competing interpretations emerge as possibilities: either there are spurious associations resulting from invalid outcome data or causal associations.
The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between previous arsenic exposure and peripheral vascular disease after stopping consumption of high-arsenic artesian well water for more than two decades in blackfoot disease endemic villages in Taiwan. A total of 582 adults (263 men and 319 women, aged 52.6 +/- 10.6 years) living in these villages underwent Doppler ultrasound measurement of systolic pressures on bilateral ankle (posterior tibial and dorsal pedal) and brachial arteries and estimation for long-term arsenic exposure. The diagnosis of peripheral vascular disease was based on an ankle-brachial index (the ratio between ankle and brachial systolic pressures) <0.90 on either side. Three indices of arsenic exposure were estimated: (1) duration of living in blackfoot disease endemic villages; (2) duration of artesian well water consumption; and (3) cumulative arsenic exposure in mg/l-years based on the detailed history of residential addresses and artesian well water consumption and the arsenic concentration in artesian well water. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to assess the association between peripheral vascular disease and arsenic exposure. A dose-response relation was observed between the prevalence of peripheral vascular disease and the long-term arsenic exposure. The odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) after adjustment for age, sex, body mass index, cigarette smoking, serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels, diabetes mellitus and hypertension were 2.77 (0.84-9.14), and 4.28 (1.26-14.54) for those who had cumulative arsenic exposure of 0.1-19.9 and > or = 20.0 mg/l-years, respectively, compared with those who were not exposed. This study suggests a close relation between long-term arsenic exposure and peripheral vascular disease in blackfoot disease endemic villages in Taiwan after stopping consumption of artesian well water.
Circulatory diseases such as ischemic heart disease and peripheral vascular disease induced by long-term arsenic exposure have been well documented in previous studies, but the dose-response relationship between cerebrovascular disease and ingested inorganic arsenic remains to be elucidated. The prevalence of cerebrovascular disease among residents of the Lanyang Basin on the northeast coast of Taiwan was surveyed to examine its association with exposure to arsenic in well water.
A total of 8102 men and women from 3901 households were recruited in this study. The status of cerebrovascular disease of study subjects was identified through home-visit personal interviews and ascertained by review of hospital medical records according to the World Health Organization criteria. Information on consumption of well water, sociodemographic characteristics, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption habits, as well as personal and family history of diseases, was also obtained. Arsenic concentration in the well water of each household was determined by hydride generation and atomic absorption spectrometry. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate multivariate-adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for various risk factors of cerebrovascular disease.
A significant dose-response relationship was observed between arsenic concentration in well water and prevalence of cerebrovascular disease after adjustment for age, sex, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption. The biological gradient was even more prominent for cerebral infarction, showing multivariate-adjusted odds ratios of 1.0, 3.4, 4.5, and 6.9, respectively, for those who consumed well water with an arsenic content of 0, 0.1 to 50.0, 50.1 to 299.9, and > 300 micrograms/L.
Long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic from well water was associated with an increased prevalence of cerebrovascular disease, especially cerebral infarction.
Studies in Taiwan and Argentina suggest that ingestion of inorganic arsenic from drinking water results in increased risks of internal cancers, particularly bladder and lung cancer. The authors investigated cancer mortality in a population of around 400,000 people in a region of Northern Chile (Region II) exposed to high arsenic levels in drinking water in past years. Arsenic concentrations from 1950 to the present were obtained. Population-weighted average arsenic levels reached 570 microg/liter between 1955 to 1969, and decreased to less than 100 microg/liter by 1980. Standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) were calculated for the years 1989 to 1993. Increased mortality was found for bladder, lung, kidney, and skin cancer. Bladder cancer mortality was markedly elevated (men, SMR = 6.0 (95% confidence interval (CI) 4.8-7.4); women, SMR = 8.2 (95% CI 6.3-10.5)) as was lung cancer mortality (men, SMR = 3.8 (95% CI 3.5-4.1); women, SMR = 3.1 (95% CI 2.7-3.7)). Smoking survey data and mortality rates from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease provided evidence that smoking did not contribute to the increased mortality from these cancers. The findings provide additional evidence that ingestion of inorganic arsenic in drinking water is indeed a cause of bladder and lung cancer. It was estimated that arsenic might account for 7% of all deaths among those aged 30 years and over. If so, the impact of arsenic on the population mortality in Region II of Chile is greater than that reported anywhere to date from environmental exposure to a carcinogen in a major population.
Because of the lack of data on the exposure to and toxic effects of inorganic arsenic during early human development, the transfer of arsenic to the fetus and suckling infant was studied in a native Andean population, living in the village San Antonio de los Cobres in the North west of Argentina, where the drinking water contains about 200 micrograms/liter. The concentration of arsenic in cord blood (median, 9 micrograms/liter) was almost as high as in maternal blood (median, 11 micrograms/liter), and there was a significant correlation between the two. Thus, at least in late gestation, arsenic is easily transferred to the fetus. The median concentration of arsenic in the placenta was 34 micrograms/kg, compared with 7 micrograms/kg previously reported for nonexposed women. Interestingly, essentially all arsenic in the blood plasma of both the newborns and their mothers was in the form of dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), the end product of inorganic arsenic metabolism. Similarly, about 90% of the arsenic in the urine of both the newborns and mothers in late gestation was present as DMA, compared with about 70% in nonpregnant women (p < 0.001). This may indicate that methylation of arsenic is increased during pregnancy and that DMA is the major form of arsenic transferred to the fetus. The increased methylation in late gestation was associated with lower arsenic concentrations in blood and higher concentrations in urine, compared with a few months postpartum. The arsenic concentrations in the urine of the infants decreased from about 80 micrograms/liter during the first 2 days of life to less than 30 micrograms/liter at 4.4 months (p = 0.025). This could be explained by the low concentrations of arsenic in the breast milk, about 3 micrograms/kg.
Studies in Taiwan have found dose-response relations between arsenic ingestion from drinking water and cancers of the skin, bladder, lung, kidney and liver. To investigate these associations in another population, we conducted a study in Córdoba, Argentina, which has a well-documented history of arsenic exposure from drinking water.
Mortality from lung, kidney, liver and skin cancers during the period 1986-1991 in Córdoba's 26 counties was investigated, expanding the authors' previous analysis of bladder cancer in the province. Counties were grouped a priori into low, medium and high arsenic exposure categories based on available data. Standardized mortality ratios (SMR) were calculated using all of Argentina as the reference population.
We found increasing trends for kidney and lung cancer mortality with arsenic exposure, with the following SMR, for men and women respectively: kidney cancer, 0.87, 1.33, 1.57 and 1.00, 1.36, 1.81; lung cancer, 0.92, 1.54, 1.77 and 1.24, 1.34, 2.16 (in all cases, P < 0.001 in trend test), similar to the previously reported bladder cancer results (0.80, 1.28, 2.14 for men, 1.22, 1.39, 1.81 for women). There was a small positive trend for liver cancer but mortality was increased in all three exposure groups. Skin cancer mortality was elevated for women only in the high exposure group, while men showed a puzzling increase in mortality in the low exposure group.
The results add to the evidence that arsenic ingestion increases the risk of lung and kidney cancers. In this study, the association between arsenic and mortality from liver and skin cancers was not clear.
We have studied hepatic function in individuals chronically exposed to arsenic (As) via drinking water in Region Lagunera, Mexico. We studied 51 individuals living in three villages exposed to As in water. Nazareno (0.014 mgAs/l), Santa Ana (0.1 mgAs/l) and Benito Juárez (0.3 mgAs/l). We determined the serum activity of aspartate aminotransferase (SAT) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) as indicators of hepatocellular injury and that of gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) as indicators of cholestasic injury. Serum bilirubin was used as an indicator of organic conjugated anion transport. Total proteins, albumin and globulin fraction in serum were used as indicators of biosynthetic liver capacity. The main findings of this study were the predominantly conjugated hyperbilirubinemia and increased serum ALP activity which were related to the concentration of total arsenic (TAs) in urine, suggesting the presence of cholestasis in As-exposed individuals. No significant changes were observed in the other parameters studied.
Blackfoot disease was prevalent in a limited area on the southwest coast of Taiwan, where artesian well water containing arsenic (median = 0.78 ppm arsenic) had been used for many years. Previous studies of arsenic exposure in the blackfoot disease endemic area have been focused on malignant tumors. We, therefore, conducted this study to analyze mortality of all death causes in blackfoot disease endemic areas and to determine other neglected cancers or noncancer diseases related to artesian well water containing high levels of arsenic. We calculated standardized mortality ratios for cancer and noncancer diseases, by sex, during the period from 1971 to 1994 and compared them to the local reference group (i.e, Chiayi-Tainan County) and the national reference group (i.e., Taiwan population). The results revealed marked standardized mortality ratio differences for the 2 reference groups. Greater mortality was found for males and females with bladder, kidney, skin, lung, nasal-cavity, bone, liver, larynx, colon, and stomach cancers, as well as lymphoma than in the local reference population. With respect to noncancer diseases, we found greater mortality for males and females who had vascular disease, ischemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus, and bronchitis than in the local reference group. Mortalities for other diseases--including rectal cancer, cerebrovascular disease, and other diseases--were higher among cases than the local reference group. Our results indicated that the hazardous effect of arsenic is systemic. Diseases related to arsenic exposure included those reported previously by other investigators, as well as diseases reported in the present study.