Softwoods of North America

Full text

United States
Department of
Agriculture
Forest Service
Forest
Products
Laboratory
General
Technical
Report
FPL–GTR–102 Harry A. Alden
Softwoods of
North America

This report describes 52 taxa of North American softwoods, which are organized alphabeti-
cally by genus. Descriptions include scientific name, trade name, distribution, tree character-
istics, wood characteristics (e.g., general, weight, mechanical properties, drying, shrinkage,
working properties, durability, preservation, uses, and toxicity), and additional sources of
information. Data were compiled from existing literature, mostly from research done at the
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis-
consin.
Keywords: softwoods, properties, North America, wood
Sincere thanks to the staff of the USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, for their
aid in the preparation of this work. Special thanks to David Green, David Kretschmann, and
Kent McDonald of the Engineering Properties of Wood Group; John “Rusty” Dramm of
State and Private Forestry; Scott Leavengood and James Reeb of Oregon State University;
and Lisa Johnson of the Southern Pine Inspection Bureau who reviewed this manuscript.
Also thanks to Susan LeVan, Assistant Director, Forest Products Laboratory, for her support
and the Information Services team, Forest Products Laboratory, for final editing and produc-
tion of this report.
This book is dedicated to Elbert Luther Little, Jr. (1907–present) for his significant and vo-
luminous contributions to the nomenclature and geographic distributions of both softwood
and hardwood trees of North America (45, 76, 100–139, 197, 198).
September 1997
Alden, Harry A. 1997. Softwoods of North America. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL–GTR–102. Madison, WI:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 151 p.
A limited number of free copies of this publication are available to the public from the Forest Products Labora-
tory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI 53705–2398. Laboratory publications are sent to hundreds of
libraries in the United States and elsewhere.
The Forest Products Laboratory is maintained in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin.
The use of trade or firm names is for information only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture of any product or service.
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Abstract
Acknowledgments

2
Introduction..........................................................................................................1
Abies spp. Mill. Pinaceae Firs.................................................................................4
Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes Pinaceae Pacific Silver Fir .........................................5
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Pinaceae Balsam Fir ...........................................................7
Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. Ex Hildebr. Pinaceae White Fir...........................9
Abies grandis (Dougl. Ex D. Don) Lindl. Pinaceae Grand Fir.......................................11
Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. Pinaceae Subalpine Fir...............................................13
Abies magnifica A. Murr. Pinaceae California Red Fir................................................15
Abies procera Rehd. Pinaceae Noble Fir...................................................................17
Chamaecyparis spp. Spach Cupressaceae Cedars........................................................19
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl. Cupressaceae Port-Orford-Cedar...................20
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach Cupressaceae Alaska-Cedar........................22
Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) B.S.P. Cupressaceae Atlantic White-Cedar.........................24
Juniperus spp. L. Cupressaceae Junipers..................................................................26
Juniperus deppeana Steud. Cupressaceae Alligator Juniper...........................................27
Juniperus occidentalis Hook. Cupressaceae Western Juniper.........................................29
Juniperus silicicola (Small) Bailey Cupressaceae Southern Redcedar..............................30
Juniperus virginiana L. Cupressaceae Eastern Redcedar................................................32
Larix spp. Mill. Pinaceae Larches...........................................................................34
Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch Pinaceae Tamarack...................................................35
Larix occidentalis Nutt. Pinaceae Western Larch........................................................37
Libocedrus spp. Endl. Cupressaceae Incense-Cedar......................................................39
Libocedrus decurrens Torr. Cupressaceae Incense-Cedar................................................40
Picea spp. A. Dietr. Pinaceae Spruces......................................................................42
Picea engelmannii Parry ex. Engelm. Pinaceae Engelmann Spruce................................43
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss Pinaceae White Spruce...................................................45
Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. Pinaceae Black Spruce...................................................47
Picea rubens Sarg. Pinaceae Red Spruce...................................................................49
Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Pinaceae Sitka Spruce..................................................51
Pinus L. Pinaceae Pines........................................................................................53
Pinus banksiana Lamb. Pinaceae Jack Pine...............................................................54
Pinus clausa (Chapm. Ex Engelm.) Vasey ex Sarg. Pinaceae Sand Pine.........................56
Pinus contorta Dougl. Ex. Loud. Pinaceae Lodgepole Pine..........................................58
Pinus echinata Mill. Pinaceae Shortleaf Pine............................................................61
Pinus edulis Engelm. Pinaceae Pinyon ....................................................................63
Pinus elliottii Engelm. Pinaceae Slash Pine .............................................................65
Pinus flexilis James Pinaceae Limber Pine...............................................................67
Contents

3
Pinus glabra Walt. Pinaceae Spruce Pine..................................................................69
Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf. Pinaceae Jeffrey Pine......................................................71
Pinus lambertiana Dougl. Pinaceae Sugar Pine..........................................................74
Pinus monticola Dougl. Ex D. Don Pinaceae Western White Pine................................76
Pinus palustris Mill. Pinaceae Longleaf Pine............................................................78
Pinus ponderosa Dougl. Ex Laws. Pinaceae Ponderosa Pine.........................................81
Pinus pungens Lamb. Pinaceae Table Mountain Pine.................................................84
Pinus radiata D. Don (Pinus insignis Douglas ex Loudon) Pinaceae Radiata Pine.............86
Pinus resinosa Ait. Pinaceae Red Pine.....................................................................89
Pinus rigida Mill. Pinaceae Pitch Pine.....................................................................91
Pinus serotina Michx. Pinaceae Pond Pine...............................................................94
Pinus strobus L. Pinaceae Eastern White Pine...........................................................96
Pinus taeda L. Pinaceae Loblolly Pine.....................................................................99
Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinaceae Virginia Pine.........................................................102
Pseudotsuga spp Carr. Pinaceae Douglas-Fir...........................................................104
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco Pinaceae Douglas-ir........................................105
Sequoia spp. Endl. Taxodiaceae Sequoia................................................................. 109
Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl. Taxodiaceae Redwood.......................................110
Taxodium spp. Rich. Taxodiaceae Baldcypress.........................................................113
Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. Taxodiaceae Baldcypress...........................................114
Taxus spp. L. Taxaceae Yew................................................................................116
Taxus brevifolia Nutt. Taxaceae Pacific Yew...........................................................117
Thuja spp. L. Cupressaceae Thuja.........................................................................119
Thuja occidentalis L. Cupressaceae Northern White-Cedar..........................................120
Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don Cupressaceae Western Redcedar...................................122
Tsuga spp. (Endl.) Carr. Pinaceae Hemlock............................................................124
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Pinaceae Eastern Hemlock..............................................125
Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. Pinaceae Western Hemlock.......................................127
Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr. Pinaceae Mountain Hemlock ...................................129
References........................................................................................................131
Glossary .......................................................................................................... 142
Abbreviations Used to Identify Properties and Measurement Terms..............................149
Appendix—Trade Name Index ..............................................................................150

Softwoods of North America
Harry A. Alden, Botanist
Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin
Every week, the USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory (FPL), receives numer-
ous calls from the public and industry inquiring about wood, especially concerning properties
and common names. Much information has been accumulated at FPL in loose-leaf files; the
information for a particular wood has been derived from various sources over many years.
Responding to information requests has required searching these files and copying selected
pages to send to customers.
Martin Chudnoff compiled some of these data, referring to tropical species in Tropical Tim-
bers of the World (40). In the interest of efficiency, I began collating and condensing infor-
mation about woods not covered in Chudnoff’s book. It also became apparent that other
compilations were necessary to satisfy the needs of FPL customers. To that end, Softwoods
of North America is the second report of these compilations, covering both commercial and
noncommercial softwoods. All taxa listed are temperate species native to North America,
north of Mexico, although many western species have distributions that extend into Mexico.
Softwood taxa that have native distributions exclusively in Mexico are not covered in
this text.
The format for this report is almost identical to that used in Chudnoff’s Tropical Timbers of
the World (40). In addition, aspects of toxicity, such as dermatitis and bronchial problems,
are included if known. The descriptions also include a short paragraph delineating the number
and distribution of species as well as etymological background (derivation) of the scientific
names. Terms relating to wood are defined in the Glossary, followed by a listing of abbrevia-
tions used in this document for wood properties and measurement terms.
Data are arranged alphabetically by the genus and species binomial name (for example, east-
ern white pine is Pinus strobus L.). Species covered in this text are those recognized in
Checklist of United States Trees by E.L. Little, Jr. (119). When two or more species in a
genus make up a commercial grouping, the composite is designated by spp. (e.g., Picea
spp., spruces). For each genus, an introductory page describes the number and geographical
areas of species in that group. The introductory page also includes the number of species
native to North America and indicates which taxa are covered in this text. To further com-
plete botanical affinities, plant authors (those who named the plant) and family names
(ending in -aceae) are also given. Brackets are used to indicate the number of species in differ-
ent geographical locales. Trade names are keyed to genus and species in the Appendix.
Each species is described in terms of its trade and other common names, distribution, tree
characteristics, and general wood characteristics. General wood characteristics include weight
(plus moisture content (MC) and specific gravity (SG)), Mechanical properties, drying and
shrinkage, working properties, durability, preservation, uses, and toxicity. Finally, additional
sources of information are cited.
Other Common Names: The scientific name is followed by one or more trade or com-
mon names, taken from the Checklist of United States Trees by E.L. Little, Jr. (119). The
other common names were taken from a database compiled by R. Miller, Center for Wood
Anatomy Research at FPL, in conjunction with J. Ilic, Division of Forest Products, Com-
monwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) in Australia. Although
this database is vast (more than 100,000 names), it will never be complete because new
common names appear constantly.
Introduction

2 rev. 03/2001
Distribution: Information on native growth ranges was taken from the Checklist of
United States Trees (119).
The Tree: Tree form and size were taken from the American Wood Series (as cited for each
taxon), Silvics of North America (34), and The Complete Trees of North America (53).
General Wood Characteristics: This section describes the appearance of wood of indi-
vidual species and species groupings: sapwood and heartwood coloration and unusual changes
on exposure to light or air. If anatomical elements are large and irregular, the wood is de-
scribed as having coarse and uneven texture. If these features are small and evenly distributed,
the texture is fine and uniform. Grain defines the arrangement or alignment of wood
tissue—straight, spiral, or interlocked. Distinctive scents and tastes are noted. Woods with
gummy, oily, or resinous exudates are indicated. This section also contains brief descriptions
of working and drying characteristics and the ability of wood to be penetrated by preserva-
tives. Most information was taken from the American Wood Series (as cited for each taxon
under Additional Reading).
Weight: Specific gravity or density may be related to important wood attributes, such as
mechanical strength, shrinkage, paper-forming properties, and cutting forces required in ma-
chining. In assessing the use potential of a species, specific gravity often receives first atten-
tion. Moisture content of green wood (heartwood unless noted) is included from the Dry Kiln
Operator’s Manual (185).
Basic specific gravity (noted as green values in tables) is the ratio of wood density to the
density of water at 39oF (4oC) and is calculated from the ovendry weight and volume in the
green condition. This may range from less than 0.32 for northern white cedar (Thuja occiden-
talis) to about 0.66 for slash pine (Pinus elliottii). Density, calculated from weight and vol-
ume when the woods are green or air dry usually at a moisture content of 12%, is also given.
Density can range from about 20 to 55 lb/ft3 (320 to 881 kg/m3).
Mechanical Properties: It is emphasized that the mechanical properties presented here
were taken from various sources. Sampling and testing procedures may have varied consid-
erably. Values are given so that species can be compared and selected for targeted end uses.
However, data reported may not be acceptable to regulatory bodies as a basis for assigning
design properties. Such interests are beyond the scope and intent of this document. Sources
from which strength data were obtained are cited and listed in the References section.
Data are given for strength tests on wood in the green and dry conditions. The properties
include bending strength (modulus of rupture (MOR)), stiffness in bending (modulus of elas-
ticity (MOE)), compression parallel to the grain (maximum crushing strength (C| | )), com-
pression perpendicular to the grain (stress at proportional limit (C⊥), work to maximum load
(WML), hardness, and shear parallel to the grain (shear | |). Most test results reported here are
based on the ASTM D 143 procedures using 2-in. (50.8-mm) specimens, except where
noted. Most data were taken from the Wood Handbook (56).
Drying and Shrinkage: The response of individual woods to air and kiln drying is noted
as well as the susceptibility to drying degrade, such as checking, warp, or collapse. Shrink-
age values in percent (tangential, radial, and volumetric) from the green to ovendry condition
(0% moisture content) or green to various air dry conditions (6%, 12%, or 20% moisture
content) are given. No kiln schedule is recommended if it was not found in the literature.
Data were taken from the Wood Handbook (56) and the Dry Kiln Operator’s Manual (185).
Working Properties: Much of the information given on working properties of individual
species is highly subjective. Described are ease of working the wood using hand and machine
tools, tendencies toward torn or chipped grain, smoothness of finish, dulling by cutters, and
ease of veneering. Nailing, screwing, or gluing characteristics may be included as well as
steam-bending properties, if the species is well suited for these purposes. Most information
was taken from the American Wood Series (as cited for each taxon).

3
Durability: Resistance of the wood to attack by decay fungi, insects, and marine borers is
described. Precise ratings of decay resistance of heartwood from different species are not pos-
sible because of variances within species and the diversity of service conditions to which
wood is exposed. However, broad groupings of many native species, based on service rec-
ords, laboratory tests, and general experience, are helpful in choosing heartwood for use under
conditions favorable to decay. Group ratings are exceptionally resistant, very resistant, mod-
erately resistant, and slightly resistant to nonresistant to heartwood decay. The extent of
variations in decay resistance of individual trees or wood samples of a species is much greater
for most more resistant species than for the slightly resistant or nonresistant species. Where
decay hazards exist, heartwood of species in the resistant or very resistant category generally
gives satisfactory service, but heartwood of species in the other two categories will usually
require some form of preservative treatment. For severe decay hazards, pressure treatments are
often required. Even very decay-resistant species may require preservative treatment for im-
portant structural uses or other uses where failure, caused by decay, would endanger life or
require expensive repairs.
Consideration is also given to vulnerability to attack by powder-post beetles (Lyctus spp.),
subterranean and dry-wood termites, and other insects. If data were available, resistance to
such attack is reported here. Most data were taken from the Wood Handbook (56).
Preservation: In general, sapwood is more permeable to preservatives than is heartwood.
Treatability of sapwood and heartwood using either open-tank or pressure-vacuum processes
is described. Ratings may range from permeable, where 15 to 20 lb/ft3 (240 to 320 kg/m3)
and more of preservative solutions are absorbed with complete or deep chemical penetration,
to extremely resistant, where absorption is only 2 to 3 lb/ft3 (32 to 48 kg/m3) or less and
lateral penetration is superficial. There is no standard treatability test. Ratings may be based
on laboratory trials using a wide range of specimen sizes, with or without end coatings, or
actual commercial treating plant experience. Most data were taken from the Wood Handbook
(56).
Uses: Suitability of a wood for particular applications may be based on personal preference,
indigenous uses, or experience. Nevertheless, the lists of uses indicate the properties and
working characteristics of the wood and may suggest applications still not realized. Trees
formerly classified as uneconomic or weed species are now frequently in high demand. There-
fore, use categories should not be considered restrictive. If a tree is noted for the yield of
products other than wood (e.g., gums, latex, fiber, tannins, nuts, and fruits), this is also
indicated. Most information was taken from the American Wood Series (as cited for each
taxon).
Toxicity: As a material, wood is not considered toxic or carcinogenic by the U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, but sawdust is considered toxic. Almost all woods, including
U.S. native white pine and paper birch, have constituents that are allergenic or toxic to
someone. However, most people are unaffected by most woods. Dust generated in wood-
working may irritate skin and mucous membranes and even cause nosebleeds and respiratory
disorders. When information was available, woods that are particularly toxic are noted. This
does not mean that the wood or wood byproducts are not toxic. If working with the wood has
been reputed to cause skin or mucous membrane irritations, this is noted. Data were taken
from Woods Injurious to Human Health (71), Botanical Dermatology (158), and Toxic
Woods (214).
Additional Reading: Literature references are cited by number and a complete listing is
given in the References section. The references can be used to trace the source of the reported
measurements to determine the representation of these data. For instance, for some species,
data from only one tree may have been available; for others, wood from many trees may
have been tested. References for additional information are cited at the end of each wood
description.

4
The genus Abies (True Firs) is composed of about 40 species native to North America [9],
Central America [7], Africa [2], Europe [1], and Eurasia [25]. The wood of some species in
this genus can be distinguished microscopically. Abies is the classical Latin name of silver
fir (Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The species native to North America are listed in the fol-
lowing. An asterisk means that technical information is available on this species and is in-
cluded in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Abies amabilis* Pacific silver fir
Abies balsamea* Balsam fir
Abies bracteata Bristlecone fir
Abies concolor* White fir
Abies fraseri Fraser fir
Abies grandis* Grand fir
Abies lasiocarpa* Subalpine fir
Abies magnifica* California red fir
Abies procera* Noble fir
Abies spp. Mill.
Pinaceae
Firs

5
Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) is a species in the white fir group, which includes Califor-
nia red fir (Abies magnifica), white fir (Abies concolor), grand fir (Abies grandis), subalpine
fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and noble fir (Abies procera). Abies is the classical Latin name of sil-
ver fir (Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The word amabilis means lovely.
Other Common Names: abete amabilis, abeto amabilis, alpine fir, amabilis den, amabi-
lis fir, Amerikansk silver-gran, Cascades fir, lovely silver fir, lovely fir, lovely red fir, pur-
pur-gran, purpurtanne, red fir, red silver fir, sapin amabilis, sapin gracieux, silver fir, tannub
el gamil, western fir, western balsam fir, white fir.
Distribution: Pacific silver fir is native to the Pacific Coast region from Alaska south to
western Oregon and locally in northwestern California (Siskiyou County). It grows from
about sea level, in the western limits of its range, to 6,000 ft (1828.8 m) in the Cascades.
The Tree: Pacific silver fir commonly grows to heights of 200 ft (60.96 m), with a diame-
ter of 2 ft (0.61 m). The record height is 245 ft (74.68 m), with a diameter of 8 ft (2.44 m).
The maximum age reported is 590 years.
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of Pacific silver fir ranges from nearly white
to reddish brown. The sapwood is indistinguishable from the heartwood. It has a medium to
coarse texture and is generally straight grained. It is easy to work and dimensionally stable
when dried. It is moderate to moderately low in strength, stiffness, shock resistance, and nail
withdrawal resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (55%)a0.40b36b577
12% 0.43b27c433
Ovendry 0.42dNA NA
aReference (184).
bReference (194).
cReference (152).
dReference (191).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.42 × 106 in/lb29.79 GPa 1.76 × 106 in/lb212.1 GPa
MOR 6.40 × 103 in/lb244.1 MPa 11.0 × 103 in/lb275.8 MPa
C| | 3.14 × 103 in/lb221.6 MPa 6.41 × 103 in/lb244.2 MPa
C⊥0.22 × 103 in/lb21.52 MPa 0.45 × 103 in/lb23.10 MPa
WML 6.0 in-in/lb341.4 kJ/m39.3 in-in/lb364.1 kJ/m3
Hardness 310 lbf 1380 N 430 lbf 1910 N
Shear| | 0.75 × 103 in/lb25.17 MPa 1.22 × 103 in/lb28.41 MPa
aReference (194) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Abies amabilis
Dougl. ex Forbes
Pinaceae
Pacific Silver Fir

6
Kiln drying schedulea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stocka6/4
stock 8/4
stocka10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stockb
Standard T12-B5 NA T10-B3 NA NA L
aReferences (28, 184).
bReference (73).
Pacific silver fir dries easily, but may have problems with wetwood, caused by a bacterial
infection. Shrinkage of the wood is rated low to moderately high. It may contain uneven
moisture content, shake, or splits, possibly as a result of wetwood (184).
Working Properties: Pacific silver fir is easy to work, moderately low in nail with-
drawal resistance, good in paint-holding properties, and easily glued.
Durability: Heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (194).
Preservation: Penetration by preservatives is difficult (56).
Uses: Lumber, plywood, pulp for paper, framing, sheathing, subflooring, concrete forms,
decking, planking, beams, posts, siding, paneling, millwork, prefabricated buildings and
structural members, industrial crating and shook, furniture parts, mobile homes, and fresh
fruit and vegetable containers.
Toxicity: Working with the wood can cause eczema or dermatitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 28, 44, 53, 56, 71, 74, 152, 153, 158, 171, 185, 192, 214.
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 9.2 7.8 3.3
Radial 4.4 3.7 1.5
Volumetric 13.0 11.0 4.6
aReference (194).
bReference (191).

7
Abies is the classical Latin name of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The word bal-
samea is the ancient word for the balsam tree, referring to the resinous pockets or blisters in
the bark.
Other Common Names: Abete balsamico, abeto balsamico, abeto oloroso, balm-of-
gilead, balm-of-gilead fir, balsam, balsam-gran, balsam-tanne, balsem-den, balsemzilver-den,
beaumier de Gilead, blister fir, blister pine, blisters cho-koh-tung, bracted balsam fir, Cana-
dian balsam, Canadian fir, eastern fir, fir pine, firs d’America, fir-tree, Gilead fir, sapin, sapin
baumier, sapin beaumier, sapin blanc, sapin rouge, silver fir, silver pine, single pine, single
spruce, var.
Distribution: From Newfoundland and Labrador west to northeast Alberta, south and east
to southern Manitoba, Minnesota, northeast Iowa, central Wisconsin, central Michigan,
southern Ontario, New York, central Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and Maine.
The Tree: Balsam fir normally reaches heights of 60 ft (18.29 m), with diameters of 1.5 ft
(0.46 m). Trees growing in optimal conditions can reach heights of 90 ft (27.43 m), with
diameters of 2.5 ft (0.76 m). It grows from sea level to about 6,000 ft (1828.8 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood is white to pale brown. It is without distinc-
tive odor or taste. It is light weight and soft, has good splitting resistance, and is low in
shock resistance. Mechanically, it ranks better than white spruce (Picea glauca) and is less
than or equal to properties of red (Picea rubens) and black spruce (Picea mariana). It has low
nail-holding capacity.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (88%)a0.33b45c721
12% 0.35b25c401
Ovendry 0.41cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.25 × 106 in/lb28.62 GPa 1.45 × 106 in/lb210.0 GPa
MOR 5.50 × 103 in/lb237.9 MPa 9.20 × 103 in/lb263.4 MPa
C| | 2.63 × 103 in/lb218.1 MPa 5.28 × 103 in/lb236.4 MPa
C⊥0.19 × 103 in/lb21.31 MPa 0.40 × 103 in/lb22.76 MPa
WML 4.7 in-in/lb332.4 kJ/m35.1 in-in/lb335.2 kJ/m3
Hardness 290 lbf 1290 N 400 lbf 1780 N
Shear| | 0.66 × 103 in/lb24.55 MPa 0.94 × 103 in/lb26.48 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Abies balsamea
(L.) Mill.
Pinaceae
Balsam Fir

8
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-E5 NA T10-E4 T8-A4 T8-A4 L
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Balsam fir works easily with both hand tools and machine opera-
tions. It finishes well, provided sharp cutting edges are used. It takes nails, paint, varnish,
and polish well. It has good splitting resistance.
Durability: Heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56). It is susceptible
to attack by ambrosia beetles (pinhole borers), longhorn beetles, Buprestid beetles, and Sirex
wood wasps (74).
Preservation: Resistant to preservative treatments (74).
Uses: The tree is a favorite Christmas tree, and the wood is used for pulpwood, lumber,
light frame construction, paneling, and crates. The oleoresin (balsam) is used in microscopy,
medicinal compounds, and spirit varnishes.
Toxicity: Working with the wood can cause eczema or dermatitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 11, 75, 122, 146, 163, 166, 176, 197.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 6.9 5.5 2.3
Radial 2.9 2.3 1.0
Volumetric 11.2 9.0 3.7
aMay contain uneven moisture content, possibly
as a result of wetwood (178).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

9
White fir (Abies concolor) is a species in the white fir group, which includes Pacific silver
fir (Abies amabilis), California red fir (Abies magnifica), grand fir (Abies grandis), subalpine
fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and noble fir (Abies procera). Abies is the classical Latin name of sil-
ver fir (Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The word concolor means of uniform color, referring to
the needles, which are pale blue green on both surfaces.
Other Common Names: Abete concolore, abete di Low, abete glauco, abeto de Low,
abeto del Colorado, balsam, balsam fir, balsam-tree, bastard pine, black gum, blue fir, Cali-
fornia white fir, Colorado den, Colorado fir, Colorado silver fir, Colorado white balsam,
concolor fir, concolor silver fir, eenkleurige Colorado den, gleichfarbige tanne, Kalifornisk
silver-gran, Kolorado-gran, lengshan, Low den, low-gran, Lows fir, Low’s white fir, oyamel,
Pacific white fir, pinabete, pino real blanco, Rocky Mountain white fir, sapin concolore,
sapin de Low, sapin du Colorado, silver fir, tannuba abyad, western balsam fir, white
balsam.
Distribution: White fir is native to the mountains from central Colorado west to south-
east Idaho and southwest Oregon, south to southern California and east to southern Arizona
and southern New Mexico. It also grows in northwest Mexico.
The Tree: White fir trees reach heights of 180 ft (54.86 m), with diameters of 6 ft
(1.83 m) on the west coast (California and Oregon); in Arizona and New Mexico, the tree
can reach heights of 134 ft (40.84 m), with diameters of 4 ft (1.22 m). A record specimen
from the Sierra Nevada measured 192-ft tall (58.52-m), with a diameter of almost
9 ft (2.74 m).
General Wood Characteristics: Both sapwood and heartwood are nearly white to a red-
dish brown. It has a medium to coarse texture and no characteristic odor or taste, although
there may be a slight disagreeable odor when green. It normally is straight grained, easy to
work, and stays in place when properly dried. It is moderate to moderately low in strength,
stiffness, ability to resist shock, and nail withdrawal resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (98%)a0.37b47c753
12% 0.39b26c417
Ovendry 0.40cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.16 × 106 in/lb28.00 GPa 1.50 × 106 in/lb210.3 GPa
MOR 5.90 × 103 in/lb240.7 MPa 9.80 × 103 in/lb267.6 MPa
C| | 2.90 × 103 in/lb220.0 MPa 5.80 × 103 in/lb240.0 MPa
C⊥0.28 × 103 in/lb21.93 MPa 0.53 × 103 in/lb23.65 MPa
WML 5.6 in-in/lb338.61 kJ/m37.2 in-in/lb349.6 kJ/m3
Hardness 340 lbf 1510 N 480 lbf 2130 N
Shear| | 0.76 × 103 in/lb25.24 MPa 1.10 × 103 in/lb27.58 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Abies concolor
(Gord. & Glend.)
Lindl. Ex Hildebr.
Pinaceae
White Fir

10
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades T9-D6 NA T9-D5 NA NA NA
Upper grades T12-E5 T11-D5 T10-E4 T8-A4 T8-A4 NA
aReference (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 400 400 400 4- by 6-in. decking (405)
Studs (406)
aReferences (28, 184).
White fir is easily dried, but is susceptible to wetwood bacterial attack, which requires spe-
cial handling during drying.
Working Properties: White fir is easy to work and stays in place when properly dried. It
paints and glues well and is moderate to moderately low in nail-holding ability.
Durability: Heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Considered difficult to penetrate with preservatives (152).
Uses: The tree is a favorite Christmas tree. The wood is used for solid construction
(framing, sheathing, subflooring, concrete forms, decking, planking, beams, posts, siding,
and paneling), plywood, pulp, millwork, prefabricated buildings, structural members, crat-
ing, shook, furniture parts, and fruit and vegetable containers.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis or eczema (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 77, 94, 119, 171.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCb
Tangential 7.0 5.7 2.4
Radial 3.3 2.6 1.1
Volumetric 9.8 7.8 3.3
aMay contain uneven moisture content, shake, splits,
or chemical brown stain, possibly as a result of
wetwood (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

11
Grand fir (Abies grandis) is a species in the white fir group, which includes white fir (Abies
concolor), Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), California red fir (Abies magnifica), subalpine
fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and noble fir (Abies procera). Abies is the classical Latin name of
silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The word grandis means large.
Other Common Names: Abete bianco Americano, abete blanco Americano, abeto
blanco Americano, Amerikansk gran, balsam fir, balsam, California great fir, Californische
den, giant fir, great silver fir, groise tanne, jedle obrovska, kaempegran, Kalifornische
kustentanne, Kalifornische reisentanne, kust-gran, kustgran, lowland fir, lowland white fir,
Oregon fir, Oregon white fir, Puget Sound fir, reuzenzilverspar, rough-barked fir, sapin du
Vancouver, sapin grandissime, silver fir, tall silver fir, Vancouver den, Vancouver-gran, van-
couvergran, western balsam fir, western white fir, white fir, yellow fir.
Distribution: Grand fir is native to the Northern Rocky Mountain region from southeast
British Columbia south to western Montana and central Idaho, northeast from southwest
British Columbia and western Washington to northwest California.
The Tree: Grand fir trees commonly reach heights of 140 ft (42.67 m), with diameters of 4
ft (1.22 m). They can reach heights of 250 ft (76.2 m), with a diameter of 5 ft (1.52 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of grand fir ranges from nearly white to red-
dish brown. The sapwood is indistinguishable from the heartwood. It has a medium to coarse
texture and is generally straight grained. It is easy to work and is dimensionally stable when
dried. It is moderate to moderately low in strength, stiffness, shock resistance, and nail with-
drawal resistance. It dries easily, but may have problems with wetwood, caused by a bacterial
infection.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (91%)a0.35b45c721
12% 0.37b28c449
Ovendry 0.42cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.25 × 106 in/lb28.62 GPa 1.57 × 106 in/lb210.8 GPa
MOR 5.80 × 103 in/lb240.0 MPa 8.90 × 103 in/lb261.4 MPa
C| | 2.94 × 103 in/lb220.3 MPa 5.29 × 103 in/lb236.5 MPa
C⊥0.27 × 103 in/lb21.86 MPa 0.50 × 103 in/lb23.45 MPa
WML 5.6 in-in/lb338.61 kJ/m37.5 in-in/lb351.7 kJ/m3
Hardness 360 lbf 1600 N 490 lbf 2180 N
Shear| | 0.74 × 103 in/lb25.10 MPa 0.90 × 103 in/lb26.20 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Abies grandis
(Dougl. Ex D. Don) Lindl.
Pinaceae
Grand Fir

12
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stocka6/4
stocka8/4
stocka10/4
stocka12/4
stockaBritish schedule
4/4 stockb
Standard T12-E5 NA T10-E4 T8-A4 T8-A3 L
aReferences (28, 185).
bReference (74).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Grand fir is easy to work, is moderately low in nail withdrawal
resistance, good in paint-holding properties, and easily glued.
Durability: Heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Penetration by preservatives is difficult (56).
Uses: Lumber, plywood, pulp for paper, framing, sheathing, subflooring, concrete forms,
decking, planking, beams, posts, siding, paneling, millwork, prefabricated buildings and
structural members, industrial crating and shook, furniture parts, mobile homes, and fresh
fruit and vegetable containers.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis or eczema (71, 158, 214)
Additional Reading: 54, 75, 122, 144, 163.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.5 6.0 2.5
Radial 3.4 2.7 1.1
Volumetric 11.0 8.8 3.7
aMay contain uneven moisture content, shake
or splits possibly as a result of wetwood (178).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

13
Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) is a species in the white fir group, which includes grand fir
(Abies grandis), white fir (Abies concolor), Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), California red
fir (Abies magnifica), and noble fir (Abies procera). There are two recognized varieties of this
species: the typical Subalpine Fir [Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. var. lasiocarpa] and Cork-
bark Fir [Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica (Merriam) Lemm.]. Abies is the classical Latin
name of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The word lasiocarpa means with woolly or
hairy fruits.
Other Common Names: Abete bianco Americano, abete sughero, abeto blanco Ameri-
cano, abeto corcho, alamo de la sierra, alpen-den, alpine fir, Amerikansk vit-gran, Arizona
cork fir, Arizona corkbark fir, Arizona fir, balsam, balsam fir, berg-gran, black balsam, cari-
bou fir, cork fir, corkbark, corkbark fir, downey-cone fir, downy-cone subalpine fir, kork-
gran, kurkschors-den, mountain balsam, mountain fir, Oregon balsam fir, Oregon balsam-
tree, pino real blanco, pino real blanco de las sierras, pumpkin-tree, Rocky Mountain fir,
Rocky Mountains fir, sapin blanc d’Amerique, sapin concolore, sapin d’Arizona, sapin liege,
subalfir, western balsam, western balsam fir, white balsam, white fir.
Distribution: Subalpine fir grows naturally in mountains from central Yukon and the
eastern parts of southeast Alaska south through Alberta and British Columbia, from Wash-
ington, Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana south to central Colorado southern New Mex-
ico and southeast Arizona. It also grows locally in northeast Nevada and northwest Califor-
nia. It grows from near sea level in the northern limits of its range to 12,000 ft (3657.6)
in the south.
The Tree: Subalpine fir attains heights of 130 ft (39.62 m), with diameters of 3 ft
(0.91 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood ranges from tan to brown with shades of red
or pink. The sapwood is not clearly differentiated from the heartwood. It has a medium luster
and no distinctive odor or taste. It varies from very light, soft, and weak to moderately
heavy, hard, and strong.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (47%)a0.31b28c449
12% 0.32b33c529
Ovendry 0.32cNA NA
aMixed heartwood and sapwood. Reference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical properties
Property Green Dry
MOEa1.05 × 106 in/lb27.24 GPa 1.29 × 106 in/lb28.89 GPa
MORa4.90 × 103 in/lb233.8 MPa 8.60 × 103 in/lb259.3 MPa
C| |a2.30 × 103 in/lb215.9 MPa 4.86 × 103 in/lb233.5 MPa
C⊥a0.19 × 103 in/lb21.31 MPa 0.39 × 103 in/lb22.69 MPa
WMLb4.4 in-in/lb330.34 kJ/m32.9 in-in/lb320.0 kJ/m3
Hardnessa260 lbf 1160 N 350 lbf 1560 N
Shear| |a0.70 × 103 in/lb24.83 MPa 1.07 × 103 in/lb27.38 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
bReference (192) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Abies lasiocarpa
(Hook.) Nutt.
Pinaceae
Subalpine Fir

14
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-B5 NA T12-B4 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400/416 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Subalpine fir is reported to work well.
Durability: Heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Building construction, boxes, crates, planing mill products, sashes, doors, frames,
food containers, and pulpwood.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis or eczema (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 3, 75, 122, 144, 163.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 7.4 NA NA
Radial 2.6 NA NA
Volumetric 9.4 NA NA
aReference (56). May contain uneven moisture content,
shake or splits, possibly as a result of wetwood or
compression wood (185).

15
California red fir is a species in the white fir group, which includes Pacific silver fir (Abies
amabilis), white fir (Abies concolor), grand fir (Abies grandis), subalpine fir (Abies lasio-
carpa), and noble fir (Abies procera). Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis Lemm.)
is a recognized variety of California red fir. Abies is the classical Latin name of silver fir
(Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The word magnifica means magnificent, referring to the large
size of the cones.
Other Common Names: Abete di California, abete Shasta, abeto de California, abeto
Shasta, California red-bark fir, Californische rode den, giant red fir, golden fir, great red fir,
Kalifornisk prakt-gran, magnificent fir, Murray fir, red bark fir, red fir, red-bark fir, sapin
magnifique, sapin rouge Californien, sapin Shasta, Shasta red fir, Shasta den, Shasta fir,
Shasta-gran, silvertip, western balsam fir, white fir.
Distribution: California red fir is native to southwest Oregon (Cascade Mountains) south
to the northern Coast Ranges of California and through the Sierra Nevada to central Califor-
nia and extreme western Nevada.
The Tree: California red fir trees reach heights of 150 ft (45.72 m), with diameters of
5 ft (1.52 m). The record tree height is 180 ft (54.86 m), with a diameter of 8.5 ft (2.59 m).
California red fir grows in its range at elevations of 6,000 to 9,000 ft (1,828.8 to
2,743.2 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of California red fir ranges from nearly
white to reddish brown. The sapwood is indistinguishable from the heartwood. It has a me-
dium to coarse texture and is generally straight grained. It is easy to work and is dimension-
ally stable when dried. It is moderate to moderately low in strength, stiffness, shock resis-
tance, and nail withdrawal resistance. It dries easily, but may have problems with wetwood,
caused by a bacterial infection. It has good paint-holding ability and is easily glued.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (198%)b0.36 48 769
12% 0.38 27 433
Ovendry 0.42 NA NA
aReference (56).
bMixed heartwood and sapwood. Reference (185).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.17 × 106 in/lb28.07 GPa 1.50 × 106 in/lb210.3 GPa
MOR 5.80 × 103 in/lb240.0 MPa 10.5 × 103 in/lb272.4 MPa
C| | 2.76 × 103 in/lb219.0 MPa 5.46 × 103 in/lb237.6 MPa
C⊥0.33 × 103 in/lb22.27 MPa 0.61 × 103 in/lb24.21 MPa
WML 6.4 in-in/lb344.1 kJ/m38.9 in-in/lb361.4 kJ/m3
Hardness 360 lbf 1600 N 500 lbf 2220 N
Shear| | 0.77 × 103 in/lb25.31 MPa 1.04 × 103 in/lb27.17 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Abies magnifica
A. Murr.
Pinaceae
California Red Fir

16
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-E5 NA T10-E4 T8-A3 T8-A3 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: California red fir is easy to work, moderately low in nail with-
drawal resistance, good in paint-holding properties, and easily glued.
Durability: Heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Penetration by preservatives is difficult (56).
Uses: Lumber, plywood, pulp for paper, framing, sheathing, subflooring, concrete forms,
decking, planking, beams, posts, siding, paneling, millwork, prefabricated buildings and
structural members, industrial crating and shook, furniture parts, mobile homes, and fresh
fruit and vegetable containers.
Toxicity: Working with California red fir can cause dermatitis or eczema (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 75, 93, 122, 144, 163.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.9 5.8 2.4
Radial 4.5 3.2 1.3
Volumetric 11.4 9.8 4.1
aMay contain uneven moisture content, shake, splits, or
warp, possibly as a result of wetwood and/or compression
wood (177).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

17
Noble fir (Abies procera) is a species in the white fir group, which includes grand fir (Abies
grandis), white fir (Abies concolor), Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), California red fir
(Abies magnifica), and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Abies is the classical Latin name of
silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) of Europe. The word procera means tall.
Other Common Names: Abeto blanco Americano, Amerikaanse nobel-den, Amerikansk
adel-gran, bracted fir, bracted red fir, California red fir, feather-cone fir, feather-coned red fir,
kaskadgran, noble red fir, red fir, sapin noble d’Amerique, tuck-tuck, white fir.
Distribution: Noble fir is native to the Cascade Mountains and high peaks of the Coast
Range (3,000 to 5,000 ft) from western Washington through western Oregon to northwest
California.
The Tree: Noble fir trees reach heights of 175 ft (53.34 m), with diameters of 5 ft
(1.52 m). A record tree height was 278 ft (84.73 m), with a diameter of 9 ft (2.74 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of noble fir ranges from nearly white to
reddish brown. The sapwood is indistinguishable from the heartwood. It has a medium to
coarse texture and is generally straight grained. It is easy to work and is dimensionally stable
when dried. It is moderate to moderately low in strength, stiffness, shock resistance, and nail
withdrawal resistance. It dries easily but may have problems with wetwood caused by a
bacterial infection.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (34%)a0.37b30c481
12% 0.39b26c417
Ovendry 0.40cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.38 × 106 in/lb29.51 GPa 1.72 × 106 in/lb211.9 GPa
MOR 6.20 × 103 in/lb242.7 MPa 10.7 × 103 in/lb273.8 MPa
C| | 3.01 × 103 in/lb220.7 MPa 6.10 × 103 in/lb242.1 MPa
C⊥0.27 × 103 in/lb21.86 MPa 0.52 × 103 in/lb23.58 MPa
WML 6.0 in-in/lb341.4 kJ/m38.8 in-in/lb360.7 kJ/m3
Hardness 290 lbf 1290 N 410 lbf 1820 N
Shear| | 0.80 × 103 in/lb25.52 MPa 1.05 × 103 in/lb27.24 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Abies procera Rehd.
Pinaceae
Noble Fir

18
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stocka6/4
stocka8/4
stocka10/4
stocka12/4
stockaBritish schedule
4/4 stockb
Standard T12-A5 T11-A4 T10-A3 T5-A2 T5-A2 L
aReferences (28, 185).
bReference (74).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Noble fir is easy to work, moderately low in nail withdrawal resis-
tance, good in paint-holding properties, and easily glued.
Durability: Heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Noble fir is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Lumber, plywood, pulp for paper, framing, sheathing, subflooring, concrete forms,
decking, planking, beams, posts, siding, paneling, millwork, prefabricated buildings and
structural members, industrial crating and shook, furniture parts, mobile homes, and fresh
fruit and vegetable containers.
Toxicity: As in other species of fir, the fresh wood can cause contact dermatitis
(71, 158, 214)
Additional Reading: 17, 52, 55, 75, 144, 163.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 8.3 6.6 2.7
Radial 4.3 3.6 1.5
Volumetric 12.4 11.0 4.6
aMay warp or split, possibly as a result of wetwood
or compression wood (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

19
The genus Chamaecyparis is composed of six species native to Japan, Taiwan, and both
coasts of North America. The word chamaecyparis is derived from the Greek chamai (dwarf)
and kuparissos (cypress). The three North American species are listed below. The wood of
each of the three species in this genus is anatomically distinct. An asterisk means that tech-
nical information is available on this species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana* Port-Orford-cedar
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis* Alaska-cedar
Chamaecyparis thyoides* Atlantic white-cedar
Chamaecyparis spp.
Spach
Cupressaceae Cedars

20
The word chamaecyparis is derived from the Greek chamai (dwarf) and kuparissos (cypress).
The term lawsoniana is used in dedication to nursery owners from Edinburgh, Scotland, Peter
Lawson and Sons, who introduced this species into cultivation. The seeds were purchased
from William Murray, who collected them in California in 1854 and whose brother (A.
Murr.) named the species. The other two North American species are Atlantic white-cedar
(Chamaecyparis thyoides) and Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). The wood of each
of the three species in this genus is anatomically distinct.
Other Common Names: Adel-cypress, Californische cypres, cedar, cedro de Oregon,
cedro de Puerto Orford, cedro Port Orford, cipres de Lawson, cipresso di California, cipresso
di Lawson, cypres de Lawson, gewone cypres, ginger pine, Lawson chamaecyparis, Lawson
cypress, Lawson’s cypres, matchwood, Oregon cedar, Oregon cypress, Oregon zeder, pencil
cedar, Port-Orford, Port Orford white-cedar, scheinzypresse, spruce gum, white cedar, white
cypress.
Distribution: Port-Orford-cedar is native to a narrow zone near the Pacific Coast from
southwest Oregon (Lane County and Coos Bay) south to northwest California (Mad River
and locally in the Mount Shasta area).
The Tree: Port-Orford-cedar trees reach heights of 200 ft (60.96 m), with diameters of 6 ft
(1.83 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of Port-Orford-cedar varies from nearly
white to a pale yellowish brown and is 1 to 3 in. (2.54 to 7.62 cm) wide. The heartwood is
yellowish white to pale yellowish brown. The wood has a fine, even texture, and the grain is
even and straight. It has a characteristic odor (from volatile oils), described as “ginger-like”
and a bitter, spicy taste. It is moderately light in weight and is stiff, strong, hard, and some-
what shock resistant. It has little tendency to warp. It works well with tools, has good elec-
trical resistance, and is moderately resistant to acids. It weathers to a light gray, with a sil-
very sheen, without checks.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (50)a0.39b36c577
12% 0.43b29c465
Ovendry 0.44cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.30 × 106 in/lb28.96 GPa 1.70 × 106 in/lb211.7 GPa
MOR 6.60 × 103 in/lb245.5 MPa 12.7 × 103 in/lb287.6 MPa
C| | 3.14 × 103 in/lb221.6 MPa 6.25 × 103 in/lb243.1 MPa
C⊥0.30 × 103 in/lb22.07 MPa 0.72 × 103 in/lb24.96 MPa
WML 7.4 in-in/lb351.0 kJ/m39.1 in-in/lb362.7 kJ/m3
Hardness 380 lbf 1690 N 720 lbf 3200 N
Shear| | 0.84 × 103 in/lb25.79 MPa 1.37 × 103 in/lb29.44 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Chamaecyparis
lawsoniana
(A. Murr.) Parl.
Cupressaceae
Port-Orford-Cedar

21
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stocka6/4
stocka8/4
stocka10/4
stocka12/4
stockaBritish schedule
4/4 stockb
Standard T11-B4 NA T10-B3 NA NA J
aReferences (28, 185).
bReference (74).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 290 NA 288 290 296 296 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Port-Orford-cedar works well with tools, holds paint, and polishes
well.
Durability: Heartwood is resistant to very resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: The heartwood is moderately resistant to preservative treatment, and the
sapwood is permeable (74).
Uses: Arrow shafts, storage battery separators, venetian blind slats, sashes, doors, interior
finish millwork, mothproof linings for boxes and closets, boats, matches, general construc-
tion, water tanks, bridges, dock planking, railroad ties, and mine timbers.
Toxicity: Continual inhalation of the volatile oils in this wood can cause kidney problems
(diuresis). Can also cause allergic bronchial asthma and/or rhinitis (71, 158, 162, 214).
Additional Reading: 19, 69, 160, 162, 188, 209.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% Mca6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 6.9 5.5 2.3
Radial 4.6 3.7 1.5
Volumetric 10.1 8.1 3.4
aMay contain resin exudate, possibly as a result
of extractives (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

22
The word chamaecyparis is derived from the Greek chamai (dwarf) and kuparissos (cypress).
The name nootkatensis relates to Nootka Sound, on Vancouver Island, B.C., where it was
discovered. The other two North American species are Atlantic white-cedar (Chamaecyparis
thyoides) and Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana). The wood of each of the three
species in this genus is anatomically distinct.
Other Common Names: Alaska cypress, Alaska ground cypress, Alaska yellow-cedar,
Alaska zeder, Amerikansk cypress, cedro giallo, cipres Americano, cipres Nootka, cipresso
Americano, cipresso Americano, cipresso dell’Alasca, cipresso Nootka, cipresso Nootka,
cypres de Nootka faux, cypres du Nutka, cypres jaune, faux cypress de Nootka, faux cypress
de Nootka, Nootka chamaecyparis, Nootka cypres, Nootka cypress, Nootka false cypress,
Nootka Sound cypress, Nootka-false cypress, Nutka cypres, Nutka-cypress, Nutka-zypresse,
Pacific Coast yellow cedar, Sitka cypress, Sitka yellow-cedar cypress, sitka-zypresse, yellow-
cedar, yellow cypress.
Distribution: The coastal forests from southwestern Alaska through British Columbia to
northern California.
The Tree: Alaska-cedar trees attain heights of 120 ft (36.58 m), with diameters of 6 ft
(1.83 m). Trees from Alaska are frequently older than 300 years, Dominant trees can be from
300 to more than 700 years old, with a record of more than 1,040 years.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood is narrow and sometimes slightly lighter
than the bright, clear yellow heartwood. It has a mild, distinctive odor that is best described
as “raw potatoes.” The wood is moderately heavy, soft, fine textured, straight grained, easily
worked, and durable. It is moderate in strength, stiffness, hardness, and shock resistance. It
shrinks little in drying and is stable in use after seasoning.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (32%)a0.42b36c577
12% 0.44b31c497
Ovendry 0.46cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.14 × 106 in/lb27.86 GPa 1.42 × 106 in/lb29.79 GPa
MOR 6.40 × 103 in/lb244.1 MPa 11.1 × 103 in/lb276.5 MPa
C| | 3.05 × 103 in/lb221.0 MPa 6.31 × 103 in/lb243.5 MPa
C⊥0.35 × 103 in/lb22.41 MPa 0.62 × 103 in/lb24.27 MPa
WML 9.2 in-in/lb363.4 kJ/m310.4 in-in/lb371.7 kJ/m3
Hardness 440 lbf 1960 N 580 lbf 2580 N
Shear| | 0.84 × 103 in/lb25.79 MPa 1.13 × 103 in/lb27.79 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in, (5-cm) standard).
Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis
(D. Don) Spach
Cupressaceae
Alaska-Cedar

23
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-A3 NA T11-A2 NA NA J
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 287 290 290 287 290 290 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: The wood of Alaska-cedar is readily worked by both hand and ma-
chine tools. Their is a slight dulling effect on cutting edges, but it usually finishes very
well. In lumber with a wavy grain, there is a tendency for the grain to pick up in planing and
molding. It nails and glues well and holds paint, stains, and varnishes satisfactorily (74).
Durability: Alaska-cedar heartwood is resistant to very resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Alaska-cedar is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Used locally for interior trim, furniture, small boat hulls, and canoe paddles (171).
Used commercially for battery separators, bedding for heavy machinery, boat building, bridge
and dock decking, cabinetry, carving, cooling towers, framing, furniture, heavy flooring,
marine piling, moulding, musical instruments, novelties, paneling, toys, patterns, sash
doors, stadium seats, utility poles, water and chemical tanks, and window boxes.
Toxicity: No information available at this time for Alaska-cedar.
Additional Reading: 13, 51, 64, 65, 67, 122, 150, 154, 210.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% Mca6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 6.0 4.8 2.0
Radial 2.8 2.2 0.9
Volumetric 9.2 7.4 3.1
aMay contain a resin exudate, possibly as a result of
extractives (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

24
The word chamaecyparis is derived from the Greek chamai (dwarf) and kuparissos (cypress).
The term thyoides means “like Thuja,” a related genus containing northern white-cedar. The
other two North American species are Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) and
Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). The wood of each of the three species in this
genus is anatomically distinct.
Other Common Names: Amerikansk vit-ceder, cedar, cedre blanc d’Amerique, cedro bi-
anco, cedro bianco Americano, cedro blanco Americano, cipres blanco, cipresso bianco, coast
white cedar, juniper, kogelcypres, post cedar, retinospora, southern white-cedar, swamp-cedar,
swano white cedar, vit-cypress, white-cedar, white chamaecyparis, white cypress, witte
Amerikaanse ceder, zeder-zypresse.
Distribution: Atlantic white-cedar is native to the Coastal Plain of the eastern United
States from central Maine south to northern Florida and west to southern Mississippi.
The Tree: Trees of Atlantic white-cedar reach heights of 60 ft (18.29 m), with diameters of
1 ft (0.30 m). Under optimal growth conditions, this tree can reach heights of 120 ft
(36.58 m), with diameters of 5 ft (1.52 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of Atlantic white-cedar is narrow and
white, and the heartwood is light brown with a reddish or pinkish tinge. The wood has a
characteristic aromatic odor when freshly cut and has a faint bitter taste. It is light weight,
has a fine texture, and is straight grained. It is moderately soft, low in shock resistance, and
weak in bending and endwise compression.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (35%)a0.31b26c417
12% 0.32b33c529
Ovendry 0.35cNA NA
aMixed heartwood and sapwood. Reference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.75 × 106 in/lb25.17 GPa 0.93 × 106 in/lb26.41 GPa
MOR 4.70 × 103 in/lb232.4 MPa 6.80 × 103 in/lb246.9 MPa
C| | 2.39 × 103 in/lb216.5 MPa 4.70 × 103 in/lb232.4 MPa
C⊥0.24 × 103 in/lb21.65 MPa 0.41 × 103 in/lb22.83 MPa
WML 5.9 in-in/lb340.7 kJ/m34.1 in-in/lb328.3 kJ/m3
Hardness 290 lbf 1290 N 350 lbf 1560 N
Shear| | 0.69 × 103 in/lb24.76 MPa 0.80 × 103 in/lb25.52 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Chamaecyparis
thyoides
(L.) B.S.P.
Cupressaceae
Atlantic White-Cedar

25
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-A4 NA T11-A3 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: It works easily with tools, finishes smoothly, holds paint well,
and splits easily.
Durability: Atlantic white-cedar heartwood is resistant to very resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Cooperage, wooden household furniture, boat building, fencing, and industrial
millwork.
Toxicity: No information available at this time for Atlantic white-cedar.
Additional Reading: 67, 75, 94, 122, 123, 150, 154, 163, 174, 185, 193, 210.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% Mca6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 5.4 4.3 1.8
Radial 2.9 2.3 1.0
Volumetric 8.8 7.0 2.9
aReference (185).
bReference (192).

26
The Junipers are composed of about 50 species, native to North America [13], Mexico and
Central America [11], West Indies [5], Bermuda [1], and the Old World [25]. The word
juniperus is the classical Latin name. The wood of all species in this genus looks alike mi-
croscopically. The species native to North America are listed below. An asterisk means that
technical information is available on this species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Juniperus ashei Ashe juniper
Juniperus californica California juniper
Juniperus communis Common juniper
Juniperus deppeana* Alligator juniper
Juniperus erythrocarpa Redberry juniper
Juniperus flaccida Drooping juniper
Juniperus monsperma Oneseed juniper
Juniperus occidentalis* Western juniper
Juniperus osteosperma Utah juniper
Juniperus pinchotii Pinchot juniper
Juniperus scopularum Rocky Mountain juniper
Juniperus silicicola* Southern redcedar
Juniperus virginiana* Eastern redcedar
Juniperus spp.
L. Cupressaceae
Junipers

27
The word juniperus is the classical Latin name. The word deppeana is in honor of Ferdinand
Deppe (?-1861), a German botanist who gave this species a name previously used for another
species. An old Scientific name is Juniperus pachyphloea Torr. This species was discovered
in 1851 in the Zuni Mountains of northwestern New Mexico by Dr. S.W. Woodhouse, a
member of the Captain L. Sitgreaves expedition (Zuni and Colorado Rivers).
Other Common Names: Alligator enebro, alligator genevier, alligator jeneverboom,
alligator wacholder, alligator-en, aori, cedro, cedro chino, checker-bark juniper, eastern alliga-
tor juniper, enebro aligator, genevrier, ginepro alligatore, mountain cedar, oakbark juniper,
oak-barked cedar, tascate, thick-barked juniper, tlaxcal, western alligator juniper, western
juniper.
Distribution: Alligator juniper is native to the mountains of Trans-Pecos, Texas, north-
west to northwestern New Mexico and northern and southeastern Arizona. It is also found in
the mountains of northern and central Mexico, in the states of Coahuila, Michoacan, Mex-
ico, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Vera Cruz on dry mountain slopes at 6,000- to 8,000-ft
(1828.8- to 2438.4-m) elevation.
The Tree: Alligator juniper trees reach heights of 50 ft (15.24 m), with diameters of 3 ft
(0.91 m). Record trees have been reported to be 6 ft (1.83 m) in diameter at breast height.
Older trees may reach an age of 400 years.
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of alligator juniper is a light reddish
brown. It is soft, light weight, close grained, and brittle. It is easily worked.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.48 42 673
12% 0.51 36 577
Ovendry 0.54 NA NA
aReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.45 × 106 in/lb23.10 GPa 0.65 × 106 in/lb24.48 GPa
MOR 6.60 × 103 in/lb245.5 MPa 6.70 × 103 in/lb246.2 MPa
C| | 3.73 × 103 in/lb225.7 MPa 4.12 × 103 in/lb228.4 MPa
C⊥1.03 × 103 in/lb27.10 MPa 1.70 × 103 in/lb211.7 MPa
WML 13.4 in-in/lb392.4 kJ/m36.5 in-in/lb344.8 kJ/m3
Hardness 820 lbf 3650 N 1160 lbf 5160 N
Shear| | 1.28 × 103 in/lb28.82 MPa NA NA
aReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard)(3 trees tested).
Juniperus deppeana
Steud.
Cupressaceae
Alligator Juniper

28
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 3.6 NA NA
Radial 2.7 NA NA
Volumetric 7.8 NA NA
aReference (153).
Kiln Drying Schedules: No information at this time.
Working Properties: It is easily worked.
Durability: The heartwood is reported to be very resistant to decay (56, 100).
Preservation: No information at this time.
Uses: Fence posts and fuel.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis and respiratory problems (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44.

29
The word juniperus is the classical Latin name. The word occidentalis means western.
Other Common Names: California juniper, Canada juniper, cedar, enebro occidental,
genevrier occidental, ginepro occidentale, pencilwood, San Bernardino juniper, Sierra juniper,
vasterlandsk en, western cedar, western red cedar, westerse juniper, yellow cedar.
Distribution: Western juniper is native to the mountains of the Pacific Coast region from
central and southeastern Washington south to southwestern Idaho, Oregon, northwestern and
western Nevada, and from northern to southern California.
The Tree: Western juniper trees reach heights of 35 ft (10.67 m), with exceptional trees
reaching heights of 87 ft (26.52 m), with a diameter of more than 13 ft (3.96 m). The older
trees may live for 1,000 years. It was introduced into England in 1840.
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of western juniper is a light red to red-
dish brown. It is durable, fragrant, close grained, moderately heavy, light weight, relatively
soft and brittle, and splits easily.
Mechanical properties: No information available at this time.
Drying and shrinkage: No information available at this time.
Working Properties: It is easily worked and takes a fine finish.
Durability: The heartwood is reported to have good natural durability (45, 52, 192).
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Fence posts, fuel wood, novelties, and potential as a pencil wood.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis and respiratory problems (71, 158, 214).
Juniperus occidentalis
Hook.
Cupressaceae
Western Juniper

30
The word juniperus is the classical Latin name. The word silicicola means growing
in sand. Some authors place southern redcedar as a variety of eastern redcedar
(Juniperus virginiana L.).
Other Common Names: Amerikaanse magnolia, cedre rouge Americain, cedro rosso
Americano, coast juniper, coast red cedar, eastern redcedar, enebro rojo Americano, ginepri
d’America, pencil cedar, red cedar, rod-en, sand-cedar, southern juniper, southern red juniper,
Virginian pencil cedar.
Distribution: Southern redcedar is native to the Coastal Plain of the eastern United States,
mostly near the coast, from northeast North Carolina south to central Florida and west to
southeast Texas.
The Tree: Southern redcedar trees reach heights of 50 ft (15.24 m), with a record of 70 ft
(21.34 m). Heights of virgin growth trees along Apalachee Bay (Florida) are reported to have
been more than 100 ft (30.48 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of southern redcedar is a dull red.
The wood is straight grained, light weight, soft, and weak.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.42 33 529
12% 0.44 31 497
Ovendry 0.45 NA NA
aReference (153)(5 trees tested).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.93 × 106 in/lb26.41 GPa 1.17 × 106 in/lb28.07 GPa
MOR 8.40 × 103 in/lb257.9 MPa 9.40 × 103 in/lb264.8 MPa
C| | 4.36 × 103 in/lb230.1 MPa 6.57 × 103 in/lb245.3 MPa
C⊥0.91 × 103 in/lb26.27 MPa 1.00 × 103 in/lb26.89 MPa
WML 8.8 in-in/lb360.7 kJ/m35.4 in-in/lb337.2 kJ/m3
Hardness 580 lbf 2580 N 610 lbf 2710 N
Shear| | 1.19 × 103 in/lb28.20 MPa 0.75 × 103 in/lb25.17 MPa
aReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard) (5 trees tested).
Juniperus silicicola
(Small) Bailey
Cupressaceae
Southern Redcedar

31
Kiln Drying Schedules: No information available at this time.
Working Properties: It works and finishes well.
Durability: No information available at this time.
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: No information available at this time.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis and respiratory problems (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 122, 204.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 4.0 NA NA
Radial 2.2 NA NA
Volumetric 7.0 NA NA
aReference (153)(5 trees tested).

32
The word juniperus is the classical Latin name. The word virginiana means “of Virginia.”
Other Common Names: Amerikaanse magnolia, Amerikansk rod-ceder, bleistift-zeder,
blyerts-en, cedar, cederhoutboom, cedre, cedre de Virginie, cedre rouge, cedre rouge Ameri-
cain, cedro per matite, cedro rosso Americano, cedro vermelho, coast juniper, coast red cedar,
eastern red juniper, enebro Americano, enebro criollo, enebro rojo Americano, enebro Vir-
giniano, genevrier rouge, genevrier rouge de l’Amerique, ginepri d’America, ginepro della
Virginia, Ienuparul virginiana, juniper, pencil cedar, pencil juniper, red cedar, red juniper,
rod-en, sabina de costa, sand cedar, savin, savin red cedar, southern juniper, southern red ce-
dar, southern red juniper, Tennessee red cedar, Virginiaanse jeneverbes, Virginian cedar,
Virginian pencil, cedar, Virginische zeder, Virginische potlood-ceder, Virginische seven-
boom, Virginischer wacholder.
Distribution: Eastern redcedar is native to the eastern half of the United States, from
Maine west to New York, Quebec, Ontario, Michigan, Minnesota, South Dakota, and
North Dakota south to Nebraska and Texas east through Florida and Georgia.
The Tree: Eastern redcedar has the widest distribution of any other conifer in the eastern
United States. It can reach heights of 120 ft (36.58 m) and a diameter of 4 ft (1.22 m). It is
a pioneer species, being one of the first trees to invade disturbed areas. It grows very slowly,
such that trees 20 years old are only about 20 ft (6.10 m) tall and 3 in. (7.62 cm) in diame-
ter. Older trees have wide, fluted, buttressed bases.
General Wood Characteristics: Eastern redcedar has a thin, white sapwood, and the
heartwood is red to deep reddish-brown. The sapwood may be in stripes, alternating with the
heartwood. It has a fine, uniform texture and a straight grain, except where deflected by
knots. The wood is moderately low in strength and stiffness, but it is high in shock resis-
tance. It shrinks little during drying and has good dimensional stability.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (33%)a0.44b37c593
12% 0.47b33c529
Ovendry 0.49cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.65 × 106 in/lb24.48 GPa 0.88 × 106 in/lb26.07 GPa
MOR 7.00 × 103 in/lb248.3 MPa 8.80 × 103 in/lb260.7 MPa
C| | 3.57 × 103 in/lb224.6 MPa 6.02 × 103 in/lb241.5 MPa
C⊥0.70 × 103 in/lb24.83 MPa 0.92 × 103 in/lb26.34 MPa
WML 15.0 in-in/lb3103.4 kJ/m38.3 in-in/lb357.2 kJ/m3
Hardness 650 lbf 2890 N 900 lbf 4000 N
Shear| | 1.01 × 103 in/lb26.96 MPa NA NA
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Juniperus virginiana L.
Cupressaceae
Eastern Redcedar

33
Kiln drying schedule
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T5-A4 NA T5-A3 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Eastern redcedar is easy to work with both hand and machine tools
and has a straight grain. It has tight knots, which can add to the beauty of the wood. It splits
easily, holds nails well, and has excellent gluing properties.
Durability: The heartwood is highly resistant to decay and attack by insects, including
termites (56). The scent of the wood is said to be a natural insect repellent, although this has
not been demonstrated scientifically.
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Fence posts, chests, wardrobes, closet linings, pencils, carvings, pet bedding, furni-
ture, flooring, scientific instruments, small boats and household items. The trees are also
used for Christmas trees. Oil from the wood (cedrol) is used in the manufacture of perfumes
and medicines.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis and respiratory problems (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 9, 14, 71, 72, 95, 122, 183.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% Mca6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 4.7 3.8 1.6
Radial 3.1 2.5 1.0
Volumetric 7.8 6.2 2.6
aMay contain knot checks and/or excessive loss of
aromatic oils, possibly caused by excessive drying
temperatures (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

34
The genus Larix contains about 10 species, native to North America [3] and Eurasia [7]. The
wood of all species in this genus looks alike microscopically. Larix is the classical name of
Larix decidua Mill., or European larch. The species native to North America are listed below.
An asterisk means that technical information os available on this species and is included in
this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Larix laricina* Tamarack
Larix lyallii Subalpine larch
Larix occidentalis* Western larch
Larix spp. Mill.
Pinaceae
Larches

35
Larix is the classical name of Larix decidua Mill., or European larch. The word laricina de-
notes its similarity to European larch (known as Pinus larix L. at the time of tamaracks
naming).
Other Common Names: Alaska larch, alerce Americano, American larch, Amerikaanse
lariks, Amerikansk lark, Amerikansk svart-gran, black larch, Eastern Canadian larch, eastern
larch, epinette rouge, hackmatack, hacmack, juniper, Kanada-lark, ka-neh-tens, meleze
d’Amerique, red larch, tamarac meieze occidental, tamarac meleze occidental, tamarack larch,
tamarak.
Distribution: Tamarack grows across northern North America near the northern limit of
tree growth. It grows from Newfoundland, Labrador, and Quebec west to Hudson Bay,
Mackinaw, the Yukon, and southern Alaska south to British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba,
Minnesota, Wisconsin, northeastern Illinois east to Indiana, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and
Maine. It occurs locally in the mountains of West Virginia and Maryland.
The Tree: In general, tamarack grows to heights of 75 ft (22.86 m), with a diameter of
2 ft (0.61 m), occasionally reaching heights of 115 ft (35.05 m), with a diameter of 3.5 ft
(1.07 m). Trees 80 ft (24.38 m) tall and 2 ft (0.61 m) in diameter were once common in the
Lake States. In the interior of Alaska, tamaracks are commonly 10 ft (3.05 m) tall and 3 in.
(7.62 cm) in diameter. On good sites, in Alaska, tamarack reaches heights of 90 ft
(27.43 m), with diameters of 1 ft (0.30 m). Maximum ages of tamarack are about
180 years, but trees 335 years old have been found.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of tamarack is white and narrow (less
than 1 in.((2.54 cm) wide), and the heartwood is yellow to russet brown. The wood is me-
dium to fine in texture, has a silvery cast and an oily feel, and has no distinctive odor or
taste. It is intermediate in strength, stiffness, and hardness. It is moderately high in shock
resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (49%)a0.49b47c753
12% 0.53b37c593
Ovendry 0.57cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.24 × 106 in/lb28.55 GPa 1.64 × 106 in/lb211.3 GPa
MOR 7.2 × 103 in/lb249.6 MPa 11.6 × 103 in/lb280.0 MPa
C| | 3.48 × 103 in/lb224.0 MPa 7.16 × 103 in/lb249.4 MPa
C⊥0.39 × 103 in/lb22.69 MPa 0.80 × 103 in/lb25.52 MPa
WML 7.2 in-in/lb349.6 kJ/m37.1 in-in/lb348.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 380 lbf 1690 N 590 lbf 2620 N
Shear| | 0.86 × 103 in/lb25.93 MPa 1.28 × 103 in/lb28.82 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Larix laricina
(Du Roi) K. Koch
Pinaceae
Tamarack

36
Kiln drying schedule
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T11-B3 NA T10-B3 T7-A3 T7-A3 K
aReferences (28, 74, 185).
Working Properties: Tamarack works well in most instances, but may have a dulling
effect on tools. It has a tendency to split when nailed and is low in paint retention.
Durability: The heartwood of tamarack is moderately resistant to heartwood decay (56).
Preservation: It is difficult to penetrate with preservatives (56).
Uses: Pulp products (glassine paper), posts, poles, mine timbers, rough timber, fuel wood,
boxes, crates, and pails. In Alaska, young stems are used for dogsled runners, boat ribs, and
fish traps. In Alberta, the branches are used for making goose and duck decoys.
Toxicity: At this time, no information exists on tamarack, but other species of larch can
cause dermatitis and contact urticaria (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 80, 122, 163.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.4 5.9 2.5
Radial 3.7 3.0 1.2
Volumetric 13.6 10.9 4.5
aTamarack has moderately large shrinkage, but exhibits
moderately low warping and checking. Reference (84).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

37
Larix is the classical name of Larix decidua Mill., or European larch. The word occidentalis
means western.
Other Common Names: Alerce Americano occidental, British Columbia tamarack,
hackmatack, larice Americano occidentale, larice occidentale, meleze occidental, Montana
larch, mountain larch, Oregon larch, red American larch, roughbarked larch, tamarack,
vastAmerikansk lark, westAmerikaanse lariks, westAmerikaanse lork, westAmerikanische
larche, western tamarack.
Distribution: Western larch is native to the high mountains of the upper Columbia River
Basin in southeastern British Columbia, northwestern Montana, northern and central Idaho,
Washington, and northern and northeastern Oregon.
The Tree: Western larch trees reach heights of 180 ft (54.86 m), with diameters of 4 ft
(1.22 m) at an age of 400 years. Older trees, 700 years, may reach heights of 200 ft
(60.96 m), with diameters of 8 ft (2.44 m). About two-thirds of the lumber of this species
is produced in Idaho and Montana and a third in Oregon and Washington.
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of western larch is yellowish brown,
and the sapwood is yellowish white. The sapwood is generally not more than 1 in.
(2.54 cm) thick. The wood is stiff, moderately strong and hard, moderately high in shock
resistance, and moderately heavy. It has moderately high shrinkage. The wood is usually
straight grained, splits easily, and is subject to ring shake. Knots are common but generally
small and tight. The properties of western larch are similar to those of Douglas-fir, and
sometimes the lumber is sold mixed.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (54%)a0.48b48c769
12% 0.52b36c577
Ovendry 0.59cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.46 × 106 in/lb210.1 GPa 1.87 × 106 in/lb212.9 GPa
MOR 7.70 × 103 in/lb253.1 MPa 13.0 × 103 in/lb289.6 MPa
C| | 3.76 × 103 in/lb225.9 MPa 7.62 × 103 in/lb252.5 MPa
C⊥0.40 × 103 in/lb22.76 MPa 0.93 × 103 in/lb26.41 MPa
WML 10.3 in-in/lb371.0 kJ/m312.6 in-in/lb386.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 510 lbf 2270 N 830 lbf 3690 N
Shear| | 0.87 × 103 in/lb26.00 MPa 1.36 × 103 in/lb29.38 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Larix occidentalis Nutt.
Pinaceae
Western Larch

38
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades T7-C5bNA T7-C5cNA NA NA
Upper grades T9-B4 T7-C4 T7-C3 T7-A3 T7-A2 Kd
aReferences (28, 185).
bMaximum wet-bulb depression 20oF. Reference (185).
c Maximum wet-bulb depression 25oF. Reference (185).
dReference (74).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400/414 NA
aReferences (28, 186).
Working Properties: Western larch is somewhat difficult to work, but takes a smooth,
hard finish. It has a minor dulling effect on tools. It has a tendency to split when nailed,
unless blunt-pointed nails are used. Material with a high resin content may have problems
with accepting stains and paint, unless properly seasoned. The wood can be glued
satisfactorily.
Durability: The heartwood of western larch is moderately resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: It is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Western larch is used mainly in building construction for rough dimension, small
timbers, planks and boards, and mine timbers. It is used also for piles, poles, and posts.
Some high-grade material is manufactured into interior finish, flooring, sash, and doors.
Toxicity: At this time, there is no information on western larch, but other species of larch
can cause dermatitis and contact urticaria (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 78, 122, 151, 173.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 9.1 6.3 2.6
Radial 4.5 3.4 1.4
Volumetric 14.0 9.5 4.0
aMay contain shake (ring failure, checks or resin
exudate), possibly caused by wetwood (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

39
The genus Libocedrus contains about 10 species native to North America [1], South America
[1], and the western Pacific from New Zealand to China [8]. It is sometimes placed in the
segregate genus, Calocedrus Kurz. The word libocedrus is from the Greek, drop or tear, and
cedrus, cedar, referring to the resin drops. It is anatomically distinct from other similar soft-
woods. The species native to North America is listed below. An asterisk means that techni-
cal information is available on this species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Libocedrus decurrens* Incense-Cedar
Libocedrus spp. Endl.
Cupressaceae
Incense-Cedar

40
The word libocedrus is from the Greek, drop or tear, and cedrus, cedar, referring to the resin
drops. The word decurrens means decurrent, referring to the scale leaves running down the
twig.
Other Common Names: Amerikaanse potlood-ceder, bastard cedar, California calocedar,
California incense cedar, California post cedar, Californische witte ceder, cedar, cedre a cray-
ons, cedro bianco, cedro bianco di California, cedro de incienso, geurende ceder, heyderie,
juniper, Kalifornisch fluss-zeder, libocedro, libocedro de California, libocedro dell’America,
pencil cedar, post cedar, red cedar, rod-ceder, roughbark cedar, weihrauch-zeder, wei-
hrauchzeder, white cedar, Witte cedar.
Distribution: Incense-cedar is native to the mountains from western Oregon in higher
Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada to southern California and extreme western Nevada, also in
northern Baja Peninsula of Mexico.
The Tree: Incense-cedar trees commonly reach heights of 100 ft (30.48 m), with diameters
of 5 ft (1.52 m) and an age of 500 years. Record trees reach 150 ft (45.72 m) in height, with
9 ft (2.74 m) diameters.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of incense-cedar is a creamy white, and
the heartwood is light brown to light reddish brown. The heartwood has an aromatic, spicy
odor, and is highly resistant to decay. Much of the incense-cedar lumber is more or less
pecky; that is, it contains pockets or areas of disintegrated wood caused by advanced stages of
localized decay in the living tree. There is no additional development of peck after the lumber
is seasoned. It holds paint extremely well, has an unusually straight grain, and has high di-
mensional stability. It also has a low coefficient of thermal conductivity; that is, it performs
well in structures that are kept dry but are subjected to considerable temperature fluctuations.
It is light weight, moderately low to low in strength, shock resistance, stiffness, and
hardness.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green (40%)a0.35b45c721
12% 0.37b24c384
Ovendry 0.37bNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56)
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.84 × 106 in/lb25.79 GPa 1.04 × 106 in/lb27.17 GPa
MOR 6.20 × 103 in/lb242.7 MPa 8.00 × 103 in/lb255.2 MPa
C| | 3.15 × 103 in/lb221.7 MPa 5.20 × 103 in/lb235.8 MPa
C⊥0.37 × 103 in/lb22.55 MPa 0.59 × 103 in/lb24.07 MPa
WML 6.4 in-in/lb344.1 kJ/m35.4 in-in/lb337.2 kJ/m3
Hardness 390 lbf 1730 N 470 lbf 2090 N
Shear| | 0.83 ×103 in/lb25.72 MPa 0.88 ×103 in/lb26.07 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Libocedrus decurrens
Torr.
Cupressaceae
Incense-Cedar

41
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T11-B5 NA T10-B4 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 290b290 289 290b290 289 296
aReferences (28, 185).
bUse 12 h for each setting; decrease dry- and wet-bulb settings by 10o
for the first 48 h.
Working Properties: Incense-cedar works well with hand tools and machines well, form-
ing smooth surfaces. It glues and nails well, but blunt nails should be used to avoid splinter-
ing the wood.
Durability: The heartwood of incense cedar is resistant to very resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Incense-cedar is used principally for lumber and fence posts. Nearly all high grade
lumber is used for pencils (#1 species for pencil stock) and venetian blinds. Some is used for
chests and toys. Other products are poles and split shingles. It is also used for sheathing un-
der stucco or brick veneer construction, mudsills, rafters, window sashes, greenhouse
benches, nursery flats, boardwalks, grave linings, casket shooks, exterior siding, sheathing,
subflooring, interior paneling, closet lining, pencils, “mothproof” chests, novelties, rails,
grape stakes, trellises, feed troughs, farm outbuildings, and fuel wood.
Toxicity: Can cause contact dermatitis and/or eczema (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 4, 72, 75, 122, 147, 161.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 5.2 4.2 1.7
Radial 3.3 2.6 1.1
Volumetric 7.7 6.1 2.5
aHeavy stock may contain water pockets and be prone to
collapse, possibly as a result of wetwood and/or excessive
drying temperatures (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

42
The genus Picea is composed of about 30 species native to North America [7], Mexico [2],
and Eurasia [20]. The wood of all species in this genus looks alike microscopically. The
word picea comes from the ancient Latin name (pix, picis = pitch) of a pitchy pine, probably
Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The species native to North America are listed below. An
asterisk means that technical information is available on this species and is included in this
text.
Scientific name Trade name
Picea brewerana Brewer spruce
Picea engelmannii* Engelmann spruce
Picea glauca* White spruce
Picea mariana* Black spruce
Picea pungens Blue spruce
Picea rubens* Red spruce
Picea sitchensis* Sitka spruce
Picea spp. A. Dietr.
Pinaceae
Spruces

43
The word picea comes from the ancient Latin name (pix, picis = pitch) of a pitchy pine,
probably Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The word engelmannii is named for George
Engelmann (1809–1884), German born physician and botanist of St. Louis, an authority on
conifers who first recognized this species as not previously described.
Other Common Names: Arizona spruce, balsam, Columbian spruce, Engelmann elm,
Engelmann spar, Engelmann-fichte, Engelmanns-gran, epicea d’Engelmann, epinette
d’Engelmann, mountain spruce, picea de Englemann, picea di Engelmann, pino real, real
pino, Rocky Mountain spruce, silver spruce, spruces d’America, western white spruce, white
pine, white spruce.
Distribution: Engelmann spruce is native to the Rocky Mountain region from southwest-
ern Alberta and central British Columbia, south in the high mountains from Washington to
northern California, east to eastern Nevada, southeastern Arizona and southern New Mexico
and north to Wyoming and central Montana. About two-thirds of the lumber is produced in
the southern Rocky Mountain States. Most of the remainder comes from the northern Rocky
Mountain States and Oregon.
The Tree: Engelmann spruce trees commonly reach heights of 130 ft (39.62 m), with di-
ameters of 3 ft (0.91 m). Larger trees may exceed 130 ft (39.62 m) in height and 3.5 ft
(1.07 m) in diameter.
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of Engelmann spruce is nearly white
with a slight tinge of red. The sapwood varies from 0.75 to 2 in. (1.90 to 5.08 cm) in width
and is often difficult to distinguish from heartwood. The wood has medium to fine texture
and is without characteristic taste or odor. It is generally straight grained and light in weight.
It is low in strength as a beam or post. It is limber, soft, low in shock resistance, and has
moderately small shrinkage. The lumber typically contains numerous small knots.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(51%)a0.33b39c625
12% 0.35b23c368
Ovendry 0.35cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.03 × 106 in/lb27.10 GPa 1.30 × 106 in/lb28.96 GPa
MOR 4.70 × 103 in/lb232.4 MPa 9.30 × 103 in/lb264.1 MPa
C| | 2.18 × 103 in/lb215.0 MPa 4.48 × 103 in/lb230.9 MPa
C⊥0.20 × 103 in/lb21.38 MPa 0.41 × 103 in/lb22.83 MPa
WML 5.1 in-in/lb335.2 kJ/m36.4 in-in/lb344.1 kJ/m3
Hardness 260 lbf 1160 N 390 lbf 1730 N
Shear| | 0.64 × 103 in/lb24.41 MPa 1.20 × 103 in/lb28.27 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Picea engelmannii
Parry ex. Engelm.
Pinaceae
Engelmann Spruce

44
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 7.1 5.3 2.2
Radial 3.8 2.7 1.1
Volumetric 11.0 8.3 3.5
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades T7-B6 T5-B5 T5-B5bNA NA NA
Upper grades T9-E5 NA T7-E4 T7-A4 T7-A3 K
aReferences (28, 185).
bMaximum wet-bulb depression 2°F (-4°C). Reference (185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 291 289 289 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 178).
Working Properties: Engelmann spruce is easily worked.
Durability: The heartwood of spruce is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Engelmann spruce is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Engelmann spruce is used principally for lumber and mine timbers, railroad cross
ties, and poles. It is also used in building construction as dimension lumber, flooring,
sheathing, and studding. It has excellent properties for pulp and paper making.
Toxicity: Working with fresh spruce wood can cause dermatitis or other contact sensitivity
(71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 2, 46, 52, 53, 75, 119, 151, 210.

45
The word picea comes from the ancient Latin name (pix, picis = pitch) of a pitchy pine,
probably Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The word glauca means glaucous, or covered
with a bloom, referring to the blue green foliage.
Other Common Names: Adirondack spruce, Alberta spar, Alberta spruce, Alberta white
spruce, Alberta-gran, Black Hills spruce, blue spruce, bog spruce, Canadese spar, Canadese
witte spar, Canadian spruce, cat spruce, double spruce, eastern blue spruce, eastern Canadian
spruce, eastern spruce, epicea Canadien, epinette a biere, epinette blanche, epinette grise,
epinette jaune, he-balsam, juniper, Labrador spruce, Maritime spruce, New Brunswick
spruce, northern spruce, Nova Scotia spruce, picea Canadese, picea de Alberta, picea de Can-
ada, picea del Canada, picea di Alberta, pine, Porsild spruce, Quebec spruce, sapin blanc,
sapin de Normandie, sapinette blanche, sapinette d’Alberta, single spruce, skunk spruce,
spruce pine, spruces d’America, St. John’s spruce, transcontinental spruce, vit-gran, water
spruce, western white spruce, wit-spar, yew pine.
Distribution: White spruce is native to widespread areas across northern North America
near the northern limit of trees, from Newfoundland, Labrador, and northern Quebec, west to
the Hudson Bay, northwest Mackinaw, and northwestern and southwestern Alaska, south to
southern British Columbia, southern Alberta and northwestern Montana, east to southern
Manitoba, central Minnesota, central Michigan, southern Ontario, northern New York and
Maine. It is also found locally in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming.
The Tree: White spruce trees reach heights of 110 ft (33.53 m), with diameters of 2 ft
(0.61 m). Exceptionally large trees have been reported with a height of 150 ft (45.72 m) and
a diameter of 4 ft (1.22).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood dries easily, is stable after drying, is moder-
ately light in weight and easily worked, has moderate shrinkage, and is moderately strong,
stiff, tough, and hard. It is straight, even grained, soft, and finishes with a satin-like surface.
The wood is creamy white or straw colored, and there is little difference between the color of
the heartwood and sapwood.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.33a35b561
12% 0.36a28b449
Ovendry 0.45bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.14 × 106 in/lb27.86 GPa 1.43 × 106 in/lb29.86 GPa
MOR 5.00 × 103 in/lb234.5 MPa 9.40 × 103 in/lb264.8 MPa
C| | 2.35 × 103 in/lb216.2 MPa 5.18 × 103 in/lb235.7 MPa
C⊥0.21 × 103 in/lb21.45 MPa 0.43 × 103 in/lb22.96 MPa
WML 6.0 in-in/lb341.4 kJ/m37.7 in-in/lb353.1 kJ/m3
Hardness 320 lbf 1420 N 480 lbf 2130 N
Shear| | 0.64 × 103 in/lb24.41 MPa 0.97 × 103 in/lb26.69 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Picea glauca
(Moench) Voss
Pinaceae
White Spruce

46
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stocka6/4
stocka8/4
stocka10/4
stocka12/4
stockaBritish schedule
4/4 stockb
Standard T11-B4 NA T10-B3 T5-A2 T5-A2 K
aReferences (28, 185).
bReference (73).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 291 289 289 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 Studs/412
Gas-fired Kilns 410 NA 411 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: White spruce is easily worked.
Durability: The heartwood of spruce is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: White spruce is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: The largest use of white spruce is pulpwood. It is also used for framing material,
general millwork, boxes and crates, and piano sounding boards.
Toxicity: Working with fresh spruce wood can cause dermatitis or other contact sensitivity
(71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 7, 46, 53, 119, 160.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 8.2 NA NA
Radial 4.7 NA NA
Volumetric 13.7 NA NA
aReference (192). May contain pockets, collapse, or ring failure,
possibly as a result of wetwood (rare occurrence in northern
and southern limits of botanical range)(185).

47
The word picea comes from the ancient Latin name (pix, picis = pitch) of a pitchy pine,
probably Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The word mariana means “of Maryland,” in the
broad sense for North America, as this species is not native to Maryland.
Other Common Names: Amerikaanse zwarte spar, Amerikansk svart-gran, blue spruce,
bog spruce, Canadian spruce, double spruce, eastern spruce, Eastern Canadian spruce, epicea
noir d’Amerique, epinette batarde, epinette jaune, epinette noire, he balsam, he-balsam, juni-
per, muckeag spruce, New Brunswick spruce, picea negra Americana, picea nera Americana,
Quebec spruce, sapin noir, sapinette noire, sapinette noire’Amerique, schwarz-fichte,
schwarzfichte, shortleaf black spruce, spruce pine, spruces d’America, St. John’s spruce,
swamp black spruce, swamp spruce, transcontinental spruce, water spruce, western spruce,
yew pine.
Distribution: Black spruce has a widespread distribution across northern North America
near the northern limit of trees, from Newfoundland, Labrador, and northern Quebec, west to
the Hudson Bay, northwest Mackinaw, and central, western and southern Alaska, south to
central British Columbia, and east to southern Manitoba, central Minnesota, Wisconsin,
southeastern Michigan southern Ontario, New York, central and northeastern Pennsylvania,
northern New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts.
The Tree: Black spruce trees reach heights of more than 50 ft (15.24 m), with diameters of
1 ft (0.30 m). Exceptional trees grow to 90 ft (27.43 m), with a diameter of almost 2 ft
(0.61 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood dries easily, is stable after drying, is moder-
ately light in weight and easily worked, has moderate shrinkage, and is moderately strong,
stiff, tough, and hard. It is not very resistant to bending or end-wise compression. It is
straight, even grained, medium to fine textured, soft, and produces a lustrous finish. It is
without characteristic odor or taste. The wood is a pale yellowish white, and there is little
difference in color between the heartwood and sapwood. It has exceptional resonance quali-
ties, in the form of thin boards. It has moderately high shrinkage, but is easily air or kiln
dried.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(52%)a0.38b32c513
12% 0.42b28c449
Ovendry 0.43cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.38 × 106 in/lb29.51 GPa 1.61 × 106 in/lb211.0 GPa
MOR 6.10 × 103 in/lb242.1 MPa 10.8 × 103 in/lb274.5 MPa
C| | 2.84 × 103 in/lb219.6 MPa 5.96 × 103 in/lb241.1 MPa
C⊥0.24 × 103 in/lb21.65 MPa 0.55 × 103 in/lb23.79 MPa
WML 7.4 in-in/lb351.0 kJ/m310.5 in-in/lb372.4 kJ/m3
Hardness 370 lbf 1640 N 520 lbf 2310 N
Shear| | 0.74 × 103 in/lb25.10 MPa 1.23 × 103 in/lb28.48 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Picea mariana
(Mill.) B.S.P.
Pinaceae
Black Spruce

48
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T11-B4 NA T10-B3 T5-A2 T5-A2 K
aReferences (28, 74, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 291 289 289 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: It is easily worked, glues well, is average in paint-holding ability,
but rates low in nail-holding capacity.
Durability: The heartwood of spruce is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: It is difficult to penetrate with preservatives (56).
Uses: The largest use of black spruce is pulpwood. It is also used for framing material,
general millwork, boxes and crates, and piano sounding boards.
Toxicity: Working with fresh spruce wood can cause dermatitis or other contact sensitivity
(71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 46, 53, 59, 72, 119, 164, 196.
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 6.8 5.4 2.3
Radial 4.1 3.3 1.4
Volumetric 11.3 9.0 3.8
aReference (56).
bReference (192).

49
The word picea comes from the ancient Latin name (pix, picis = pitch) of a pitchy pine,
probably Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The word rubens means reddish, referring to the
reddish-brown cones.
Other Common Names: Abetina rossa, Adirondack spruce, black spruce, blue spruce,
Canadese rode spar, Canadian red spruce, Canadian spruce, double spruce, eastern spruce,
epicea rouge du Canada, he balsam, he-balsam, Hudson-fichte, Kanadensisk rod-gran, North
American red spruce, picea roja de Canada, picea rossa del Canada, rot-fichte, sapinette rouge
du Canada, spruce pine, spruces d’America, West Virginia spruce, yellow spruce.
Distribution: Red spruce is native to Cape Breton Islands, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns-
wick, west to Maine, southern Quebec, and southeastern Ontario and south to central New
York, northeastern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey, and Massachusetts. It also grows in
the Appalachian Mountains of extreme western Maryland, eastern West Virginia, northern
and western Virginia, western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee.
The Tree: Red spruce can reach heights of 110 ft (33.53 m), with diameters of 4.5 ft (1.37
m). At the northern limit of its range, red spruce reaches heights of only 80 ft (24.38 m),
with diameters of 2 ft (0.61 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood dries easily and is stable after drying, is
moderately light in weight and easily worked, has moderate shrinkage, and is moderately
strong, stiff, tough, and hard. It is not very resistant to bending or end-wise compression. It
is straight, even grained, medium to fine textured, soft, and produces a lustrous finish. It is
without characteristic odor or taste. The wood is a pale yellowish white, and there is little
difference in color between the heartwood and sapwood. It has exceptional resonance quali-
ties, in the form of thin boards. It has moderately high shrinkage, but is easily air or kiln
dried.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.37a34b545
12% 0.40a28b449
Ovendry 0.41bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.33 × 106 in/lb29.17 GPa 1.61 × 106 in/lb211.1 GPa
MOR 6.00 × 103 in/lb241.4 MPa 10.8 × 103 in/lb274.5 MPa
C| | 2.72 × 103 in/lb218.7 MPa 5.54 × 103 in/lb238.2 MPa
C⊥0.26 × 103 in/lb21.79 MPa 0.55 × 103 in/lb23.79 MPa
WML 6.9 in-in/lb347.6 kJ/m38.4 in-in/lb357.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 350 lbf 1560 N 490 lbf 2180 N
Shear| | 0.75 × 103 in/lb25.17 MPa 1.29 × 103 in/lb28.89 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Picea rubens Sarg.
Pinaceae
Red Spruce

50
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 7.8 6.2 2.6
Radial 3.8 3.0 1.3
Volumetric 11.8 9.4 3.9
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T11-B4 NA T10-B3 T5-A2 T5-A2 K
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 291 291 291 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 410 NA 411 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: It is easily worked, glues well, has average paint-holding ability,
and low nail-holding capacity.
Durability: The heartwood of spruce is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: It is difficult to penetrate with preservatives (56).
Uses: The largest use of red spruce is pulpwood. It is also used for framing material, gen-
eral millwork, boxes and crates, and piano sounding boards.
Toxicity: Working with fresh spruce wood can cause dermatitis or other contact sensitivity
(711, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 16, 25, 46, 53, 74, 119, 164, 188.

51
The word picea comes from the ancient Latin name (pix, picis = pitch) of a pitchy pine,
probably Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The word sitchensis is for Sitka Island (now
Baranof Island) in southeastern Alaska.
Other Common Names: Abete di Sitka, British Columbia sitka-spruce, coast west
spruce, coast spruce, eipcea de Menzies, epicea de Menzies, epicea de Sitka, epinette de sitka,
great tideland spruce, Menzies spar, Menzies spruce, Menziesie, picea de Sitka, picea di
Sitka, sequoia silver spruce, silver spruce, Sitka spar, Sitka-fichte, Sitkafichte, Sitka-gran,
sitka-gran, Sitkankuusi, Sitka-spar, spruces d’America, tideland spruce, West Coast spruce,
western spruce, yellow spruce.
Distribution: Sitka spruce is native to the Pacific Coast region from southern Alaska
(Kodiak Island and Cook Inlet), southeast through southeastern Alaska, western British Co-
lumbia, western Washington, western Oregon, and northwestern California.
The Tree: Sitka spruce trees normally reach heights of 160 ft (48.77 m), with diameters of
5 ft (1.52 m). A record tree was recorded to be 216 ft (65.84 m) tall, with a diameter of
16.7 ft (5.09 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of Sitka spruce is a creamy white to
light yellow, and the heartwood is pinkish yellow to brown. The sapwood may be 3 to 6 in.
(7.62 to 15.24 cm) wide or even wider in young trees. The wood has a fine, uniform texture
and generally has a straight grain. It is moderately light in weight, moderately low in bend-
ing and compressive strength, moderately stiff, moderately soft, and moderately low in resis-
tance to shock. On the basis of weight, it rates high in strength properties and can be ob-
tained in clear, straight-grained pieces. It has moderately small shrinkage. It is not difficult to
kiln dry and can be worked easily (when free of knots).
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(41%)a0.37b33c529
12% 0.40b28c449
Ovendry 0.42cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.23 × 106 in/lb28.48 GPa 1.57 × 106 in/lb210.8 GPa
MOR 5.70 × 103 in/lb239.3 MPa 10.2 × 103 in/lb270.3 MPa
C| | 2.67 × 103 in/lb218.4 MPa 5.61 × 103 in/lb238.7 MPa
C⊥0.28 × 103 in/lb21.93 MPa 0.58 × 103 in/lb24.00 MPa
WML 6.3 in-in/lb343.4 kJ/m39.4 in-in/lb364.8 kJ/m3
Hardness 350 lbf 1560 N 510 lbf 2270 N
Shear| | 0.76 × 103 in/lb25.24 MPa 1.15 × 103 in/lb27.93 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Picea sitchensis
(Bong.) Carr.
Pinaceae
Sitka Spruce

52
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades T7-A5 NA NA NA NA NA
Upper grades T12-B5 T12-B4 T11-B3 T5-B2 T5-B2 J
aReference (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 294 294 287 287 287 290 288
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Sitka spruce is easily worked if free of knots.
Durability: The heartwood of spruce is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: It is resistant to preservation treatments under pressure, but can be treated
by a water diffusion process.
Uses: Sitka spruce is used principally for lumber, pulpwood, and cooperage. Boxes and
crates account for a considerable amount of the remanufactured lumber. Other important uses
are furniture, planing-mill products, sash, doors, blinds, millwork, sounding boards for high
quality pianos, guitar faces, ladders (rails), components for experimental light aircraft, oars,
planking, masts and spars for boats, and turbine blades and boats. Sitka spruce has been by
far the most important wood for aircraft construction, because it has the highest strength to
weight ratio. Thin panels of Stika spruce are highly resonant, making them desirable for
piano sounding boards.
Toxicity: Working with fresh wood can cause dermatitis or other contact sensitivities
(71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 15, 37, 46, 53, 66, 69, 72, 119, 201.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 7.5 6.0 3.8
Radial 4.3 3.4 1.4
Volumetric 11.5 9.2 2.5
aYoung growth may contain checks, splits or raised
grain, possibly caused by fast-growth juvenile wood
(185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

53
The genus Pinus is composed of about 95 species native to the New World (North America
and South America) [60] and the Old World (Eurasia and northern Africa) [35]. In the New
World, it is native to the West Indies [4], Central America [5], Mexico [38], the United
States, and Canada [37]. The wood of pine can be separated microscopically into the white,
red, yellow, and the foxtail/pinyon pine groups. Pines native to the southeastern United
States are generally referred to as “The Southern Pines,” all of which are in the yellow pine
group. The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The species native to North America are
listed below. An asterisk means that technical information is available on this species and is
included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name Anatomical Group
Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine White
Pinus aristata Bristlecone pine Foxtail/Pinyon
Pinus attenuata Knobcone pine Yellow
Pinus balfouriana Foxtail pine Foxtail/Pinyon
Pinus banksiana* Jack pine Yellow
Pinus cembroides Mexican pinyon Foxtail/Pinyon
Pinus clausa* Sand pine Yellow
Pinus contorta* Lodgepole pine Yellow
Pinus coulteri Coulter pine Yellow
Pinus echinata* Shortleaf pine Yellow
Pinus edulis* Pinyon Foxtail/Pinyon
Pinus elliottii* Slash pine Yellow
Pinus engelmannii Apache pine Yellow
Pinus flexilis* Limber pine White
Pinus glabra* Spruce pine Yellow
Pinus jeffreyi* Jeffrey pine Yellow
Pinus lambertiana* Sugar pine White
Pinus leiophylla Chihuahua pine Yellow
Pinus monophylla Singleleaf Pinyon Foxtail/Pinyon
Pinus monticola* Western White pine White
Pinus muricata Bishop pine Yellow
Pinus palustris* Longleaf pine Yellow
Pinus ponderosa* Ponderosa pine Yellow
Pinus pungens* Table Mountain pine Yellow
Pinus quadrifolia Parry Pinyon Foxtail/Pinyon
Pinus radiata* Monterey pine Yellow
Pinus resinosa* Red pine Red
Pinus rigida* Pitch pine Yellow
Pinus sabiniana Digger pine Yellow
Pinus serotina* Pond pine Yellow
Pinus strobiformis Southwestern White pine White
Pinus strobus* Eastern White pine White
Pinus taeda* Loblolly pine Yellow
Pinus torreyana Torrey pine Yellow
Pinus virginiana* Virginia pine Yellow
Pinus washoensis Washoe pine Yellow
Pinus L. Pinaceae
Pines

54
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word banksiana is used in dedication to Jo-
seph Banks (1743–1820), director of Kew Gardens, England, botanical collector, and patron
of sciences, to whom its author was obliged for first knowledge of it.
Other Common Names: Banks-den, Banksian pine, banksiana-tall, Banks-pijn, banks-
tall, black jack pine, black pine, blackjack pine, British Honduras pitch pine, bull pine,
Canada horn pine, Canada horn-cone pine, Canadian horn pine, check pine, chek pine,
cypres, cypress, eastern jack-pine, gray pine, Hudson Bay pine, juniper, labrador pine, north-
ern scrub pine, pin chetif, pin de Banks, pin des rochers, pin gris, pin gris d’Amerique, pino
banksiano, princess pine, scrub pine, Sir Joseph banks pine, Sir Joseph Banks pine, spruce
pine, zwerg-kiefer.
Distribution: Jack pine is native to Cape Breton Islands, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward
Island, New Brunswick, Maine, and central Quebec, west to northern Ontario, northern
Manitoba, southwestern Keewatin, and western Mackinaw, south to extreme northwestern
Indiana, Michigan, southern Ontario, northern New York, and New Hampshire.
The Tree: Jack pine trees normally reach heights of 65 ft (19.81 m), with diameters of
10 in. (25.40 cm). Exceptional trees can be found that are 100 ft (30.48 m) tall, with diame-
ters of 2 ft (0.61 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of jack pine is nearly white, and the
heartwood is light brown to orange. The sapwood may make up half or more of the volume
of a tree. The wood has a rather coarse texture and is somewhat resinous. It is moderately
light in weight, moderately low in bending and compressive strength, moderately low in
shock resistance, and low in stiffness. It also has moderately small shrinkage. Lumber from
jack pine is generally knotty. In lumber, jack pine is sometimes included along with other
pines with which it grows, including red pine and eastern white pine.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.40a50b801
12% 0.43a39b625
Ovendry 0.46bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.07 × 106 in/lb27.38 GPa 1.35 × 106 in/lb29.31 GPa
MOR 6.00 × 103 in/lb241.4 MPa 9.90 × 103 in/lb268.3 MPa
C| | 2.95 × 103 in/lb220.3 MPa 5.66 × 103 in/lb239.0 MPa
C⊥0.30 × 103 in/lb22.07 MPa 0.58 × 103 in/lb24.00 MPa
WML 7.2 in-in/lb349.6 kJ/m38.3 in-in/lb357.2 kJ/m3
Hardness 400 lbf 1780 N 570 lbf 2530 N
Shear| | 0.75 × 103 in/lb25.17 MPa 1.17 × 103 in/lb28.07 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus banksiana
Lamb.
Pinaceae
Jack Pine

55
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 6.6 NA NA
Radial 3.7 NA NA
Volumetric 10.3 NA NA
aReference (56).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower gradesaT9-C4 NA T9-C3 NA NA NA
Upper gradesbT12-B4 NA T11-B3 T7-A3 T7-A3 L
aReferences (28, 185).
bReferences (74, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 291 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185)(Omit first 12 h of schedule).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 Studs/412
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Jack pine ranks average in workability with tools. Compared with
red pine, it has lower nail-holding capacity and is more liable to split when nailed.
Durability: Jack pine’s durability is very limited when exposed to conditions favorable to
decay (56, 177).
Preservation: Penetration with preservatives is difficult (177).
Uses: Jack pine is used for pulpwood, box lumber, pallets, and fuel. Less important uses
include mine timber, slack cooperage, poles, and posts.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 46, 53, 119, 171, 178, 179.

56
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word clausa means “closed,” referring to the
serotinous cones being closed for several years before releasing seeds (in some populations of
this species).
Other Common Names: Alabama pijn, Alabama pine, Alabama tall, Florida spruce
pine, northern sand pine, oldfield pine, pin d’Alabama, pino de Alabama, pino di Alabama,
scrub pine, southern sand pine, spruce pine, upland spruce pine.
Distribution: Sand pine is native to northeastern to southern and northwestern Florida and
extreme southern Alabama.
The Tree: Sand pine trees can reach heights of 80 ft (24.38 m), with diameters of 2 ft
(0.61 m). The record tree in Florida has a height of 103 ft (31.39 m), with a diameter of 2 ft
(0.61 m). Most trees are small and shrubby, growing to only 15 to 20 ft (4.57 to 6.10 m).
General Wood Characteristics: Sand pine is normally a small shrubby tree; therefore,
no general information about the wood is available at this time.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.46a38b609
12% 0.48a34b545
Ovendry 0.51bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (153).
Mechanical properties
Property Green Dry
MOEa1.02 × 106 in/lb27.03 GPa 1.41 × 106 in/lb29.72 GPa
MORa7.50 × 103 in/lb251.7 MPa 11.6 × 103 in/lb280.0 MPa
C| |a3.44 × 103 in/lb223.7 MPa 6.92 × 103 in/lb247.7 MPa
C⊥a0.45 × 103 in/lb23.10 MPa 0.84 × 103 in/lb25.79 MPa
WMLa9.6 in-in/lb366.2 kJ/m39.6 in-in/lb366.2 kJ/m3
Hardnessb480 lbf 2130 N 730 lbf 3250 N
Shear| | 1.14 × 103 in/lb2a 7.86 MPa 1.10 × 103 in/lb2b 7.58 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
bReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus clausa
(Chapm. Ex Engelm.)
Vasey ex Sarg.
Pinaceae
Sand Pine

57
Kiln Drying Schedules: No information available at this time.
Working Properties: No information available at this time.
Durability: No information available at this time.
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Used locally for sand retention and fuel wood.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 32, 43, 46, 53, 119.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 7.3 NA NA
Radial 3.9 NA NA
Volumetric 10.0 NA NA
aReference (153).

58
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word contorta means contorted or twisted,
alluding to the irregular crown of the typical, scrubby shore pine of the coast. Poles of this
tree were used by Native Americans for litters, drag sleds, teepees, and lodges.
Other Common Names: Beach pine, bird’s-eye pine, black pine, Bolander’s pine, coast
pine, contorta pijn, contorta pijn, contorta pine, contorta tall, contorta-tall, cypress, drehkie-
fer, Henderson pine, jack pine, knotty pine, lodgepole kiefer, lodgepole pijn, lodgepole pine,
Mexican contorta pine, Murray kiefer, Murray pine, north-coast scrub pine, pin de murray,
pin lodgepole, pino contorcido, pino contorta, prickly pine, Rocky Mountain lodgepole
pine, sand pine, scrub pine, shore pine, Sierra lodgepole pine, spruce pine, tamarack, tama-
rack pine, twisted pine, twisted-branch pine, western jack-pine, western scrub pine, white
pine.
Distribution: Lodgepole pine is native to the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain regions,
from the northern end of southeastern Alaska, central Yukon and southwestern Mackenzie
District, south into Alberta, British Columbia, and from Washington to central Montana,
south along the Pacific Coast to northern California, in the Sierra Nevada and the high
mountains of southern California, and in the Rocky Mountains (primarily in northeastern
Utah and southern Colorado). It is also found locally in the Black Hills of South Dakota,
southwestern Saskatchewan, and the mountains of northern Mexico.
The Tree: Lodgepole pine trees vary in growth rate, depending upon location. Trees from
the Rocky mountains reach heights of 80 ft (24.38 m), with diameters of 1 ft (0.30 m).
Trees from the mountains of Oregon reach heights of 75 ft (22.86 m), with diameters of 1 ft
(0.30 m). Trees from the Sierra Nevada reach heights of 100 ft (30.48 m), with diameters of
17 in. (43.18 cm). Trees from the coastal areas reach heights of 40 ft (12.19 m), with diame-
ters of 20 in. (50.80 cm). Dwarf trees reach heights of 20 to 40 ft (6.10 to 12.19 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of lodgepole pine is nearly white to a
pale yellow, and the heartwood is light yellow to a yellowish brown. The sapwood and
heartwood are not easily separated from each other. The wood has a resinous odor, is straight
grained, has a medium to fine texture, and has pronounced dimples on the split, tangential
surface. It is moderately light in weight, moderately soft, moderately weak in bending and
endwise compression, and moderately low in shock resistance. It is comparable to ponderosa
pine in weight, strength, shrinkage, and hardness.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(41%)a0.38b39c625
12% 0.41b29c465
Ovendry 0.43cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (192).
cReference (56).
Pinus contorta
Dougl. Ex. Loud.
Pinaceae
Lodgepole Pine

59
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 6.7 5.4 2.2
Radial 4.3 3.6 1.5
Volumetric 11.1 9.2 3.8
aIt shrinks appreciably, but seasons easily. May contain
warp, possibly as a result of compression wood (178).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades T5-C5 NA NA NA NA NA
Upper grades T10-C4 NA T9-C3 NA NA L
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 291 294 294 289
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 400 400 400 Studs 412/407
aReferences (28, 185).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.08 × 106 in/lb27.45 GPa 1.34 × 106 in/lb29.24 GPa
MOR 5.50 × 103 in/lb237.9 MPa 9.40 × 103 in/lb264.8 MPa
C| | 2.61 × 103 in/lb218.0 MPa 5.37 × 103 in/lb237.0 MPa
C⊥0.25 × 103 in/lb21.72 MPa 0.61 × 103 in/lb24.21 MPa
WML 5.6 in-in/lb338.6 kJ/m36.8 in-in/lb346.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 330 lbf 1470 N 480 lbf 2130 N
Shear| | 0.68 × 103 in/lb24.69 MPa 0.88 × 103 in/lb26.07 MPa
aReference (192) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).

60
Working Properties: Lodgepole pine is easy to work with tools, easy to glue, average in
paint-holding ability, and holds nails or screws moderately well.
Durability: It is not durable under conditions that favor decay and should be treated with a
preservative (56).
Preservation: The heartwood is difficult to treat with preservatives, but the sapwood is
permeable (56).
Uses: Historic—railroad ties, mine timbers, lumber, house logs, and rough construction.
Current—8-ft (2.4-m) studs, knotty pine paneling, shelving, cabinetry, millworks, interior
finish, fence posts, framing, siding, finish, flooring, corral rails, transmission or telephone
poles, house logs, veneer, plywood, pulpwood, and firewood.
Toxicity: In general, working with lodgepole pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic
bronchial asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 46, 53, 74, 119, 142, 143, 144, 172, 206, 211.

61
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word echinata means spiny or prickly, refer-
ring to the cones. Shortleaf pine is one of the southern pines.
Other Common Names: Amerikaanse shortleaf, Arkansas pine, Arkansas shortleaf pine,
Arkansas soft pine, bull pine, Carolina pine, forest pine, igel kiefer, North Carolina pine,
North Carolina yellow pine, oldfield pine, pin a feuilles courtes, pin dortleaf, pin doux, pin
shortleaf, pino pece Americano, pino tea Americano, pitch pine, poor pine, rosemary,
Rosemary pine, rosemary shortleaf, shortleaf yellow pine, shortleaved pine, shortschat pine,
shortstraw pine, slash pine, soderns gul-tall, southern yellow pine, spruce pine, sydstaternas
gul-tall, Virginia yellow pine, yellow pine, yellow shortleaf pine, yellow yellow pine.
Distribution: Shortleaf pine is native to extreme southeastern New York and New Jersey,
west to Pennsylvania, southern Ohio, eastern Kentucky, southern Illinois and southern Mis-
souri, south to eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas, east to northern Florida and Georgia.
The Tree: Shortleaf pine trees normally reach heights of 100 ft (30.48 m), with diameters
of 3 ft (0.91 m). Exceptional trees may grow to 130 ft tall (39.62 m), with a diameter of 4 ft
(1.22 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of shortleaf pine is a yellowish white,
and the heartwood is a reddish brown. The sapwood is usually wide in second growth stands.
Heartwood begins to form when the tree is about 20 years old. In old, slow-growth trees,
sapwood may be only 1 to 2 in. (2.54 to 5.08 cm) in width. The wood of shortleaf pine is
very heavy and strong, very stiff, hard, and moderately high in shock resistance. It also has a
straight grain and a medium texture.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(32%)a0.47b52c833
12% 0.51b36c577
Ovendry 0.54cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.39 × 106 in/lb29.58 GPa 1.75 × 106 in/lb212.0 GPa
MOR 7.40 × 103 in/lb251.0 MPa 13.1 × 103 in/lb290.3 MPa
C| | 3.53 × 103 in/lb224.3 MPa 7.27 × 103 in/lb250.1 MPa
C⊥0.35 × 103 in/lb22.41 MPa 0.82 × 103 in/lb25.65 MPa
WML 8.2 in-in/lb356.5 kJ/m311.0 in-in/lb375.8 kJ/m3
Hardness 440 lbf 1960 N 690 lbf 3070 N
Shear| | 0.91 × 103 in/lb26.27 MPa 1.39 × 103 in/lb29.58 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus echinata Mill.
Pinaceae
Shortleaf Pine

62
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.7 6.2 2.6
Radial 4.6 3.5 1.5
Volumetric 12.3 9.8 4.1
aMay contain brown sapwood stain, checks and splits,
possibly as a result of excessive drying temperatures (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest Quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 403b
aReferences (28, 185).
bReference (185).
Working Properties: Shortleaf pine is difficult to work with using hand tools. It ranks
high in nail-holding capacity, but can be difficul to glue.
Durability: The heartwood is moderate to low in resistance to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is more easily impregnated with preservatives.
Uses: The dense, high strength lumber of southern pines are used extensively for stringers
in construction of factories, warehouses, bridges, trestles, docks, roof trusses, beams, posts,
joists, and piles. Lumber of lower density and strength finds many uses as building material,
such as interior finish, sheathing, subflooring, joists, boxes, pallets, and crates. Southern
pines are also used for tight and slack cooperage. When used for piles, poles, and mine tim-
bers, southern pines are usually treated with preservatives. Structural grade plywood from
southern pine is a major use.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 59, 73, 97, 120, 183.

63
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word edulis means edible, referring to the
large seeds, known as pinyon nuts, pine nuts, and pinones.
Other Common Names: Arizona pijn, Arizona pine, Arizona-tall, Colorado pijn,
Colorado pine, Colorado pinyon, foxtail pine, nut pine, pin d’Arizona, pinien-nussbaum,
pino di Colorado, pinon, pinyon Colorado, two-leaf pinyon, two-needle pinyon.
Distribution: Pinyon is native to the southern Rocky Mountain region, predominantly in
the foothills, from Colorado and Utah south to central Arizona and southern New Mexico.
It is also found locally in southwestern Wyoming, extreme northwestern Oklahoma, the
Trans-Pecos area of Texas, southeastern California, and northwestern Mexico (Chihuahua).
The Tree: Pinyon trees reach heights of 10 to 51 ft (3.05 to 15.54 m), with diameters of
6 to 30 in. (15.24 to 76.20 cm), depending on site conditions. An exceptionally large
specimen was recorded at 69 ft (21.03 m) tall, with a diameter of more than 5 ft (1.52 m).
Pinyons generally are small trees, growing less than 35 ft (10.67 m) tall, with diameters less
than 18 in. (45.72 cm). Pinyons are long lived, growing for 75 to 200 years, with dominant
trees being 400 years old. Pinyons 800 to 1,000 years old have been recorded.
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of pinyon is moderately heavy compared
with other pines. It is slow grown and often knotty, but strong. The heartwood is yellow.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.50 51 817
12% 0.53 37 593
Ovendry 0.57 NA NA
aReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.65 × 106 in/lb24.48 GPa 1.14 × 106 in/lb27.86 GPa
MOR 4.80 × 103 in/lb233.1 MPa 7.80 × 103 in/lb253.8 MPa
C| | 2.59 × 103 in/lb217.9 MPa 6.40 × 103 in/lb244.1 MPa
C⊥0.48 × 103 in/lb23.31 MPa 1.52 × 103 in/lb210.5 MPa
WML 7.6 in-in/lb352.4 kJ/m34.7 in-in/lb332.4 kJ/m3
Hardness 600 lbf 2670 N 860 lbf 3820 N
Shear| | 0.92 × 103 in/lb26.34 MPa NA NA
aReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus edulis Engelm.
Pinaceae
Pinyon

64
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 5.2 NA NA
Radial 4.6 NA NA
Volumetric 9.9 NA NA
aReference (153).
Kiln Drying Schedules: No information available at this time.
Working Properties: No information available at this time.
Durability: No information available at this time.
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Firewood, novelties, mine timbers, pulping, charcoal. The nuts are a culinary deli-
cacy, and the trees have been used as commercial Christmas trees.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 120, 168.

65
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The name elliottii is used in honor of Stephen
Elliott (1771–1830), botanist and banker of South Carolina and author of “Sketch of the
Botany of South Carolina and Georgia.” Slash pine has two recognized varieties: the typical
slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm. var. elliotti) and South Florida slash pine (Pinus elliottii
var densa Little & Dorman).
Other Common Names: American pitch pine, bastard pine, British Honduras pitch pine,
Cuba pine, Cuban pine, Dade County pine, Dade County slash pine, Ellotti-tall, Florida
pine, Florida southern pine, Florida-tall, Gulf Coast pitch pine, longleaf, longleaf pine,
longleaf pitch pine, longleaf yellow pine, meadow pine, Nicaraguan pine, pin de la Floride
du sud, pinavete, pino de Florida del sur, pino di Florida del sud, pino grasso, pino pece,
pino tea, pitch pine, pitchpin Americain, saltwater pine, she pine, South Florida slash pine,
Southern Florida pine, southern Florida slash pine, southern pine, southern yellow pine,
spruce pine, swamp pine, thong, yellow pine, yellow slash pine, Zuid-Florida pijn.
Distribution: Slash pine is native to the coastal plains from southern South Carolina to
southern Florida (also the lower Florida Keys), west to southeast Louisiana.
The Tree: Slash pine trees reach heights of 70 ft (21.34 m), with a diameter of 2 ft
(0.61 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of slash pine is a yellowish white, and
the heartwood is a reddish brown. It is very strong and heavy, very stiff, hard, and moderately
high in shock resistance. It has straight grain and has a medium texture.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.54a56b897
12% 0.59a41b657
Ovendry 0.66bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.53 × 106 in/lb210.5 GPa 1.98 × 106 in/lb213.6 GPa
MOR 8.70 × 103 in/lb260.0 MPa 16.3 × 103 in/lb2112 MPa
C| | 3.82 × 103 in/lb226.3 MPa 8.14 × 103 in/lb256.1 MPa
C⊥0.53 × 103 in/lb23.65 MPa 1.02 × 103 in/lb27.03 MPa
WML 9.6 in-in/lb366.2 kJ/m313.2 in-in/lb391.0 kJ/m3
Hardness NA NA NA NA
Shear| | 0.96 × 103 in/lb26.62 MPa 1.68 × 103 in/lb211.58 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus elliottii Engelm.
Pinaceae
Slash Pine

66
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.6 6.2 2.6
Radial 5.4 4.4 1.8
Volumetric 12.1 9.8 4.1
aMay contain brown sapwood stain, checks and splits,
possibly caused by excessive drying temperatures (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest Quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 403 (2 by4’s)
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Slash pine is difficult to work with using hand tools, but ranks
high in nail-holding capacity.
Durability: The heartwood is moderately resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is easy to impregnate with preservatives; the heartwood is
difficult to impregnate. Pressure treatments may considerably extend durability and useful-
ness of the sapwood.
Uses: The wood is used for heavy construction (bridges, trestles, and dock works), pulp,
plywood, utility poles, piling, railroad ties, and mine timbers. The resin is used for rosin and
turpentine.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma,or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 59, 73, 76, 120, 134, 164.

67
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word flexilis means flexible or limber.
Other Common Names: Bull pine, Californische buigzame pijn, hallarin, hange kiefer,
jack pine, limber-twig pine, mjuk-tall, pin blanc de l’ouest, pin pliable de l’ouest, pino
enano, pino flessibile, pino flexible, pino huiyoco, pino nayar, Rocky Mountain pine,
Rocky Mountain white pine, western white pine, white pine.
Distribution: Limber pine is native to the Rocky Mountain region, from southwestern
Alberta and southeastern British Columbia, south and in the mountains of Montana, Idaho,
Nevada, and central and southern California, east to northern New Mexico and north to Colo-
rado and Wyoming. Is is also locally found in northeastern Oregon, northern Arizona, west-
ern Nebraska, the Black Hills of South Dakota, and southwestern North Dakota.
The Tree: Limber pine trees reach heights of 50 ft (15.24 m), with diameters of 2 ft (0.61
m). Exceptional trees have been reported to have heights of 80 ft (24.38 m) and diameters of
4 ft (1.22 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of limber pine is light, soft, close grained,
and is easily worked with tools. The sapwood is narrow and a creamy white, and the heart-
wood is brownish to orange-yellow and may turn reddish brown upon exposure to the air.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.37 39 625
12% 0.40 28 449
Ovendry 0.42 NA NA
aReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.80 × 106 in/lb25.52 GPa 1.17 × 106 in/lb28.07 GPa
MOR 5.20 × 103 in/lb235.8 MPa 9.10 × 103 in/lb262.7 MPa
C| | 2.41 × 103 in/lb216.6 MPa 5.29 × 103 in/lb236.5 MPa
C⊥0.32 × 103 in/lb22.21 MPa 0.72 × 103 in/lb24.96 MPa
WML 5.2 in-in/lb335.8 kJ/m36.8 in-in/lb346.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 310 lbf 1380 N 430 lbf 1910 N
Shear| | 0.74 × 103 in/lb25.10 MPa 0.80 × 103 in/lb25.52 MPa
aReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus flexilis James
Pinaceae
Limber Pine

68
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 5.1 NA NA
Radial 2.4 NA NA
Volumetric 8.2 NA NA
aReference (153).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard NA NA NA NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291b291b291b291b294 294 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
bOmit first 12 h of schedule. Reference (28).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400b,c 400b400b412d
aReferences (28, 185).
bSchedule for western species is for 6 in. (15 cm) and narrower
in width, for use with common and dimension grade, except as
noted for Upper grades. Reference (28).
cReduce step 1 and 2 to 6 h for 4/4-5/4 for western species.
Reference (28).
dStuds. Reference (28).
Working Properties: Limber pine works well with tools.
Durability: No information available at this time.
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Boxes, railroad ties, poles, mine timbers, locally for fuel.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (70, 151, 206).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 120, 180.

69
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word glabra means glabrous or smooth,
referring to the bark.
Other Common Names: Amerikaanse witte pijn, black pine, bottom white pine, cedar
pine, kings-tree, lowland spruce pine, pin blanc Americain, pino blanco Americano, poor
pine, southern white pine, spruce lowland pine, Walter pine, white pine.
Distribution: Spruce pine is native to the coastal plain from eastern South Carolina to
northern Florida and west to southeastern Louisiana.
The Tree: Spruce pine trees reach heights of 100 ft (30.48 m), with diameters of 3 ft
(0.91 m). A record tree has been recorded at a height of 123 ft (37.49 m), with a diameter of
more than 4 ft (1.22 m). In stands, spruce pine self prunes to a height of 60 ft (18.29 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of spruce pine is a yellowish white; the
heartwood is a reddish brown. The sapwood is usually wide in second-growth stands. Heart-
wood begins to form when the tree is about 20 years old. In old, slow-growth trees, sapwood
may be only 1 to 2 in. (2.54 to 5.08 cm) in width. The wood of spruce pine is very heavy
and strong, very stiff, hard, and moderately high in shock resistance. It has a straight grain
and a medium texture. Spruce pine wood is lower in most strength values than the major
southern pines. It compares favorably with white fir in important bending properties, in
crushing strength, perpendicular and parallel to the grain, and in hardness. It is similar to the
denser species, such as coast Douglas-fir and loblolly pine, in shear parallel to the grain.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.41 NA NA
12% 0.44 NA NA
Ovendry NA NA NA
aReference (56).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.00 × 106 in/lb26.89 GPa 1.23 × 106 in/lb28.48 GPa
MOR 6.00 × 103 in/lb241.4 MPa 10.4 × 103 in/lb271.7 MPa
C| | 2.84 × 103 in/lb219.6 MPa 5.65 × 103 in/lb239.0 MPa
C⊥0.28 × 103 in/lb21.93 MPa 0.73 × 103 in/lb25.03 MPa
WML NA NA NA NA
Hardness 450 lbf 2000 N 660 lbf 2940 N
Shear| | 0.90 × 103 in/lb26.20 MPa 1.49 × 103 in/lb210.27 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus glabra Walt.
Pinaceae
Spruce Pine

70
Drying and shrinkage: No shrinkage information available at this time.
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest Quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 91, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 91, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA
2 by 4 403
2 by 10 403
4 by 4 404
aReferences (28, 91, 185). All the southern pines have moderately
high shrinkage but are stable when properly seasoned.
Working Properties: Spruce pine is difficult to work with using hand tools. It ranks
high in nail-holding capacity, but it is difficul to glue.
Durability: The heartwood is moderate to low in resistance to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is more easily impregnated with preservatives than is the
heartwood.
Uses: The dense and high strength lumber of southern pines are used extensively for string-
ers in construction of factories, warehouses, bridges, trestles, docks, roof trusses, beams,
posts, joists, and piles. Lumber of lower density and strength finds many uses for building
material, such as interior finish, sheathing, subflooring, joists, boxes, pallets, and crates.
Southern pines are also used for tight and slack cooperage. When used for railroad cross ties,
piles, poles and mine timbers, it is usually treated with preservatives. Structural grade ply-
wood from southern pine has become a major use. Until recent years, the principal uses of
spruce pine were locally for lumber, pulpwood, and fuel wood. The lumber reportedly was
used for sash, doors, and interior finish because of its lower specific gravity and less marked
distinction between earlywood and latewood. Recently, it is used for plywood.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 59, 91, 120, 183, 185.

71
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word jeffreyi is used in honor of the discov-
erer, John Jeffrey (1826–1853), Scottish botanical explorer who collected seeds and plants in
Oregon and California (1850–1853) for introduction in Scotland. Jeffrey pine was first classi-
fied as a variety of ponderosa pine and has the identical wood properties of ponderosa pine.
Other Common Names: Blackbark pine, blackwood pine, bull pine, Jeffrey pijn, Jef-
frey’s pine, Jeffrey-tall, peninsula black pine, peninsula pine, pin de Jeffrey, pino de Jeffrey,
pino di Jeffrey, pino negro, pinos, ponderosa pine, redbark pine, redbark sierra pine, sapwood
pine, truckee pine, western black pine, western yellow pine.
Distribution: Jeffrey pine is native to the mountains of southwestern Oregon, south in
California through the Sierra Nevada to western Nevada and southern California. It is also
found in northern Mexico.
The Tree: Jeffrey pine trees reach heights of 200 ft (60.96 m), with diameters of 6 ft (1.83
m). A survivor of early timber harvests was measured at a hight of 175 ft (53.34 m) and a
diameter of 7.5 ft (2.29 m). Jeffrey pines trees may live to be 500 years of age.
General Wood Characteristics: Jeffrey pine is identical to ponderosa pine, with respect
to its mechanical and physical properties. Both are in the Yellow Pine Grouping. The fol-
lowing general information is for ponderosa pine. The heartwood is yellowish to light red-
dish brown or orange, and the wide sapwood is nearly white to pale yellow. In young trees,
the sapwood can make up over half the volume; in older trees, the sapwood may be 2 in.
(5.08 cm) or more wide. The wood of the outer portions of saw timber size is moderately
light in weight, moderately low in strength, moderately soft, moderately stiff, and moder-
ately low in shock resistance. It is moderately weak in bending and endwise compression. It
is straight grained (but can be dimpled on the tangential surface) and has moderately low
shrinkage. It is quite uniform in texture and has little tendency to warp and twist.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.37 47 753
12% 0.40 28 449
Ovendry 0.42 NA NA
aReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.98 × 106 in/lb26.76 GPa 1.24 × 106 in/lb28.55 GPa
MOR 5.00 × 103 in/lb234.5 MPa 9.30 × 103 in/lb264.1 MPa
C| | 2.37 × 103 in/lb216.3 MPa 5.53 × 103 in/lb238.1 MPa
C⊥0.35 × 103 in/lb22.41 MPa 0.79 × 103 in/lb25.45 MPa
WML 4.7 in-in/lb332.4 kJ/m36.6 in-in/lb345.5 kJ/m3
Hardness 340 lbf 1510 N 500 lbf 2220 N
Shear| | 0.69 × 103 in/lb24.76 MPa 1.21 × 103 in/lb28.34 MPa
aReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus jeffreyi
Grev. & Balf.
Pinaceae
Jeffrey Pine

72
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 6.7 5.0 2.1
Radial 4.4 3.1 1.3
Volumetric 9.9 7.7 3.2
aReference (153), Jeffrey pine.
bReference (192), ponderosa pine.
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T9-C6 T7-C5 T7-C5 T7-A4 T7-A4 L
Anti-brown Stain T7-E6 NA T7-E5 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185), ponderosa pine.
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedules
Lower gradesaUpper gradesb
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 299 300 301 302
aReferences (28, 185), Jeffrey pine.
bReferences (28, 185), ponderosa pine.
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 185), ponderosa pine.
Working Properties: Like ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine works easily with both hand and
machine tools. It finishes and glues well, but the presence of numnerous knots can make
painting difficult. It is resistant to splitting when nailed but is rated average in nail-holding
ability.
Durability: As with ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine is not durable under conditions favorable
to decay unless treated with a preservative. The heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant
to decay (56). Can be susceptible to attack by dry wood termites, ambrosia (pinhole borer)
beetles, longhorn beetles, and Buprestid beetles.
Preservation: Like ponderosa pine, the sapwood of Jeffrey pine is permeable to preserva-
tives, and the heartwood is moderately resistant to preservative treatments.

73
Uses: Like ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine is used mainly for lumber and to a lesser extent for
piles, poles, posts, mine timbers, veneer, and railroad cross ties. The clear wood is especially
well suited for millwork, such as window frames, doors, shelving, mouldings, sash doors,
blinds, paneling, mantels, trim, and built-in cases and cabinets. Lower grade lumber is used
for boxes and crates. Much of the lumber of intermediate or Lower grades goes into sheath-
ing, subflooring, and roof boards. Knotty Jeffrey pine is used for interior finish. Current uses
include particleboard and paper.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 78, 120, 138.

74
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The name lambertiana is used in honor of Ayl-
mer Bourke Lambert (1761–1842), from England, author of a classical illustrated work on
the genus Pinus (including related conifers) and a patron of botany.
Other Common Names: Big pine, California sugar pine, Californische, gigantic pine,
great sugar pine, Kalifornisch zucker-kiefer, pin de Lambert, pin geant, pin gigantesque, pino
de azucar, pino gigantesco, purple-coned sugar, pine, shade pine, socker-tall, sockertall,
suiker-pijn, true white pine, zuckerkiefer.
Distribution: Sugar pine is native to the mountains from western Oregon, south through
California in the Sierra Nevada to western Nevada and southern California.
The Tree: Sugar pine trees attain heights of more than 200 ft (60.96 m), with diameters of
3 to 5 ft (0.91 to 1.52 m). They can reach ages of 500 years.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of sugar pine is a creamy white to pale
yellow, and the heartwood is buff to light brown, sometimes with a red tinge. With respect
to mechanical and physical properties, sugar pine resembles eastern and white pine white
pine. It is light weight, moderately soft, and has a straight, even grain with an even texture.
It is easy to work with using tools, has low shrinkage, high dimensional stability, and sea-
sons without warping or checking. It is low in strength, shock resistance, and stiffness. It
has no characteristic taste or odor.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(98%)a0.34b52c833
12% 0.36b25c401
Ovendry 0.38cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.03 × 106 in/lb27.10 GPa 1.19 × 106 in/lb28.20 GPa
MOR 4.90 × 103 in/lb233.8 MPa 8.20 × 103 in/lb256.5 MPa
C| | 2.46 × 103 in/lb217.0 MPa 4.46 × 103 in/lb230.7 MPa
C⊥0.21 × 103 in/lb21.45 MPa 0.50 × 103 in/lb23.45 MPa
WML 5.4 in-in/lb337.2 kJ/m35.5 in-in/lb337.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 270 lbf 1200 N 380 lbf 1690 N
Shear| | 0.72 × 103 in/lb24.96 MPa 1.13 × 103 in/lb27.79 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus lambertiana
Dougl.
Pinaceae
Sugar Pine

75
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 5.6 4.5 1.9
Radial 2.9 2.3 1.0
Volumetric 7.9 6.3 2.6
aMay contain brown stain, possibly as a result of wetwood
(185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades
Light T9-E7 T7-E6 NA NA N A NA
Heavy NA NA NA NA NA NA
Upper grades
Light T5-E6 T5-E6 T5-E5 NA NA L
Heavy T5-F6 T5-F6 T5-F5 NA NA NA
aReferences (28,185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Heavy 304 305 305 304 305 NA NA
Light 303 303 306 303 303 305 307
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Sugar pine is easy to work with using tools and holds nails well.
Durability: The heartwood of sugar pine is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: No information at this time.
Uses: Boxes, crates, food containers, millwork (doors, sashes, trim, siding, panels), sheath-
ing, subflooring, roofing, foundry patterns, piano keys, and organ pipes. Like eastern white
pine, sugar pine is suitable for use in nearly every part of a house because of the ease with
which it can be cut, its ability to stay in place, and its good nailing properties.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 23, 76, 87, 88, 120, 202, 203, 210.

76
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word monticola means inhabiting moun-
tains.
Other Common Names: Berg-tall, Columbia pijn, finger-cone pine, Idaho white pine,
little sugar pine, mountain pine, mountain white pine, Norway white pine, pin argente, pin
argente Americain, pino bianco Americano, pino blanco Americano, silver pine, soft pine,
vasterns Weymouth-tall, Weymouth berg-pijn, Weymouth mountain pine, white pine, yel-
low pine.
Distribution: Western white pine is native to the mountains from northwestern Montana,
extreme southwestern Alberta and southern British Columbia, south to Washington, Oregon,
and California through the Sierra Nevada to western Nevada and central California.
The Tree: Western white pine trees reach heights of 180 ft (54.86 m), with a clear bole for
70 to 100 ft (21.34 to 30.48 m) and diameters of 3.5 ft (1.07 m). Over-mature trees may
reach heights of 197 ft (60.05 m), with diameters of almost 6 ft (1.83 m). They may grow
for 300 to 400 years.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of western white pine is nearly white to
pale yellow, and the heartwood is cream to light reddish brown and may turn darker upon
exposure. The wood has a slight resinous odor, but no characteristic taste. It is straight
grained and has a rather coarse texture. It is soft, light, moderately weak in bending, moder-
ately strong in end compression and moderately low in shock resistance. It works well with
tools, glues well, and holds paint very well. It does not split when nailed, but has medium
nail-holding ability. It is easy to dry, has moderate shrinkage, and stays in place well after
proper drying. It is low in decay resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(62%)a0.35b35c561
12% 0.38b27c433
Ovendry 0.42cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.19 × 106 in/lb28.20 GPa 1.46 × 106 in/lb210.1 GPa
MOR 4.70 × 103 in/lb232.4 MPa 9.70 × 103 in/lb266.9 MPa
C| | 2.43 × 103 in/lb216.7 MPa 5.04 × 103 in/lb234.7 MPa
C⊥0.19 × 103 in/lb21.31 MPa 0.47 × 103 in/lb23.24 MPa
WML 5.0 in-in/lb334.5 kJ/m38.8 in-in/lb360.7 kJ/m3
Hardness 260 lbf 1160 N 420 lbf 1870 N
Shear| | 0.68 × 103 in/lb24.69 MPa 1.04 × 103 in/lb27.17 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus monticola
Dougl. Ex D. Don
Pinaceae
Western White Pine

77
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.4 5.9 2.5
Radial 4.1 3.3 1.4
Volumetric 11.8 9.4 3.9
aMay contain brown stain, possibly as a result of
wetwood (178).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades
Standard T9-C6 NA T7-C6bNA NA NA
Water Core T9-E6 NA N A NA NA NA
Upper grades
Standard T9-C5 T7-C5 T7-C4 T7-C4 T5-C3 L
aReferences (28, 185).
bMaximum wet-bulb depression 20oF, Reference (178).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 295 301 301 295 301 301 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: It works well with tools, glues well, and holds paint very well. It
does not split when nailed, but has medium nail-holding ability.
Durability: The heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Practically all western white pine is sawed into lumber and used mainly for building
construction, matches, boxes, patterns, and millwork products, such as sash, frames, doors,
and blinds. In building construction, boards of the Lower grades are used for sheathing,
knotty paneling, subflooring, and roof strips. High grade material is made into siding of
various kinds, exterior and interior trim, and finish. It has practically the same uses as east-
ern white pine and sugar pine. Is is also used for crates, cut stock, furniture, laminated roof
decking, plywood, veneer, pulp, paper, and particle board.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 64, 73, 120, 141.

78
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The name palustris means “of marshes.”
Longleaf pine is also in a group called the southern pines, which includes Shortleaf pine
(P. echinata Mill.), loblolly pine (P. taeda L.), and slash pine (P. elliottii Engelm.).
Other Common Names: American pitch pine, Amerikaanse pitchpine, broom pine,
brown pine, fat pine, figured-tree, Florida longleaf pine, Florida pine, Florida yellow pine,
Georgia heart pine, Georgia longleaf pine, Georgia pine, Georgia pitch pine, Georgia yellow
pine, Gulf Coast pitch pine, hard pine, heart pine, hill pine, langbarrig tall, longleaf, long-
leaf pitch pine, longleaf yellow pine, longleaved pitch pine, longstraw pine, madera pino,
moeras-pijn, North Carolina pitch pine, palustris pine, pin de Boston, pin des marais, pino
del sur, pino giallo, pino grasso, pino palustre, pino pantano, pino pece, pino tea, pino tea
roja, pitch pine, pitchpin, pitchpin Americain, red pine, Rosemary pine, soderns gul-all,
southern hard pine, southern heart pine, southern pine, southern pitch pine, southern yellow
pine, sump-all, sumpf kiefer, swamp pine, sydstaternas gul-tall, tea pine, Texas longleaf
pine, Texas yellow pine, turpentine pine, yellow pine.
Distribution: Longleaf pine is native to the southeastern United States, in the Coastal
Plain from southeastern Virginia to central Florida and west to eastern Texas.
The Tree: Longleaf pine trees reach heights of 100 ft (30.48 m), with a diameter of
3 ft (0.91 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of longleaf pine is a yellowish white; the
heartwood is a reddish brown. The sapwood is usually wide in second-growth stands. Heart-
wood begins to form when the tree is about 20 years old. In old, slow-growth trees, sapwood
may be only 1 to 2 in. (2.54 to 5.08 cm) in width. The wood of longleaf pine is very heavy
and strong, very stiff, hard, and moderately high in shock resistance. It also has a straight
grain and a medium texture.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(31%)a0.54b55c881
12% 0.59b41c657
Ovendry 0.62cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.59 × 106 in/lb211.0 GPa 1.98 × 106 in/lb213.6 GPa
MOR 8.50 × 103 in/lb258.6 MPa 14.5 × 103 in/lb2100 MPa
C| | 4.32 × 103 in/lb229.8 MPa 8.47 × 103 in/lb258.4 MPa
C⊥0.48 × 103 in/lb23.31 MPa 0.96 × 103 in/lb26.62 MPa
WML 8.9 in-in/lb361.4 kJ/m311.8 in-in/lb381.4 kJ/m3
Hardness 590 lbf 2620 N 870 lbf 3870 N
Shear| | 1.04 × 103 in/lb27.17 MPa 1.51 × 103 in/lb210.4 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus palustris Mill.
Pinaceae
Longleaf Pine

79
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.5 6.0 2.5
Radial 5.1 4.1 1.7
Volumetric 12.2 9.8 4.1
aAll the southern pines have moderately large shrinkage
but are stable when properly seasoned.
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 185), 3 by 5 timbers use table 285, 10/4 and 12/4 flitches
use table 283.
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 2 by 4’s 403
2 by 10’s 403
4 by 4’s 404
aReferences (28, 185). May contain brown sapwood stain, checks
and splits, possibly as a result of excessive drying temperatures
(185).
Working Properties: Longleaf pine is difficult to work with using hand tools. It ranks
high in nail-holding capacity, but there may be difficulty in gluing.
Durability: The heartwood is moderately resistant to decay (192).
Preservation: The sapwood is permeable to preservative treatments.

80
Uses: The dense and high strength lumber of southern pine is used extensively in construc-
tion of stringers for factories, warehouses, bridges, trestles, docks, roof trusses, beams,
posts, joists, and piles. Lumber of lower density and strength finds many uses for building
material, such as interior finish, sheathing, subflooring, and joists, and boxes, pallets, and
crates. Southern pine is also used for tight and slack cooperage. When used for railroad cross
ties, piles, poles, and mine timbers, it is usually treated with preservatives. Structural grade
plywood from southern pine has become a major use.
Toxicity: Working with longleaf pine can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial asthma, or
rhinitis (71, 158, 214)
Additional Reading: 6, 30, 44, 51, 59, 73, 120.

81
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The name ponderosa refers to ponderous, or
heavy, referring to the wood.
Other Common Names: Arizona pijn, Arizona pine, Arizona ponderosa pine, Arizona
white pine, Arizona yellow pine, Arizona-tall, big pine, bird’s-eye pine, blackjack pine, Brit-
ish soft pine, British Columbia soft pine, British Columbia pine, bull pine, California
white pine, California yellow pine, foothills yellow pine, gelb kiefer, gul-tall, heavy pine,
heavy-wooded pine, knotty pine, longleaf pine, Pacific ponderosa pine, pin a bois lourd, pin
d’Arizona, pin de Bentham, pinabete, pino, pino blanco, pino cenizo, pino chino, pino de
Arizona, pino di Arizona, pino giallo, pino ponderosa, pino ponderoso, pino real, pitch pine,
ponderosa pijn, pondosa, pondosa pine, red pine, rock pine, vastamerikansk langbarri tall,
western pitch pine, western yellow pine, westerse gele pijn, yellow pine.
Distribution: Widely distributed throughout the Rocky Mountains and mountains of the
Pacific coast. It grows from North Dakota and Montana west to British Columbia and south
through Washington, Oregon, and southern California east through Arizona and the Trans-
Pecos area of Texas, north through New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado, Nebraska, and South
Dakota. It also grows in northern Mexico. Major producing areas are in Oregon, Washing-
ton, and California. Other important producing areas are in Idaho and Montana; lesser
amounts come from the southern Rocky Mountain region and the Black Hills of South Da-
kota and Wyoming. It has been planted in New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.
The Tree: Ponderosa pine reaches heights of 180 ft (54.86), with diameters of 4 ft
(1.22 m). It has a pyramidal crown when young, maturing to a flat crown. The trees may
live for 300 to 600 years.
General Wood Characteristics: Botanically, ponderosa pine belongs to the yellow pine
group rather than the white pine group. However, much of the wood is somewhat similar to
the white pines in appearance and properties. The heartwood is yellowish to light reddish
brown or orange, and the wide sapwood is nearly white to pale yellow. In young trees, the
sapwood can make up more than half the volume; in older trees, the sapwood may be 2 in.
(5.08 cm) or more wide. The wood of the outer portions of ponderosa pine of saw timber
size is moderately light in weight, moderately low in strength, moderately soft, moderately
stiff, and moderately low in shock resistance. Ponderosa pine is moderately weak in bending
and endwise compression. It is straight grained (but can be dimpled on the tangential surface)
and has moderately low shrinkage. It is quite uniform in texture and has little tendency to
warp and twist. Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), which grows in close association with ponderosa
pine in California and Oregon, is usually marketed and sold as ponderosa pine.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(40%)a0.38b45c721
12% 0.40b28c449
Ovendry 0.42cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Pinus ponderosa
Dougl. Ex Laws.
Pinaceae
Ponderosa Pine

82
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.00 × 106 in/lb26.89 GPa 1.29 × 106 in/lb28.89 GPa
MOR 5.10 × 103 in/lb235.2 MPa 9.40 × 103 in/lb264.8 MPa
C| | 2.45 × 103 in/lb216.9 MPa 5.32 × 103 in/lb236.7 MPa
C⊥0.28 × 103 in/lb21.93 MPa 0.58 × 103 in/lb24.00 MPa
WML 5.2 in-in/lb335.8 kJ/m37.1 in-in/lb349.0 kJ/m3
Hardness 320 lbf 1420 N 460 lbf 205 N
Shear| | 0.70 × 103 in/lb24.83 MPa 1.13 × 103 in/lb27.79 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 6.2 5.0 2.1
Radial 3.9 3.1 1.3
Volumetric 9.7 7.7 3.2
aPonderosa pine dries easily, either by air seasoning or
in a dry kiln. It is moderately low in shrinkage. Reference
(56). Mature growth timbers may contain brown stain,
possibly as a result of wetwood, and young growth may
contain warp, possibly as a result of juvenile wood or
compression wood (185).
bCare should be taken, if air seasoning, to avoid blue
staining of the sapwood. Reference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedules
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades
Heartwood T9-A6 T7-A6 T5-A5 NA NA NA
Sapwood T11-C7 NA NA NA NA NA
Antibrown-stain NA NA NA NA NA NA
Upper grades
Heartwood NA NA NA NA NA NA
Sapwood T9-C6 T7-C6 T7-C5 T7-A4 T7-A4 L
Antibrown-stain T7-E6 NA T7-E5 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Ponderosa pine works easily using both hand and machine tools. It
finishes and glues well, but the presence of knots makes painting difficult. It is resistant to
splitting when nailed, but is rated average in nail-holding ability.

83
Durability: Ponderosa pine is not durable under conditions favorable to decay unless
treated with a preservative. The heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
The wood can be susceptible to attack by dry wood termites, ambrosia (pinhole borer) bee-
tles, longhorn beetles, and Buprestid beetles.
Preservation: The sapwood is permeable to preservatives, and the heartwood is moderately
resistant to preservative treatments.
Uses: Ponderosa pine is used mainly for lumber and, to a lesser extent, for piles, poles,
posts, mine timbers, veneer, and railroad cross ties. The clear wood is especially well suited
for millwork, such as window frames, doors, shelving, mouldings, sash doors, blinds, panel-
ing, mantels, trim, and built-in cases and cabinets. Lower grade lumber is used for boxes and
crates. Much of the lumber of intermediate or lower grades goes into sheathing, subflooring,
and roof boards. Knotty ponderosa pine is used for interior finish. A considerable amount of
sawmill and secondary mill residues now go into particleboard and paper.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 40, 73, 120, 138.

84
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word pungens means sharp point, from the
peculiar, stout, hooked spines on the cones. Table mountain pine is one of the southern
pines.
Other Common Names: Black pine, hickory pine, mountain pine, pin pungens, pino
pungens, poverty pine, prickly pine, pungens tall, pungens-pijn, ridge pine, southern moun-
tain pine, table mountain pine, yellow pine.
Distribution: Table mountain pine is native to the Appalachian Mountain region from
Pennsylvania southwest to eastern West Virginia, Virginia, northwestern South Carolina,
northeastern Georgia, and eastern Tennessee. It is also found locally in New Jersey and
Delaware.
The Tree: In the Great Smoky Mountains, table mountain pine trees reach heights of 95 ft
(28.96 m), with diameters of 3 ft (0.91 m). In other areas, trees may grow to heights of 66 ft
(20.12 m), with a diameter of more than 1 ft (0.30 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of table mountain pine is a yellowish
white, and the heartwood is a reddish brown. The wood is soft, weak, and brittle, very coarse
grained, and knotty with conspicuous resin ducts. It is moderately heavy (but lighter than
other southern pines). It can be straight grained and has a medium texture.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.49 54 865
12% 0.52 36 577
Ovendry 0.55 NA NA
aReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.27 × 106 in/lb28.76 GPa 1.55 × 106 in/lb210.7 GPa
MOR 7.50 × 103 in/lb251.7 MPa 11.6 × 103 in/lb280.0 MPa
C| | 3.54 × 103 in/lb224.4 MPa 6.83 × 103 in/lb247.1 MPa
C⊥0.56 × 103 in/lb23.86 MPa 1.21 × 103 in/lb28.34 MPa
WML 8.1 in-in/lb355.8 kJ/m38.7 in-in/lb360.0 kJ/m3
Hardness 490 lbf 2180 N 660 lbf 2940 N
Shear| | 0.96 × 103 in/lb26.62 MPa 1.20 × 103 in/lb28.27 MPa
aReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus pungens Lamb.
Pinaceae
Table Mountain Pine

85
Kiln drying schedules: The following are schedules for the southern pines
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 2 by 4’s 403
2 by 10’s 403
4 by 4’s 404
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
Working Properties: It can be straight grained, has a medium texture, and is difficult
to work with using hand tools. It hold nails well, but is not easy to glue.
Durability: The heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is easily impregnated with preservatives
Uses: Regarding the southern pines, lumber of lower density and strength finds many uses
for building material, such as interior finish, sheathing, subflooring, and joists, and boxes,
pallets, and crates. Table mountain pine is used for pulpwood, low grade saw timber, and
firewood.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 46, 51, 59, 1120, 183.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 6.8 NA NA
Radial 3.4 NA NA
Volumetric 10.9 NA NA
aReference (153).

86
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The name radiata means radiate or rayed, refer-
ring to the markings on the cone scales.
Other Common Names: insignis, insignis pine, insignis-pijn, insignispijn, insular
pine, insular two-leaved pine, Monterey fohre, Monterey kiefer, Monterey kieffer, Monterey
nmanty, Monterey pine, Monterey small-coned pine, nearly smooth-cone pine, nearly-
smooth cone pine, pin de Monterey, pin radiata, pin radiata, pino de Monterey, pino di Mon-
terey, pino insegne, pino insigne, radiata pijn, Radiatakiefer, radiatamanty, radiata-tall, re-
markable cone pine, remarkable pine, small-coned Monterey pine, smooth-cone pine, spread-
ing-cone pine.
Distribution: Native to the central coast of California from sea level to a maximum ele-
vation of 1,000 ft (304.8 m). Planted extensively in the southern hemisphere, mainly in
Chile, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.
The Tree: In native stands, it can reach heights of 70 to110 ft (21.34 to 33.53 m), with
diameters of 2 to 3 ft (0.61 to 0.91 m). Plantation-grown trees may reach a height of
80 to 90 ft (24.38 to 27.43 m) in 20 years.
The following data are mostly for plantation-grown radiata pine.
General Wood Characteristics: Heartwood is light brown to pinkish brown; distinct
from the paler creamy white sapwood. Growth rings mostly wide and distinct, false rings
may be common; grain usually straight; texture moderately even and fine; moderate to high
luster in sapwood; odor slightly resinous.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
GreenaNA 25 401
12%bNA 33 529
12%cNA 34 545
12%dNA 32 513
12%eNA 28 449
Ovendrya0.33 NA NA
Ovendryb0.43 NA NA
Ovendryc0.44 NA NA
Ovendryd0.42 NA NA
Ovendrye0.38 NA NA
aReference (1),
bReference (49),
cReference (50),
dReference (180),
eReference (183).
Pinus radiata D. Don
(Pinus insignis
Douglas ex Loudon)
Pinaceae
Radiata Pine

87
Mechanical properties
Property Green Dry
MOEa0.93 × 106 in/lb26.41 GPa 1.18 × 106 in/lb28.14 GPa
MOEbNA NA 1.66 × 106 in/lb211.4 GPa
MOEc1.29 × 106 in/lb28.89 GPa 1.62 × 106 in/lb211.2 GPa
MOEe1.06 × 106 in/lb27.31 GPa 1.37 × 106 in/lb29.45 GPa
MORa4.85 × 103 in/lb233.4 MPa 9.10 × 103 in/lb262.7 MPa
MORbNA NA 12.7 × 103 in/lb287.6 MPa
MORc6.41 × 103 in/lb244.2 MPa 12.0 × 103 in/lb282.6 MPa
MORdNA NA 12.6 × 103 in/lb286.9 MPa
MORe5.88 × 103 in/lb240.5 MPa 11.0 × 103 in/lb275.9 MPa
C| |a1.97 × 103 in/lb213.6 MPa 4.90 × 103 in/lb233.8 MPa
C| |bNA NA 7.00× 103 in/lb248.3 MPa
C| |c3.03 × 103 in/lb220.9 MPa 6.33 × 103 in/lb243.6 MPa
C| |e2.59 × 103 in/lb217.9 MPa 5.90 × 103 in/lb240.7 MPa
C⊥bNA NA 0.52 × 103 in/lb23.58 MPa
WMLeNA NA NA NA
Hardnessc498 lbf 2210 N 792 lbf 3520 N
Hardnesse500 lbf 2220 N 625 lbf 2780 N
Shear| |bNA NA 1.64 × 103 in/lb211.3 MPa
aReference (1).
bReference (49).
cReference (50),
dReference (180).
eReference (183); (all are from 2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Forest Products Laboratory toughness 154 in-lbf (17.4 N⋅m) for
green material (5/8-n. (1.6-cm) specimen). Reference (50).
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 6.7 NA NA
Radial 3.4 NA NA
Volumetric 10.7 NA NA
aAir or kiln dries rapidly with little degrade. Movement
in service is rated as medium. Reference (50).
Kiln drying schedulea
Condition 4/4, 5/4, 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock 16/4
stock British schedule
4/4, 5/4, 6/4 stock
Standard T13-C4S T11-C3S NA NA NA K
aReferences (28, 185).

88
Working Properties: The wood machines easily, although the grain tends to tear around
large knots. Easy to nail and glue; takes paint and varnish well.
Durability: Sapwood is prone to attack by stain fungi and vulnerable to boring insects.
Heartwood is durable above ground.
Preservation: Sapwood readily treated with open tank and pressure methods. Plantation-
grown stock is mostly sapwood. Heartwood moderately resistant.
Uses: Veneers and plywood, pulp and paper, fiber and particleboard, light construction,
boxes and crates, millwork.
Toxicity: Can cause allergic contact dermatitis (71, 158).
Additional Reading:12, 24, 26, 37, 39 49, 73, 77, 89, 120, 159, 166.

89
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word resinosa means resinous.
Other Common Names: Amerikansk rod-tall, Canadese rode pijn, Canadian pine, Cana-
dian red pine, eastern red pine, hard pine, northern pine, Norway pine, Ottawa Red pine, pig
iron pine, pig-iron-Norway, pin de norvege, pin resineux, pin rouge, pin rouge d’Amerique,
pin rouge du Canada, pino rojo Americano, pino rosso Americano, pitch pine, Quebec pine,
red deal, shellbark Norway pine, tannub ahhmar, yellow deal.
Distribution: Red pine is native to Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Is-
land, New Brunswick, southern Quebec and Maine, west to central Ontario and southeastern
Manitoba, south to southeastern Minnesota and east to Wisconsin, Michigan, southern On-
tario, northern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. It is
also found locally in northern Illinois, eastern West Virginia, and Newfoundland.
The Tree: Red pine trees reach heights of 80 ft (24.38 m), with diameters of 3 ft (0.91 m).
A record tree was reported at a height of 150 (45.72 m), with a diameter of 5 ft (1.52 m).
Long-lived stands may contain trees as old as 200 years.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of red pine is nearly white to yellow, and
the heartwood varies from red to reddish brown. The wood has an oily feel and a resinous
odor. It is straight, even grained, medium textured, and moderately heavy. It is intermediate
in density between longleaf and eastern white pine. It is relatively strong and stiff and moder-
ately high in shock resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(32%)a0.41b42c673
12% 0.46b34c545
Ovendry 0.51cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (564).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.28 × 106 in/lb28.82 GPa 1.63 × 106 in/lb211.2 GPa
MOR 5.80 × 103 in/lb240.0 MPa 11.0 × 103 in/lb275.8 MPa
C| | 2.73 × 103 in/lb218.8 MPa 6.07 × 103 in/lb241.8 MPa
C⊥0.26 × 103 in/lb21.79 MPa 0.60 × 103 in/lb24.14 MPa
WML 6.1 in-in/lb342.1 kJ/m39.9 in-in/lb368.3 kJ/m3
Hardness 340 lbf 1510 N 560 lbf 2490 N
Shear| | 0.69 × 103 in/lb24.76 MPa 1.21 × 103 in/lb28.34 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus resinosa Ait.
Pinaceae
Red Pine

90
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.2 5.8 2.4
Radial 3.8 3.7 1.5
Volumetric 11.3 9.2 3.8
aRed pine has moderately high shrinkage, but is
not difficult to dry.
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-B4 NA T11-B3 T7-A3 T7-A3 L
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 410 NA 411 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Red pine is easy to work with hand tools, holds nails, screws well,
finishes well, but has difficulty holding paint.
Durability: It is moderately durable for uses not in contact with the ground.
Preservation: It is easy to treat with preservatives
Uses: Poles, pilings, cabin logs, posts, lumber for construction (girders, beams, joists,
studs, stair parts and trusses), house siding, framing, shelving, trim millwork, lawn and gar-
den furniture, woodenware, novelties, toys, and pulp and paper. The trees are planted for wind
breaks and Christmas trees. The bark is used for tanning, and the old stumps are used for
turpentine and rosin production.
Toxicity: In general, working with red pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 73, 85, 92, 120, 169.

91
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word rigida means rigid or stiff, referring to
the cone scales. Pitch pine is considered a minor species of the southern pines.
Other Common Names: Black Norway pine, black pine, hard pine, jack-pine, longleaf
pine, longschat pine, mountain pine, northern pitch pine, Norway black pine, pech kiefer,
pek-pijn, Pennsylvania yellow pine, pin a feuilles rigides, pin a l’aubier, pin raide, pin
rigida, pino bronco, pino rigido, pino rogido, pitchpin, pond pine, red pine, regida pijn, ridge
pine, rigid pine, sap pine, shortleaf pine, soderns gul-tall, southern yellow pine, torch pine,
wiesen kiefer, yellow pine.
Distribution: Pitch pine is native to southern Maine west to New York, New Jersey, and
Pennsylvania and southwest, mostly in the mountains, to southern Ohio, Kentucky, eastern
Tennessee, northern Georgia, and northwestern South Carolina. It is also found locally in
extreme southern Quebec and southeastern Ontario.
The Tree: Pitch pine trees reach heights of 80 ft (24.38 m), with diameters of 2 ft
(0.61 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of pitch pine is a yellowish white, and
the heartwood is reddish brown and resinous. The sapwood is usually wide in second growth
stands. Heartwood begins to form when the tree is about 20 years old. In old, slow-growth
trees, sapwood may be only 1 to 2 in. (2.54 to 5.08 cm) in width. The wood of pitch pine is
very heavy, strong, very stiff, hard, and moderately high in shock resistance. It also has a
straight grain and a medium texture.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.47a50b801
12% 0.52a34b545
Ovendry 0.52bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOEa1.20 × 106 in/lb28.27 GPa 1.43 × 106 in/lb29.86 GPa
MORa6.80 × 103 in/lb246.9 MPa 10.8 × 103 in/lb274.5 MPa
C| |a2.95 × 103 in/lb220.3 MPa 5.94 × 103 in/lb240.9 MPa
C⊥a0.36 × 103 in/lb22.48 MPa 0.82 × 103 in/lb25.65 MPa
WMLa9.2 in-in/lb363.4 kJ/m39.2 in-in/lb363.4 kJ/m3
Hardnessb470 lbf 2090 N 620 lbf 2760 N
Shear| | 0.86 × 103 in/lb25.93 MPa 1.36 × 103 in/lb29.38 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
bReference (192) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus rigida Mill.
Pinaceae
Pitch Pine

92
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 7.1 5.7 2.4
Radial 4.0 3.2 1.3
Volumetric 10.9 8.7 3.6
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
The following schedules are for the southern pines.
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4 stock 6/4 stock 8/4 stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 2 by 4’s 403
2 by 10’s 403
4 by 4’s 404
aReferences (28, 92, 185). All the southern pines have moderately
large shrinkage but are stable when properly seasoned.
Working Properties: Pitch pine has straight grain, medium texture, and is difficult to
work with using hand tools. It ranks high in nail-holding capacity, but can be difficult to
glue.
Durability: The heartwood is moderate to low in resistance to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is more easily impregnated with preservatives than is the
heartwood.

93
Uses: The dense, high strength lumber of southern pines are used extensively for stringers
in construction of factories, warehouses, bridges, trestles, and docks, and roof trusses, beams,
posts, joists, and piles. Lumber of lower density and strength finds many uses as building
material, such as interior finish, sheathing, subflooring, and joists, boxes, pallets, and
crates. Southern pines are also used also for tight and slack cooperage. When used for piles,
poles, and mine timbers, the wood is usually treated with preservatives. Structural grade
plywood from southern pines has become a major use. Pitch pine is used for lumber, fuel,
and pulpwood.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 59, 73, 120, 132, 183.

94
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word serotina means late, referring to the
cones that remain closed on the trees a few years before opening to release the seeds. The
lumber of this species is also graded as a "minor species" in southern pine grading rules.
Other Common Names: Amerikansk gul-tall, bastard pine, bay pine, black pine, bull
pine, loblolly pine, marsh pine, meadow pine, pin serotina, pino serotina, pocosin pine,
spruce pine, wiesen kiefer.
Distribution: Pond pine is native to the Coastal Plain from southern New Jersey and
Delaware south to central and northwestern Florida and central Alabama.
The Tree: Pond pine trees reach heights of 90 ft (27.43 m), with diameters of 3 ft
(0.91 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of pond pine is heavy, coarse-grained, and
resinous, with dark, orange-colored heartwood and thick, pale yellow sapwood. Shrinkage is
moderately high. The wood is moderately strong, stiff, moderately hard, and moderately high
in shock resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.51a49b785
12% 0.56a38b609
Ovendry 0.58bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOEa1.28 × 106 in/lb28.82 GPa 1.75 × 106 in/lb212.1 GPa
MORa7.40 × 103 in/lb251.0 MPa 11.6 × 103 in/lb280.0 MPa
C| |a3.66 × 103 in/lb225.2 MPa 7.54 × 103 in/lb252.0 MPa
C⊥a0.44 × 103 in/lb23.03 MPa 0.91 × 103 in/lb26.27 MPa
WMLa7.5 in-in/lb351.7 kJ/m38.6 in-in/lb359.3 kJ/m3
Hardnessb510 lbf 2270 N 740 lbf 3290 N
Shear| |a0.94 × 103 in/lb26.48 MPa 1.38 × 103 in/lb29.51 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
bReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 7.1 NA NA
Radial 5.1 NA NA
Volumetric 11.2 NA NA
aReference (56). May contain water pockets, dark chemical
stains, or honeycomb, possibly as a result of wetwood
(infrequent occurrence)(185).
Pinus serotina Michx.
Pinaceae
Pond Pine

95
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 2 by 4’s 403
2 by 10’s 403
4 by 4’s 404
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
Working Properties: Pond pine is difficult to work with using hand tools. It ranks high
in nail-holding capacity, but can be difficult to glue.
Durability: The heartwood is moderate to low in resistance to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is more easily impregnated with preservatives than is the
heartwood.
Uses: The dense, high strength lumber of southern pines are used extensively for stringers
in construction of factories, warehouses, bridges, trestles, and docks, and roof trusses, beams,
posts, joists, and piles. Lumber of lower density and strength finds many uses as building
material, such as interior finish, sheathing, subflooring, and joists, and boxes, pallets, and
crates. Southern pines are also used for tight and slack cooperage. When used for piles,
poles, and mine timbers, the wood is usually treated with preservatives. Structural grade
plywood from southern pine has become a major use.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 31, 44, 51, 59, 120, 183.
Kiln drying schedules
The following schedules are for the southern pines.
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 92, 185).

96
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The name strobus is the Latin name for pine
cone, from the Greek strobos (whirling around) and strobilos (pine cone). The species Pinus
strobus is composed of two varieties; the typical Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus var.
strobus L.) and Chiapas White Pine (Pinus strobus var. chiapensis Martinez [P. chiapensis
(Martinez) Andresen]), native to the mountains of southern Mexico and Guatemala.
Other Common Names: American white pine, American yellow pine, apple pine,
ayacahuite vidriosa, balsam pine, bor vajmutov, borovice tuha, Canadian white pine, Cana-
dian yellow pine, Chiapas pine, Chiapas white pine, Chiapas-pijn, Chiapas-tall, cork pine,
eastern pine, kahikatea, Minnesota soft white pine, Minnesota white pine, New England
pine, northern pine, northern white pine, Ottawa pine, Ottawa white pine, pattern pine, pin
baliveau, pin blanc, pin blanc Canadian, pin de Chiapas, pin du lord, pin jaune, pin potiron,
pin Weymouth, pino ayacahuite, pino Canadiense, pino di Chiapas, pino stobo, pino Wey-
mouth, pumpkin pine, Quebec pine, Quebec yellow pine, sapling pine, seidenkiefer, silver
pine, simafenyo, soft pine, soft cork white pine, soft pine, soft white pine, sosny wejmutka,
spruce pine, strobe, strobo, strobus, Tonawanda pine, Weymouth pine, Weymouth-pijn,
Weymouthpijn, Weymouths kiefer, Weymouthsden, Weymouthsfohre, Weymouthskiefer,
Weymouth-tall, Weymut-tall, white pine, white soft pine, Wisconsin white pine, yellow
pine.
Distribution: Eastern white pine is native to North America from Newfoundland, the An-
ticosti Islands, and the Gaspe’ Peninsula of Quebec, west to central and western Ontario and
extreme southeast Manitoba, south to southeastern Minnesota and northeastern Iowa, east to
northern Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey and south to northern Georgia and
northwest South Carolina. It is also locally distributed in western Kentucky, western Ten-
nessee, and Delaware.
The Tree: Eastern white pine grows to heights of 100 ft (30.48 m), with a diameter of 3 to
6 ft (0.91 to 1.83 m). Historically, it has grown to heights of 200 ft (60.96 m), with diame-
ters of 6 ft (1.83 m). Current national champion trees are taller than 140 ft (42.67 m). Prior
to the late 1800s, most of the large trees were logged for ship masts.
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of Eastern white pine is light brown,
sometimes with a reddish tinge, turning darker on exposure. The sapwood is white, tinged
with yellow. It has a uniform texture, is easily worked with tools, shrinks little, is easily
kiln dried, is straight grained, and is dimensionally stable. It is light weight, moderately soft,
moderately weak, not stiff, and low in shock resistance. It has medium strength values.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(50%)a0.34b36c577
12% 0.35b25c401
Ovendry 0.37cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Pinus strobus
L. Pinaceae
Eastern White Pine

97
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.99 × 106 in/lb26.83 GPa 1.24 × 106 in/lb28.55 GPa
MOR 4.90 × 103 in/lb233.8 MPa 8.60 × 103 in/lb259.3 MPa
C| | 2.44 × 103 in/lb216.8 MPa 4.80 × 103 in/lb233.1 MPa
C⊥0.22 × 103 in/lb21.52 MPa 0.44 × 103 in/lb23.03 MPa
WML 5.2 in-in/lb335.8 kJ/m36.8 in-in/lb346.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 290 lbf 1290 N 380 lbf 1690 N
Shear| | 0.68 × 103 in/lb24.69 MPa 0.90 × 103 in/lb26.20 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% Mca6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 6.1 4.8 2.0
Radial 2.1 1.8 0.8
Volumetric 8.2 6.6 2.7
aMay contain brown stain or ring failure, possibly as a
result of wetwood (178). Reference (56).
breference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4,
5/4
stock
6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades
Standard T9-C5 NA T9-C4 NA NA NA
Upper grades
Standard T11-C5 NA T10-C4 T10-C4 T8-C3 L
Antibrown-stain 276 NA 277 NA 278 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 308 NA 309 NA NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).

98
Working Properties: It is easily worked with tools, is straight grained, and is dimen-
sionaly stable. It takes stains, glue, and finishes well. It has good nail-holding ability.
Durability: The heartwood of eastern white pine is moderately resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: The heartwood is moderately resistant to preservative treatment, and the
sapwood is permeable (74).
Uses: Most eastern white pine is converted into lumber, which is put to a great variety of
uses. A large proportion, which is mostly second-growth knotty lumber or the lower grades,
goes into container and packaging applications. High grade lumber goes into patterns for
castings. Other important uses are sash, doors, furniture, trim, knotty paneling, finish, cas-
kets and burial boxes, shade and map rollers, and toy, dairy, and poultry supplies. The bark
is used to produce white pine tar, an antiseptic and expectorant. The tree is a popular
Christmas tree.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 21, 73, 76, 120, 154, 164, 196.

99
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word taeda is the ancient name of resinous
pines. Loblolly pine is one of the southern pines.
Other Common Names: Arkansas pine, bastard pine, black pine, black slash pine, bog
pine, buckskin pine, bull pine, Carolina pine, cornstalk pine, foxtail pine, frankincense
pine, heart pine, Indian pine, kienbaum, lobby pine, longleaf pine, longschap pine, long-
schat pine, longshucks, longshucks pine, longstraw pine, maiden pine, meadow pine, North
Carolina pine, old pine, oldfield pine, pin a l’encens, pin taeda, pinho-teda, pino de incienso,
pino dell’incenso, prop pine, Rosemary pine, sap pine, shortleaf pine, shortstraw pine, slash
black pine, slash pine, soderns gul-tall, southern pine, southern yellow pine, spruce pine,
swamp pine, sydstaternas gul-tall, taeda pine, taeda-pijn, torch pine, Virginia pine, Virginia
sap pine, yellow pine.
Distribution: Loblolly pine is native to the Coastal Plain and Piedmont, from southern
New Jersey and Delaware south to central Florida and west to eastern Texas, and in the Mis-
sissippi Valley to extreme southeastern Oklahoma, central Arkansas, and southern Tennes-
see.
The Tree: Loblolly pine trees reach heights of 150 ft (45.72 m), with diameters of 5 ft
(1.52 m). A record tree was reported to have a height of 163 ft (49.68 m), with a diameter of
56 in. (1.42 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of loblolly pine is a yellowish white,
and the heartwood is a reddish brown. The sapwood is usually wide in second-growth stands.
Heartwood begins to form when the tree is about 20 years old. In old, slow-growth trees,
sapwood may be only 1 to 2 in. (2.54 to 5.08 m) in width. The wood of loblolly pine is
very heavy and strong, very stiff, hard and moderately high in shock resistance. It has a
straight grain and a medium texture.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(33%)a0.47b53c849
12% 0.51b36c577
Ovendry 0.54cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.40 × 106 in/lb29.65 GPa 1.79 × 106 in/lb212.3 GPa
MOR 7.30 × 103 in/lb250.3 MPa 12.8 × 103 in/lb288.2 MPa
C| | 3.51 × 103 in/lb224.2 MPa 7.13 × 103 in/lb249.2 MPa
C⊥0.39 × 103 in/lb22.69 MPa 0.79 × 103 in/lb25.45 MPa
WML 8.2 in-in/lb356.5 kJ/m310.4 in-in/lb371.7 kJ/m3
Hardness 450 lbf 2000 N 690 lbf 3070 N
Shear| | 0.86 × 103 in/lb25.93 MPa 1.39 × 103 in/lb29.58 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus taeda
L. Pinaceae
Loblolly Pine

100
Kiln drying schedules
The following schedules are for the southern pines.
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 2 by 4’s 403
2 by10’s 403
4 by 4’s 404
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
All the southern pines have moderately high shrinkage but are stable when properly sea-
soned.
Working Properties: Loblolly pine is difficult to work with using hand tools. It ranks
high in nail-holding capacity, but there can be difficulty in gluing.
Durability: The heartwood is moderate to low in resistance to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is more easily impregnated with preservatives.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.4 5.9 2.5
Radial 4.8 3.8 1.6
Volumetric 12.3 9.8 4.1
aMay contain brown sapwood stain, checks and splits,
possibly as a result of excessive drying temperatures
(185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

101
Uses: The dense, high strength lumber of southern pines are used extensively for stringers
in construction of factories, warehouses, bridges, trestles, and docks, and roof trusses, beams,
posts, joists, and piles. Lumber of lower density and strength finds many uses as building
material, such as interior finish, sheathing, subflooring, and joists, and boxes, pallets, and
crates. Southern pines are also used also for tight and slack cooperage. When used for piles,
poles, and mine timbers, the wood is usually treated with preservatives. Structural grade
plywood from southern pine has become a major use.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 10, 44, 51, 59, 73, 120, 183.

102
The word pinus is the classical Latin name. The word virginiana means “of Virginia.” Vir-
ginia pine is another southern pine classified as a "minor species" in the grading rules.
Other Common Names: Alligator pine, bastard pine, black pine, cedar pine, hickory
pine, jack pine, Jersey pine, New Jersey pine, North Carolina pine, old field pine, pin chetif,
pin de Virginie, pin de Virginie, pin pauvre, pino Virginiano, poor pine, poverty pine, river
pine, scrub pine, short shucks, shortleaf pine, shortleaved, shortschat pine, shortshucks,
spruce, spruce pine, Virginia tall, Virginia-tall, Virginische pijn, Virginische pijn.
Distribution: Virginia pine is native to southeastern New York (Long Island) and New
Jersey, west to Pennsylvania, central Ohio, and southern Indiana, south to western Ken-
tucky, western Tennessee, and Northeastern Mississippi, and east to central Alabama, north-
ern Georgia, northern South Carolina, and Virginia.
The Tree: Virginia pine trees reach heights of 80 ft (24.38 m), with diameters of 2 ft (0.61
m). A record tree was measured at a height of 114 ft (34.75 m), with a diameter of 32 in.
(0.81 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of Virginia pine is orange, and the
sapwood nearly white and relatively wide. The wood is moderately heavy, moderately strong,
moderately hard, moderately stif,f and has moderately high shrinkage and shock resistance.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.45a54b865
12% 0.48a32b513
Ovendry 0.52bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.22 × 106 in/lb28.41 GPa 1.52 × 106 in/lb210.5 GPa
MOR 7.30 × 103 in/lb250.3 MPa 13.0 × 103 in/lb289.6 MPa
C| | 3.42 × 103 in/lb223.6 MPa 6.71 × 103 in/lb246.3 MPa
C⊥0.39 × 103 in/lb22.69 MPa 0.91 × 103 in/lb26.27 MPa
WML 10.9 in-in/lb375.1 kJ/m313.7 in-in/lb394.6 kJ/m3
Hardness 540 lbf 2400 N 740 lbf 3290 N
Shear| | 0.89 × 103 in/lb26.14 MPa 1.35 × 103 in/lb29.31 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Pinus virginiana Mill.
Pinaceae
Virginia Pine

103
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 7.2 NA NA
Radial 4.2 NA NA
Volumetric 11.9 NA NA
aReference (56). May contain brown sapwood stain,
checks and splits, possibly as a result of excessive
drying temperatures (185).
Kiln drying schedules
The following schedules are for the southern pines.
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T13-C6 T12-C5 T12-C5 T10-C4 T10-C4 L
Highest quality 279 279 279 T10-C4 T10-C4 NA
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 281 NA 282 281 NA 282 284
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other products
Standard 401/402 NA NA 2 by 4’s 403
2 by 10’s 403
4 by 4’s 404
aReferences (28, 92, 185).
Working Properties: No information available at this time for Virginia pine. In general,
southern pine is difficult to work with using hand tools. It ranks high in nail-holding capac-
ity, but it can be difficult to glue.
Durability: The heartwood is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: The sapwood is permeable, and the heartwood is moderately resistant to
preservative treatment.
Uses: It is used for lumber, railroad cross ties, mine timbers, pulpwood, rough construc-
tion, and fuel. The trees are sometimes used for Christmas trees.
Toxicity: In general, working with pine wood can cause dermatitis, allergic bronchial
asthma, or rhinitis in some individuals (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 35, 44, 51, 59, 73, 120, 183.

104
The genus Pseudotsuga contains about seven species native to North America [2], and east-
ern Asia (China to Japan) [5]. The wood is anatomically distinct from other softwoods.
Douglas-fir is named for Henry Douglas (1798-1834), a Scottish botanist who traveled in
North America. The word Pseudotsuga means “false hemlock.” The species native to North
America are listed below. An asterisk means that technical information is available on this
species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa Bigcone Douglas-fir
Pseudotsuga menziesii* Douglas-fir
Pseudotsuga spp Carr.
Pinaceae
Douglas-Fir

105
There are two recognized varieties of Douglas-fir: coast Douglas-fir [P. menziesii (Mirb.)
Franco var. menziesii] and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir [P. menziesii var glauca (Biessn.)
Franco]. Douglas-fir is named for Henry Douglas (1798-1834), a Scottish botanist who trav-
eled in North America. The word Pseudotsuga means “false hemlock,” and menziesii is used
in recognition of Archibald Menzies (1754–1842), a Scottish physician and naturalist, who
discovered Douglas-fir in 1793 on Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
Other Common Names: abete di Douglas, abete odoroso d’America, abeto, acahuite,
achahuite, alpine hemlock, bigcone-spruce, black fir, blaue Douglas-tanne, blauwe Douglas,
blauwe Douglas spar, blue Douglas-fir, British Columbia Douglas-fir, British Columbia
pine, British Columbian pine, cahuite, Canadian Douglas-fir, coast Douglas-fir, Colorado
Douglas-fir, Colorado pino real, Colorado real pino, Columbian pine, common Douglas,
common Douglas-fir, cork-barked Douglas spruce, desert fir, Douglaasfenyo, Douglas,
Douglas azul, Douglas bleu, Douglas des montagnes, Douglas du Colorado, Douglas glauca,
Douglas pine, Douglas-spruce, Douglas vert, Douglasfichte, Douglas-fir, Douglas-gran,
Douglasia, Douglasia azzurra, Douglasia glauca, Douglasie, Douglaska, Douglaskuusi,
Douglasspar, Douglastanne, Duglas, Duglazija, false hemlock, golden rod fir, gray Douglas,
green Douglas, groene Douglas, grune Douglas-tanne, guallame, guayame, guayame Colo-
rado, hallarin, hayarin, hayarin Colorado, hemlock, inland Douglas-fir, interior Douglas-fir,
Montana fir, Oregon, Oregon Douglas, Oregon Douglas-fir, Oregon fir, Oregon-pine, Ore-
gon spruce, Pacific Coast Douglas-fir, Patton’s hemlock, pin de Douglas, pin de i’Oregon,
pin d’Oregon, pinabete, pinho de Douglas, pino de corcho, pino de Douglas, pino de Oregon,
pino Oregon, pino real, Puget Sound pine, red fir, red pine, red spruce, Rocky Mountain
Douglas-fir, Santiam quality fir, sapin de Douglas, spruce, yellow Douglas-fir, yellow fir,
yellow national fir.
Distribution: The range of Douglas-fir extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific
Coast and from Mexico to central British Columbia. The Douglas-fir production comes from
the Coast States of Oregon, Washington, and California, and the Rocky Mountain States.
The Tree: Douglas-fir reaches heights of 250 ft (76.20 m), with a diameter of 6 ft
(1.83 m), in coastal stands that are between 200 and 800 years old. The largest intact speci-
men was recorded at 330 ft (100.58 m) near Littlerock, Washington.
General Wood Characteristics: The wood of Douglas-fir varies widely in weight and
strength. The sapwood of Douglas-fir is narrow in old-growth trees but can be as much as
3 in. (7.62 cm) wide in second-growth trees of commercial size. Young trees of moderate to
rapid growth have reddish heartwood and are called red-fir. Very narrow-ringed wood of old
trees may be yellowish brown and is known on the market as yellow-fir.
Weighta
Weight
Location MCbSpGrclb/ft3kg/m3
Coast Green(37%)d0.45 38 610
12% 0.48 34 540
Ovendry 0.51 NA NA
Interior West Green(34%)d0.46 38 610
12% 0.50 31 500
Ovendry 0.52 NA NA
Interior North Green(30%)d0.45 35 560
12% 0.48 30 480
Ovendry 0.50 NA NA
Pseudotsuga menziesii
(Mirb.) Franco
Pinaceae
Douglas-Fir

106
Weight—con.
Interior South Green(30%)d0.43 NA NA
12% 0.46 32 NA
Ovendry NA NA NA
aReference (56). Coast is defined as Oregon and Washington west of the
summit of the Cascade Mountains. Interior West includes California and
counties in Oregon and Washington east but adjacent to the Cascade
summit. Interior North includes the remaining counties of Oregon and
Washington as well as the states of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.
Interior South includes Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.
bMoisture content.
cSpecific gravity.
dReference (185).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
Coast
MOE 1.56 × 106 in/lb210.8 GPa 1.95 × 106 in/lb213.4 GPa
MOR 7.70 × 103 in/lb253.1 MPa 12.4 × 103 in/lb285.5 MPa
C| | 3.78× 103 in/lb226.1 MPa 7.23 × 103 in/lb249.8 MPa
C⊥0.38 × 103 in/lb22.62 MPa 0.80 × 103 in/lb25.52 MPa
WML 7.6 in-in/lb352.4 kJ/m39.9 in-in/lb368.3 kJ/m3
Hardness 500 lbf 2220 N 710 lbf 3160 N
Shear| | 0.90 × 103 in/lb26.20 MPa 1.13 × 103 in/lb27.79 MPa
Interior West
MOE 1.51 × 106 in/lb210.4 GPa 1.83 × 106 in/lb212.6 GPa
MOR 7.70 × 103 in/lb253.1 MPa 12.6 × 103 in/lb286.9 MPa
C| | 3.87 × 103 in/lb226.7 MPa 7.43 × 103 in/lb251.2 MPa
C⊥0.42 × 103 in/lb22.90 MPa 0.76 × 103 in/lb25.24 MPa
WML 7.2 in-in/lb349.6 kJ/m310.6 in-in/lb373.1 kJ/m3
Hardness 510 lbf 2270 N 660 lbf 2940 N
Shear| | 0.94 × 103 in/lb26.48 MPa 1.29 × 103 in/lb28.89 MPa
Interior North
MOE 1.41 × 106 in/lb29.72 GPa 1.79 × 106 in/lb212.3 GPa
MOR 7.40 × 103 in/lb251.0 MPa 13.1 × 103 in/lb290.3 MPa
C| | 3.47 × 103 in/lb223.9 MPa 6.90 × 103 in/lb247.6 MPa
C⊥0.36 × 103 in/lb22.48 MPa 0.77 × 103 in/lb25.31 MPa
WML 8.1 in-in/lb355.8 kJ/m310.5 in-in/lb372.4 kJ/m3
Hardness 420 lbf 1870 N 600 lbf 2670 N
Shear| | 0.95 × 103 in/lb26.55 MPa 1.40 × 103 in/lb29.65 MPa
Interior South
MOE 1.16 × 106 in/lb28.00 GPa 1.49 × 106 in/lb210.3 GPa
MOR 6.80 × 103 in/lb246.9 MPa 11.9 × 103 in/lb282.0 MPa
C| | 3.11 × 103 in/lb221.4 MPa 6.23 × 103 in/lb243.0 MPa
C⊥0.34 × 103 in/lb22.34 MPa 0.74 × 103 in/lb25.10 MPa
WML 8.0 in-in/lb355.2kJ/m39.0 in-in/lb362.0 kJ/m3
Hardness 360 lbf 1600 N 510 lbf 2270 N
Shear| | 0.95 × 103 in/lb26.55 MPa 1.51 × 103 in/lb210.4 MPa
a Reference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).

107
Kiln drying schedule
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades
Coastal T7-A4 NA T7-A4bNA NA NA
Inland T9-A4cNA T9-A4cNA NA NA
Upper grades
Coastal T11-A4 NA T10-A3 T5-A1 T5-A1 NA
Inland NA NA NA NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
bMaximum wet-bulb depression 25°F(-4°C). Reference (185).
cMaximum wet-bulb depression 20°F(-7°C). Reference (185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291b291c291c294d294d294d288
aReference (28).
bOmit step 1 and reduce step 3 to 12 h. Reference (28).
cReduce step 3 to 12 h. Rreference (28).
dOmit step 1 for vertical grain. Reference (28).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4 stock 6/4 stock 8/4 stock Other products
Standard 400b,c,d,e 400b,e 400b,e/414eNA
aReference (28).
bSchedule for western species is for 6 in. (15 cm) and narrower in width,
for use with common and dimension grade, except as noted for upper grades.
Reference (28).
cReduce step 1 and 2 to 6 h for 4/4–5/4 for western species. Reference (28).
dIn upper grades, use only vertical grain stock. Reference (28).
eCan be dried with western larch. Reference (28).
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb0% MCc0% MCd
Tangential 7.6 6.9 7.5
Radial 4.8 3.8 4.8
Volumetric 12.4 10.7 11.8
aReference (56). Coastal timbers can contain red-brown
chemical stains, gray sapwood stains, ring failure or
honeycomb, possibly as a result of wood extractives, slow
drying or wetwood (wetwood occurs infrequenty)(185).
bCoast.
cInterior North.
dInterior West.

108
Working Properties: Douglas-fir wood is strong, moderately hard, and very stiff.
It is rather difficult to work with using hand tools, splits easily, but has good machining
properties.
Durability: The heartwood is moderately resistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Douglas fir is difficult to impregnate with preservatives and often must be
incised to allow penetration (29)
Uses: Douglas-fir is used mostly for building and construction purposes in the form of
lumber, timbers, piles, and plywood. Considerable quantities go into cooperage stock, mine
timbers, poles, and fencing. Douglas-fir lumber is used in the manufacture of various prod-
ucts, including sash, doors, laminated beams, general millwork, boxes, pallets, and crates.
Small amounts are used for flooring, furniture, ship and boat construction, and tanks. Doug-
las-fir plywood has found ever-increasing usefulness in construction, furniture, cabinets, and
many other products.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis, septic splinter wounds, or contact eczema. (71, 158, 214)
Additional Reading: 29.

109
The genus Sequoia is represented by one species (S. sempervirens). A related tree, the giant
sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), is also called redwood, big tree, or giant redwood. The
word sequoia was selected to honor Sequoyah (also spelled Sequoia), or George Guess
(1770?–1843), Native American inventor of the Cherokee alphabet. The name was unex-
plained by its author, an Austrian linguist and botanist. The wood of Sequoia is anatomi-
cally distinct from other softwoods. The species native to North America is listed below.
An asterisk means that technical information is available on this species and included in this
text.
Scientific name Trade name
Sequoia sempervirens* Redwood
Sequoia spp. Endl.
Taxodiaceae
Sequoia

110
The word sequoia was selected to honor Sequoyah (also spelled Sequoia), or George Guess
(1770?–1843), Native American inventor of the Cherokee alphabet. The name was unex-
plained by its author, an Austrian linguist and botanist. The name sempervirens means ever-
green. The wood is anatomically distinct from other softwoods.
Other Common Names: Amerikansk sekvoja, California cedar, California redwood,
Californische redwood, coast redwood, corla, giant-of-the-forest, Humboldt redwood, led-
wood, Mexican cherry, palo colorado, pin rouge d’ambrique, pin rouge d’Amerique, pino
rosso d’America, sequoia de California, sequoia roja, sequoia rossa, sequoia toujours vert,
sequoie, vavona, vavona burr.
Distribution: Redwood is native to the Pacific Coast region, from extreme southwestern
Oregon (Curry County) south to central California (Monterey County).
The Tree: Redwood trees reach heights of 200 to 300 ft (60.96 to 91.44 m), with diame-
ters of 6 to 12 ft (1.83 to 3.66 m). The record tree height is 376 ft (114.60 m), with a di-
ameter of 20 ft (6.10 m) and an age of 2,200 years, which represents the world’s tallest tree.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of redwood is narrow and white, and the
heartwood varies from a light cherry to a dark mahogany. The heartwood has no characteristic
odor or taste. The wood has exceptionally straight grain, coarse texture, high dimensional
stability, and is resistant to warping. The wood is moderately strong in bending, strong in
endwise compression, stiff, and moderately low in shock resistance. Typical old-growth red-
wood is moderately light in weight, moderately strong and stiff, and moderately hard.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Old Growth
Green(86%)a0.38b50c801
12% 0.40b28c448
Ovendry 0.42cNA NA
Second Growth
Green(127%)a0.34b42d673
12% 0.35b24d384
Ovendry 0.36dNA NA
aHeartwood for old growth; mixed heartwood and sapwood
for second growth. Reference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
dReference (153).
Sequoia sempervirens
(D. Don) Endl.
Taxodiaceae
Redwood

111
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Old Growth
Tangential 4.4 3.5 1.5
Radial 2.6 2.1 0.9
Volumetric 6.8 5.4 2.3
Second Growth
Tangential 4.9 NA NA
Radial 2.2 NA NA
Volumetric 7.0 NA NA
aHeavy stock may contain uneven moisture content,
collapse, honeycomb, chemical or iron stains, possibly
as a result of wetwood (usually in old growth)(185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Light T5-D6 NA T5-D4 T5-C4 T5-C3 K
Heavy T4-F5 T3-F5 T3-F4 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
Old Growth
MOE 1.18 × 106 in/lb28.14 GPa 1.34 × 106 in/lb29.24 GPa
MOR 7.50 × 103 in/lb251.7 MPa 10.0 × 103 in/lb269.0 MPa
C| | 4.20 × 103 in/lb229.0 MPa 6.15 × 103 in/lb242.4 MPa
C⊥0.42 × 103 in/lb22.90 MPa 0.70 × 103 in/lb24.83 MPa
WML 7.4 in-in/lb351.0 kJ/m36.9 in-in/lb347.6 kJ/m3
Hardness 410 lbf 1820 N 480 lbf 2130 N
Shear| | 0.80 × 103 in/lb25.52 MPa 0.94 × 103 in/lb26.48 MPa
Second Growth
MOE 0.96 × 106 in/lb26.62 GPa 1.10 × 106 in/lb27.58 GPa
MOR 5.90 × 103 in/lb240.7 MPa 7.90 × 103 in/lb254.5 MPa
C| | 3.11 × 103 in/lb221.4 MPa 5.22 × 103 in/lb236.0 MPa
C⊥0.27 × 103 in/lb21.86 MPa 0.52 × 103 in/lb23.58 MPa
WML 5.7 in-in/lb339.3 kJ/m35.2 in-in/lb335.8 kJ/m3
Hardness 350 lbf 1560 N 420 lbf 1870 N
Shear| | 0.89 × 103 in/lb26.14 MPa 1.11 × 103 in/lb27.65 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).

112
Kiln drying schedules—con.
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Light 289 288 b 289 288 b NA
Medium and
Heavy cccccc NA
a
References (28, 185).
bAir dry to 20% MC, then dry using table 286 in (185).
cAir dry to 20% MC, then dry using table 289 in (185). Prone to collapse (185).
Working Properties: Redwood works easily with both hand and machine tools, with
little dulling effect on tools. It planes well, provided the cutters are sharp, and it splinters
easily when working on the end grain. It holds nails well and paints and finishes satisfacto-
rily. It also stains well, but glues best with alkaline adhesives.
Durability: In general, the heartwood of redwood is resistant to very resistant to decay
(56). The heartwood from old-growth trees has high decay resistance, but heartwood from
second-growth trees generally ranges from resistant to moderately decay resistant.
Preservation: Redwood is moderately resistant to preservative treatments.
Uses: Most redwood lumber is used for building (high value building construction, heavy
beams, planks). It is remanufactured extensively into siding, sash, doors, blinds, finish, cas-
ket stock, and containers. Because of its durability, it is useful for cooling towers, tanks,
silos, shakes, shingles, wood-stave pipe, and outdoor furniture. It is used in agriculture for
buildings and equipment. Its use for timbers and large dimension in bridges and trestles is
relatively minor. The wood splits readily, and the manufacture of split products, such as
posts, garden stakes and fence material, is an important business in the redwood area. Some
redwood veneer is manufactured for decorative plywood. It is also used for pulping, particle-
board, and novelties (from burl wood).
Toxicity: Working with redwood can cause allergic reactions (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 20, 44, 73, 98, 120, 142, 156, 177.

113
Baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) is one of two species in this genus. The other, Taxodium
mucronatum, is native to Mexico, Guatemala, and the southern most part of Texas. The
wood of all species in this genus looks alike microscopically. The word taxodium is derived
from Taxus (yew) and a suffix meaning like, referring to the yew-like leaves. The species
native to North America are listed below. An asterisk means that technical information is
available on this species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Taxodium distichum* Baldcypress
Taxodium mucronatum Montezuma Baldcypress
Taxodium spp. Rich.
Taxodiaceae
Baldcypress

114
The word taxodium is derived from Taxus (yew) and a suffix meaning like, referring to the
yew-like leaves. The word distichum means two-ranked, referring to the leaves being in two
rows.
Other Common Names: Amerikanische zypresse, Amerikansk cypress, bald cypress,
black-cypress, buck cypress, canoe water pine, Chinese swamp cypress, cipres Americano,
cipres calvo, cipres de pantano, cipres pond, cipresso calvo, cipresso del sud, cipresso delle
paludi, cipresso pond, common bald cypress, common-baldcypress, cow cypress, cupresso
delle paludi, cypres chauve, cypres de la Louisiane, cypres de Louisiane, cypres pond, cy-
press, deciduous cypress, gulf-cypress, gulf red cypress, knee cypress, Louisiana black cy-
press, Louisiana cypress, Louisiana red cypress, moeras-cypres, moerascypres, pecky cy-
press, pond bald cypress, pond baldcypress, pond cypres, pond cypress, red-cypress (coast
type), river cypress, satine faux, shui ts’uung, shui tsung kan, southern-cypress, sump-
cypress, sumpcypress, Sumpftaxodie, sumpf-zypresse, Sumpfzypresse, sumpfzypresse,
swamp-cypress, taxodier chauve, tidewater red-cypress, upland cypress, Virginische
sumpfzedar, white-cypress, yellow-cypress (inland type), zweizeilige Sumpfzypresse.
Distribution: Baldcypress grows in swampy areas along the Atlantic Coast from Delaware
to southern Florida, west along the Gulf Coast to southeastern Texas, and along the Missis-
sippi river valley to southeastern Illinois. About half the cypress lumber comes from the
Southern States and a fourth from the South Atlantic States. It is not as readily available as
it was several decades ago.
The Tree: Baldcypress trees can reach heights of 150 ft (45.72 m), with diameters of 12 ft
(3.66 m) and an age of 2,000 years. However, it grows most commonly to about 100 ft
(30.48 m), 5 ft (1.52 m) in diameter, and an age of 500 years. When grown in wet condi-
tions, the tree produces “knees,” extensions of the roots that grow above the ground and the
surface of the water to allow oxygen to reach the roots.
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of baldcypress is narrow and nearly
white. The color of the heartwood varies widely, ranging from light yellowish brown to dark
brownish red, brown, or chocolate. The wood is moderately heavy, moderately strong, and
moderately hard. Shrinkage is moderately low, but somewhat greater than that of the cedars
and less than that of southern pine. Frequently the wood of certain baldcypress trees contains
pockets or localized areas that have been attacked by a fungus. Such wood is known as
“pecky” cypress. The decay caused by this fungus is arrested when the wood is cut into lum-
ber and dried. Therefore, pecky cypress is durable and useful where water tightness is unnec-
essary and appearance is not important or a novel effect is desired.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(121%)a0.42b51c817
12% 0.46b32c993
Ovendry 0.48cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Taxodium distichum
(L.) Rich.
Taxodiaceae
Baldcypress

115
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.18 × 106 in/lb28.14 GPa 1.44 × 106 in/lb29.93 GPa
MOR 6.60 × 103 in/lb245.5 MPa 10.6 × 103 in/lb273.1 MPa
C| | 3.58 × 103 in/lb224.7 MPa 6.36 × 103 in/lb243.8 MPa
C⊥0.40 × 103 in/lb22.76 MPa 0.73 × 103 in/lb25.03 MPa
WML 6.6 in-in/lb345.5 kJ/m38.2 in-in/lb356.5 kJ/m3
Hardness 390 lbf 1730 N 510 lbf 2270 N
Shear| | 0.81 × 103 in/lb25.58 MPa 1.00 × 103 in/lb26.89 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 6.2 5.0 2.1
Radial 3.8 3.0 1.3
Volumetric 10.5 8.4 3.5
aOld growth may be susceptible to end checks and water pockets,
possibly as a result of refractory wood and/or extractives. Young
growth may contain chemical brown stain, possibly as a result of
extractives and/or poor air circulation. (184)
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedulea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-E3 NA T11-D2 T8-A4 T8-A4 K
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Baldcypress has moderate strength, hardness, and pliability. To
prevent raised grain, it is necessary to use sharp tools when working with baldcypress. It
nails and glues well and has high paint-holding ability.
Durability: In general, the heartwood is resistant to very resistant to decay (56). The
heartwood of old-growth trees is one of the most decay-resistant woods; second-growth trees
produce only moderately decay-resistant wood.
Preservation: Moderately resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Baldcypress has been used principally for building construction, especially where
resistance to decay is required. It was used for beams, posts, and other members in docks,
warehouses, factories, bridges, and heavy construction. It is well suited for siding and porch
construction. It is also used for caskets, burial boxes, sash, doors, blinds, and general mill-
work, including interior trim and paneling. Other uses are in tanks, vats, ship and boat build-
ing, greenhouse construction, cooling towers, and stadium seats. It is also used for railroad
cross ties, poles, piles, shingles, cooperage, and fence posts.
Toxicity: No direct information available at this time. However, the wood does not impart
taste, odor, or color to food products, implying very low toxicity (87).
Additional Reading: 22, 34, 38, 51, 61, 164, 182, 193, 198.

116
The genus Taxus is composed of about 10 species native to North America [3], Mexico and
Central America [1], and Eurasia [6]. The wood of all species in this genus looks alike mi-
croscopically. The word taxus is the classical Latin name, from the Greek taxos. The species
native to North America are listed below. An asterisk means that technical information is
available on this species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Taxus brevifolia* Pacific Yew
Taxus floridana Florida Yew
Taxus spp. L.
Taxaceae
Yew

117
The word taxus is the classical Latin name, from the Greek taxos. The word brevifolia means
short leaf, referring to the size of its needles, relative to the English yew (Taxus baccata L.).
Recently, taxol, an anti-cancer agent, was isolated from the bark of Taxus brevifolia.
Other Common Names: Canadese taxus, Canadian yew, if a feuilles courtes, if du Can-
ada, if occidental, Kanadensisk idegran, mountain mahogany, Oregon yew, Pazifische eibe,
tassi d’America, tasso Americano, taxo Americano, tejo Americano, western yew, westerse
taxus, yew.
Distribution: Pacific yew is native to the Pacific Coast region from southeast Alaska,
south in western British Columbia, western Washington, western Oregon, and northern and
central California (including the Sierra Nevada). It also grows in the Rocky Mountain region
from southeast British Columbia south to northwest Montana, northern Idaho, eastern Wash-
ington, and northeast Oregon.
The Tree: Pacific yew trees reach heights of 50 ft (15.24 m), with diameters of 2 ft
(0.61 m). The largest tree on record is60 ft (18.29 m) tall, with a diameter of 6 ft (1.83 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The wood from Pacific yew has a thin, light tan sap-
wood, and the heartwood is brown to bright orange. It is dense, very hard and strong, heavy,
and has a very fine, straight and close grain with a fine texture. It has a high luster and no
characteristic odor or taste.
Weighta
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.60 54 865
12% 0.62 44 705
Ovendry 0.67 NA NA
aReference (153).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.99 × 106 in/lb26.83 GPa 1.35 × 106 in/lb29.31 GPa
MOR 10.1 × 103 in/lb269.6 MPa 15.2 × 103 in/lb2105 MPa
C| | 4.65 × 103 in/lb232.1 MPa 8.10 × 103 in/lb255.8 MPa
C⊥1.04 × 103 in/lb27.17 MPa 2.11 × 103 in/lb214.5 MPa
WML 20.2 in-in/lb3139 kJ/m318.7 in-in/lb3129 kJ/m3
Hardness 1150 lbf 5110 N 1600 lbf 7120 N
Shear| | 1.62 × 103 in/lb211.2 MPa 2.23 × 103 in/lb215.4 MPa
aReference (153) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Taxus brevifolia Nutt.
Taxaceae
Pacific Yew

118
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 5.4 4.3 1.8
Radial 4.0 3.2 1.3
Volumetric 9.7 7.8 3.2
aReference (153).
bReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T8-B3bNA T5-B2bNA NA G
aReference (74).
bCorresponds to British schedule G. Reference (185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 290 290 288 290 290 290 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Pacific yew wood works well with tools. It splits during nailing
but hold screws well. It bends easily, is excellent for turnery, and finishes smoothly.
Durability: The heartwood of Pacific yew is exceptionally high in resistance to decay
(10, 192). It may be used for outdoor purposes without preservative treatment.
Preservation: No information available at this time.
Uses: Archery bows, turnery, cabinetry, canoe paddles, veneer, marquetry, paneling, carv-
ings, furniture, joinery, fences, doors, tables, rustic furniture.
Toxicity: Can cause irritation or dermatitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 27, 73, 76.

119
The genus Thuja contains about six species world-wide native to North America [2] and Asia
[4]. The wood of all species in this genus looks alike microscopically. The word thuja
comes from the Greek thuia, an aromatic wood (probably a juniper). The species native to
North America are listed below. An asterisk means that technical information is available on
this species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Thuja occidentalis* Northern White-Cedar
Thuja plicata* Western Redcedar
Thuja spp. L.
Cupressaceae
Thuja

120
The word thuja comes from the Greek thuia, an aromatic wood (probably a juniper). The
word occidentalis means western, referring to the Western Hemisphere (New World).
Other Common Names: Abendlandische lebensbaum, albero della vita Americana,
American arborvitae, arborvitae, arbre de vie de l’ouest, Atlantic red cedar, cedar, cedre blanc,
cedro rosso dell’Atlantico, eastern arborvitae, eastern cedar, eastern white-cedar, gemeiner
lebensbaum, gewone thuja, livstrad, Michigan white cedar, New Brunswick cedar, Noorda-
merikaanse levensboom, swamp cedar, swamp-cedar, thuja, thuya de l’occident, tuia occiden-
tale, tuya, tuya occidental, vanlig tuja, vitae, vit-ceder, western thuja, white cedar.
Distribution: Northern white-cedar is native to Quebec (the Anticosti Islands and Gaspe’
Peninsula), New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, southwestern Nova Scotia, and Maine,
west to northern Ontario and southeastern Manitoba, south to southeastern Minnesota and
northeastern Illinois, east to extreme northwestern Indiana, Michigan, southern Ontario,
southern New York, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. It is also found locally in central
Manitoba and the Appalachian Mountains in western Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia,
western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee.
The Tree: Northern white-cedar trees normally reach heights of 50 ft (15.24 m), with di-
ameters of 2 ft (0.61 m). Exceptional trees may grow 80 ft (24.38 m) tall, with a diameter of
5 ft (1.52 m). The record is 113 ft (34.44 m), with a diameter of 6 ft (1.83 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The sapwood of northern white-cedar is thin and white,
and the heartwood is a light brown. The wood has an aromatic spicy “cedary or pencil-like”
odor. It has an even grain, fine texture, and the lowest density of any commercial domestic
wood. It is soft and has low Mechanical properties (bending and compressive strength, hard-
ness, stiffness, shock and splitting resistance, and nail- and screw-holding abilities).
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(32%)a0.29b28c449
12% 0.31b22c352
Ovendry 0.32cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.64 × 106 in/lb24.41 GPa 0.80 × 106 in/lb25.52 GPa
MOR 4.20 × 103 in/lb229.0 MPa 6.50 × 103 in/lb244.8 MPa
C| | 1.99 × 103 in/lb213.7 MPa 3.96 × 103 in/lb227.3 MPa
C⊥0.23 × 103 in/lb21.59 MPa 0.31 × 103 in/lb22.14 MPa
WML 5.7 in-in/lb339.3 kJ/m34.8 in-in/lb333.1 kJ/m3
Hardness 230 lbf 1020 N 320 lbf 1420 N
Shear| | 0.62 × 103 in/lb24.27 MPa 0.85 × 103 in/lb25.86 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Thuja occidentalis
L. Cupressaceae
Northern White-Cedar

121
Drying and shrinkage
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCa6% MCb20% MCb
Tangential 4.9 3.9 1.6
Radial 2.2 1.8 0.7
Volumetric 7.2 5.8 2.4
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stockb
Standard T12-B4 NA T11-B3 NA NA J
aReferences (28, 185).
bReference (74).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 409 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: It is easy to work with using hand tools and is average in machi-
nability. It is dimensionally stable, glues well, and holds paint well.
Durability: The heartwood is resistant to subterranean termites and resistant to very resis-
tant to decay (56).
Preservation: Northern white-cedar is resistant to extremely resistant to preservative
treatments (74).
Uses: Rustic fencing and posts, cabin logs, lumber, poles, shingles, shipping containers,
piling, lagging, pails, tubs, ties, boat building (especially canoe ribs), tanks, novelties,
wooden wares, and pulp wood.
Toxicity: Can cause allergic bronchial asthma, dermatitis, and rhinitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 8, 18, 44, 51, 82, 84, 120.

122
The word thuja comes from the Greek thuia, an aromatic wood (probably a juniper). The
word plicata is derived from plicate (folded into plaits) most likely from the flat, folded ap-
pearance of the scale-like leaves.
Other Common Names: Albero della vita di Lobb, Amerikanskt livstrad, Amerikanskt
livstrad, arbol de la vida, arborvitae, British Columbia red cedar, British Columbia cedar,
California cedar, canoe-cedar, cedar, cedro rojo del Pacifico, cedro rosso del Pacifico, columi-
nar giant arborvitae, giant arbor, giant arborvitae, giant-cedar, giant thuja, gigantic cedar,
gigantic red cedar, grand arbre de vie, Idaho cedar, jatte-tuja, Lobb’s arborvitae, northwestern
red cedar, Oregon cedar, pacific arbor, Pacific arborvitae, Pacific redcedar, red cedar, red cedar
of the west, red cedar pine, reuzen-thuja, reuzenthuja, riesen-lebensbaum, riesenlebensbaum,
riesenthuja, shinglewood, thuja geant, thuya de Lobb, thuya geant, thuya oriental, tuia gi-
gantesca, Washington cedar, Washington red cedar, Westamerikaanse levensboom, western
arborvitae, western cedar, western red redcedar.
Distribution: Western redcedar grows in the Pacific Northwest and along the Pacific coast
to Alaska. Western redcedar lumber is produced principally in Washington, followed by Ore-
gon, Idaho, and Montana. The tree has been planted in Great Britain and New Zealand.
The Tree: Western redcedar trees reach heights of 200 ft (60.96 m), with diameters of 16 ft
(4.88 m). The trunk of older trees is buttressed, fluted, and quite tapered.
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of western redcedar is reddish or pinkish
brown to dull brown and the sapwood nearly white. The sapwood is narrow, often not more
than 1 in. (2.54 cm) in width. The wood is generally straight grained and has a uniform but
rather coarse texture. It has very low shrinkage. This species is light in weight, moderately
soft, low in strength when used as beams or posts, and low in shock resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(58%)a0.31b27c433
12% 0.32b23c368
Ovendry 0.34cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 0.94 × 106 in/lb26.48 GPa 1.11 × 106 in/lb27.65 GPa
MOR 5.20 × 103 in/lb235.8 MPa 7.50 × 103 in/lb251.7 MPa
C| | 2.77 × 103 in/lb219.1 MPa 4.56 × 103 in/lb231.4 MPa
C⊥0.24 × 103 in/lb21.65 MPa 0.46 × 103 in/lb23.17 MPa
WML 5.0 in-in/lb334.5 kJ/m35.8 in-in/lb340.0 kJ/m3
Hardness 260 lbf 1160 N 350 lbf 1560 N
Shear| | 0.77 × 103 in/lb25.31 MPa 0.99 × 103 in/lb26.83 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Thuja plicata
Donn ex D. Don
Cupressaceae
Western Redcedar

123
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 5.0 4.0 1.7
Radial 2.4 1.9 0.8
Volumetric 6.8 5.4 2.3
aHeavy stock may have uneven moisture content,
collapse, honeycomb, chemical stains, iron stains
and/or resin exudate, possibly as a result of wetwood
(sinker stock), and/or extractives (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades
Light Weight T9-A6 N A NA NA NA N A
Heavy Weight NA NA NA NA NA NA
Upper grades
Light Weight T10-B5 NA T10-
B3 T7-
A2 T7-
A2 J
Heavy Weight T5-F4 NA T5-F3 NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 290 290 289 290 290 296 NA
aReference (28).
Working Properties: The wood works well with both hand tools and machine opera-
tions. It may splinter when worked on the end grain (e.g., mortising). It is subject to com-
pression during planing and molding. It nails and screws well and takes both stains and paint
satisfactorily (74).
Durability: The heartwood of western redcedar is resistant to very resistant to decay (187).
It is not immune to attack by termites and furniture beetles (74).
Preservation: It is resistant to preservative treatment.
Uses: Western redcedar is used principally for shingles, saunas, outdoor furniture, decking,
fencing, lumber, poles, posts, and piles. The lumber is used for exterior siding, interior fin-
ish, greenhouse construction, ship and boat building, boxes and crates, sash, doors, and
millwork.
Toxicity: Can cause bronchial asthma and/or contact dermatitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 5, 56, 60, 76, 140, 150, 160, 164, 197.

124
The genus Tsuga contains about 14 species native to North America [4] and southern and
eastern Asia [10]. The wood of all species in this genus looks alike microscopically. The
word tsuga is the Japanese name for the native hemlocks of Japan. The species native to
North America are listed below. An asterisk means that technical information is available on
this species and is included in this text.
Scientific name Trade name
Tsuga canadensis* Eastern Hemlock
Tsuga caroliniana Carolina Hemlock
Tsuga heterophylla* Western Hemlock
Tsuga mertensiana* Mountain Hemlock
Tsuga spp. (Endl.)
Carr. Pinaceae
Hemlock

125
The word tsuga is the Japanese name for the native hemlocks of Japan. The word canadensis
means “of Canada.”
Other Common Names: Abete del Canada, American hemlock, black hemlock, Canada
hemlock, Canadese hemlock, Canadese hemlock-den, Canadian hemlock, hemlock spruce,
Huron pine, Kanadensisk tsuga, New England hemlock, Pennsylvania hemlock, perusse,
pine, pruche de l’est, pruche prusse, red hemlock, sapin du Canada, schierlingstanne, spruce,
spruce hemlock, spruce pine, tsuga Canadese, tsuga del Canada, tsuga du Canada, vanlig
hemlock, water hemlock, water spruce, West Virginia hemlock, white hemlock, Wisconsin
white hemlock.
Distribution: Eastern hemlock is native to Cape Breton Islands, Nova Scotia, Prince
Edward Island, New Brunswick, the Gaspe’ Peninsula of southern Quebec and Maine, west to
southern Ontario, northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and eastern Minnesota, south to Indiana
and east to Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland and New Jersey and south in the mountains to
northwestern South Carolina, northern Georgia and northern Alabama. The production of
eastern hemlock lumber is divided fairly evenly between the New England States, the Middle
Atlantic States, and the Lake States.
The Tree: Mature eastern hemlock trees commonly reach heights of 100 ft (30.48 m),
with diameters of 3 ft (0.91 m). A record tree was recorded at a height of 160 ft (48.77 m),
a diameter of 7 ft (2.13 m), and 988 year old.
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood of eastern hemlock is pale brown with
a reddish hue. The sapwood is not distinctly separated from the heartwood but may be lighter
in color. The wood is coarse and uneven in texture (old trees tend to have considerable
shake); it is moderately light in weight, moderately hard, moderately low in strength,
moderately limber, and moderately low in shock resistance.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(97%)a0.38b50c801
12% 0.40b28c449
Ovendry 0.43cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.07 × 106 in/lb27.38 GPa 1.20 × 106 in/lb28.27 GPa
MOR 6.40 × 103 in/lb244.1 MPa 8.90 × 103 in/lb261.4 MPa
C| | 3.08 × 103 in/lb221.2 MPa 5.41 × 103 in/lb237.3 MPa
C⊥0.36 × 103 in/lb22.48 MPa 0.65 × 103 in/lb24.48 MPa
WML 6.7 in-in/lb346.2 kJ/m36.8 in-in/lb346.9 kJ/m3
Hardness 400 lbf 1780 N 500 lbf 2220 N
Shear| | 0.85 × 103 in/lb25.86 MPa 1.06 × 103 in/lb27.10 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Tsuga canadensis
(L.) Carr.
Pinaceae
Eastern Hemlock

126
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 6.8 5.4 2.3
Radial 3.0 2.4 1.0
Volumetric 9.7 7.8 3.2
aMay contain uneven moisture content, warp or ring
shake, possibly as a result of wetwood and/or
compression wood (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-C4 NA T11-C3 T8-A3 T8-A2 K
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: Eastern hemlock splinters easily when worked with tools. It is low
in splitting resistance and average in nail-holding capacity. It glues easily and is moderate in
paint-holding ability.
Durability: The heartwood of eastern hemlock is slightly resistant to nonresistant to
decay (56).
Preservation: It is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Eastern hemlock is used principally for lumber and pulpwood. The lumber is used in
building construction for framing, sheathing, subflooring, and roof boards, and in the manu-
facture of boxes, pallets, and crates.
Toxicity: Working with eastern hemlock can cause dermatitis (71, 158).
Additional Reading: 33, 44, 51, 62.

127
The word tsuga is the Japanese name for the native hemlocks of Japan. The word hetero-
phylla means “with other (different or various-sized) leaves.”
Other Common Names: Alpine hemlock, alpine spruce, berg-hemlock, black hemlock,
mountain hemlock, Olympic fir, Pacific hemlock, Pacific Coast hemlock, Patton’s hem-
lock, Patton’s spruce, Prince Albert’s fir, tsuga de California, tsuga de Californie, tsuga de
l’ouest, tsuga de Patton, tsuga di California, vastamerikansk berg-hemlock, weeping spruce,
westAmerikanische hemlocktanne, west coast hemlock, western hemlock spruce, William-
son’s spruce.
Distribution: Western hemlock is native to the Pacific Coast region from southern
Alaska (Kenai Peninsula) southeast through southeastern Alaska and western British Colum-
bia to western Washington, western Oregon, and northwestern California. It is also found in
the Rocky Mountain region from southeastern British Columbia south to northeastern
Washington, northern Idaho, and northwestern Montana.
The Tree: Western hemlock trees reach heights of 200 ft (60.96 m), with diameters of 3 ft
(0.91 m). An exceptional specimen was recorded at a height of 259 ft (78.94 m), with a di-
ameter of 9 ft (2.74 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood and sapwood of western hemlock are
almost white with a purplish tinge. The sapwood, which is sometimes lighter in color, is
generally not more than 1 in. (2.54 cm) thick. The wood often contains small, sound, black
knots that are usually tight and stay in place. Dark streaks are often found in the lumber;
these are caused by hemlock bark maggots and generally do not reduce strength. Western
hemlock is moderately light in weight and moderate in strength. It is moderate in its hard-
ness, stiffness, and shock resistance. It has moderately high shrinkage, about the same as
Douglas-fir. Green hemlock lumber contains considerably more water than Douglas-fir, and
requires longer kiln drying time. Trees may contain wetwood and/or have ring shake.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green(85%)a0.42b41c657
12% 0.45b29c465
Ovendry 0.44cNA NA
aReference (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.31 × 106 in/lb29.03 GPa 1.63 × 106 in/lb211.2 GPa
MOR 6.60 × 103 in/lb245.5 MPa 11.3 × 103 in/lb277.9 MPa
C| | 3.36 × 103 in/lb223.2 MPa 7.20 × 103 in/lb249.6 MPa
C⊥0.28 × 103 in/lb21.93 MPa 0.55 × 103 in/lb23.79 MPa
WML 6.9 in-in/lb347.6 kJ/m38.3 in-in/lb357.2 kJ/m3
Hardness 410 lbf 1820 N 540 lbf 2400 N
Shear| | 0.86 × 103 in/lb25.93 MPa 1.29 × 103 in/lb28.89 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Tsuga heterophylla
(Raf.) Sarg.
Pinaceae
Western Hemlock

128
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Lower grades T11-E5 NA T11-E5 NA NA NA
Upper grades T12-C5 T11-C5 T11-C4 T8-A4 T8-A3 K
aReferences (28, 185).
bMaximum wet-bulb depression 20oF(-7°C). Reference (185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 294 294 294 288
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400/415 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: The wood is intermediate in nail-holding ability and has a tendency
to split when nailed. It glues, stains, polishs, varnishs, and paints satisfactorily.
Durability: The heartwood of hemlock is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Western hemlock is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Western hemlock is used for pulpwood, lumber, roof decking, laminating stock,
mouldings, architectural trim, general construction, newsprint, and plywood. The lumber is
used extensively for building material, such as sheathing, siding, subflooring, joists, stud-
ding, planking, and rafters. Considerable quantities are used in the manufacture of boxes,
pallets, crates, and flooring, and smaller amounts for furniture and ladders.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 63, 73, 880, 120, 143, 158, 187.
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MCb6% MCc20% MCc
Tangential 7.8 6.3 2.6
Radial 4.2 3.4 1.4
Volumetric 12.4 9.5 4.0
aMay contain uneven moisture content, warp, chemical
stains, shake or iron stains, possibly as a result of
wetwood (185).
bReference (56).
cReference (192).

129
The word tsuga is the Japanese name for the native hemlocks of Japan. The word merten-
siana is named for Karl Heinrich Mertens (1796–1830), German naturalist and physician,
who discovered it at Sitka, Alaska.
Other Common Names: Alpine hemlock, alpine spruce, berg-hemlock, black hemlock,
Olympic fir, Pacific Coast hemlock, Patton’s hemlock, Patton’s spruce, Prince Albert’s fir,
tsuga de California, tsuga de Californie, tsuga de l’ouest, tsuga de Patton, tsuga di Califor-
nia, vastamerikansk berg-hemlock, weeping spruce, westAmerikanische hemlocktanne, west-
ern hemlock, western hemlock spruce, Williamson’s spruce.
Distribution: Mountain hemlock is native to the Pacific Coast region from southern
Alaska (Kenai Peninsula) southeast through southeastern Alaska and western British Colum-
bia and south in the mountains from western Washington to western Oregon and the Sierra
Nevada to central California. It is also found in the Rocky Mountain region from southwest-
ern British Columbia south to northeast Oregon, northern Idaho, and northwest Montana.
The Tree: Mountain hemlock trees reach heights of 50 to 150 ft (15.24 to 45.72 m), with
diameters of 1 to 5 ft (0.30 to 1.52 m). A record tree is reported at a height of 113 ft
(34.44 m), with a diameter of 88 in. (2.22 m).
General Wood Characteristics: The heartwood is near white, sometimes with a purple
tinge, and the sapwood is somewhat lighter in color. The wood is moderately light in weight
and moderate in strength, hardness, stiffness, and shock resistance. Trees may contain wet-
wood and/or have ring shake. Mountain hemlock has approximately the same density as
western hemlock but is somewhat lower in bending strength and stiffness.
Weight
Weight
Moisture content Specific gravity lb/ft3kg/m3
Green 0.42a44b705
12% 0.45a33b529
Ovendry 0.51bNA NA
aReference (56).
bReference (192).
Mechanical propertiesa
Property Green Dry
MOE 1.04 × 106 in/lb27.17 GPa 1.33 × 106 in/lb29.17 GPa
MOR 6.30 × 103 in/lb243.4 MPa 11.5 × 103 in/lb279.3 MPa
C| | 2.88 × 103 in/lb219.9 MPa 6.44 × 103 in/lb244.4 MPa
C⊥0.37 × 103 in/lb22.55 MPa 0.86 × 103 in/lb25.93 MPa
WML 11.0 in-in/lb375.8 kJ/m310.4 in-in/lb371.7 kJ/m3
Hardness 470 lbf 2090 N 680 lbf 3020 N
Shear| | 0.93 × 103 in/lb26.41 MPa 1.54 × 103 in/lb210.6 MPa
aReference (56) (2-in. (5-cm) standard).
Tsuga mertensiana
(Bong.) Carr.
Pinaceae
Mountain Hemlock

130
Drying and shrinkagea
Percentage of shrinkage
(green to final moisture content)
Type of shrinkage 0% MC 6% MC 20% MC
Tangential 7.1 NA NA
Radial 4.4 NA NA
Volumetric 11.1 NA NA
aReference (56).
Kiln drying schedules
Conventional temperature/moisture content-controlled schedulesa
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 10/4
stock 12/4
stock British schedule
4/4 stock
Standard T12-C5 T11-C5 T11-C4 T8-A4 T8-A3 K
aReferences (28, 185).
Conventional temperature/time-controlled schedulesa
Lower grades Upper grades
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock 12/4, 16/4
stock
Standard 291 291 291 NA NA NA NA
aReferences (28, 185).
High temperaturea
Condition 4/4, 5/4
stock 6/4
stock 8/4
stock Other
products
Standard 400 400 400 NA
aReferences (28, 185).
Working Properties: The wood is intermediate in nail-holding ability and has a tendency
to split when nailed. It glues, stains, polishes, varnishes, and paints satisfactorily.
Durability: The heartwood of hemlock is slightly resistant to nonresistant to decay (56).
Preservation: Mountain hemlock is resistant to preservative treatment (74).
Uses: Mountain hemlock serves some of the same uses as western hemlock, although the
quantity available is much less. Western hemlock is used for pulpwood, lumber, roof deck-
ing, laminating stock, mouldings, architectural trim, general construction, newsprint, and
plywood. The lumber is used for building material, such as sheathing, siding, subflooring,
joists, studding, planking, and rafters. Considerable quantities are used in the manufacture of
boxes, pallets, crates, and flooring, and smaller amounts for furniture and ladders.
Toxicity: Can cause dermatitis (71, 158, 214).
Additional Reading: 44, 51, 120, 149, 187, 209.

131
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137
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Airdry—See moisture content.
Air drying—The process of drying green lumber by exposure to prevailing atmospheric
conditions.
Annual growth ring—The growth layer added to the tree each year in temperate climates
or each growing season in other climates; each ring includes earlywood and latewood.
Bark—Outer layer of a tree, which consists of a thin, living inner part and a dry, dead outer
part that is generally resistant to moisture movement.
Board (1) Yard lumber that is less than 2 in. (50 mm) thick and ≥2 in. wide. (2) A term
usually applied to 1-in.- (25.4-mm-) thick lumber of all widths and lengths.
BoleThe stem or trunk of a tree of size sufficient to yield lumber, veneer, or poles.
Bolt(1) A short section of a tree trunk or limb, (2) a short log of a length suitable for
peeling in a lathe for veneer, or (3) a short portion of a log prepared for production of
shingles, staves, etc.
BowThe distortion of a piece of lumber in which there is a deviation in a direction per-
pendicular-to-the- flat face from a straight line from end to end of the piece.
Burl (1) A hard, woody outgrowth on a tree, more or less rounded in form, usually result-
ing from the entwined growth of a cluster of adventitious buds; (2) in wood or veneer, a
localized severe distortion of the grain generally rounded in outline, usually resulting
from overgrowth of dead branch stubs, varying from less than a half inch to several
inches in diameter; frequently includes one or more clusters of several small contiguous
conical protuberances, each usually having a core of pith but no appreciable amount of
end grain (in tangential view) surrounding it.
CambiumThe layer of tissue between the bark and wood that repeatedly subdivides to
form new wood and bark cells.
Canal, resinSee Resin canal.
Cell

In wood anatomy, a general term for the minute units of wood structure having dis-
tinct cell walls and cell cavities. Includes tracheids, parenchyma, and other elements of
diverse structure and function.
CelluloseThe carbohydrate that is the principal constituent of wood and forms the
framework of the wood cells.
CharacteristicA distinguishing feature or trait.
CheckSyn: Cracks, drying check, checking. A separation of the wood fibers within or on
a log, timber, lumber, or other wood product resulting from tension stresses set up dur-
ing drying, (usually the early stages of drying).
Chemical Brown StainA chemical discoloration of wood, which can occur during the
air drying or kiln drying of several softwood species, caused by the concentration and
modification of extractives.
Clear woodWood without knots, defects, or imperfections.
CollapseThe flattening of single cells or rows of cells during the drying or pressure
treatment of wood, characterized by a caved-in or corrugated appearance.
Compression parallel to grainCompression, endwise (parallel to the grain). The
imposition of a compressive stress that acts in a direction parallel to the grain of the
wood, as in a column.
Compression perpendicular to grainCompression, sidewise (perpendicular to the
grain). The imposition of a compressive stress that acts in a direction approximately
perpendicular to the grain of the wood, as in a railroad tie.
Compression woodAbnormal wood formed on the lower side of branches and inclined
trunks of softwood trees. Compression wood is identified by its relatively wide annual
rings (usually eccentric when viewed on cross section of branch or trunk), relatively
large amount of latewood, sometimes more than 50% of the width of the annual rings in
which it occurs, and its lack of demarcation between earlywood and latewood in the same
annual rings. Compression wood shrinks excessively lengthwise when compared with
normal wood.
ConiferA tree belonging to the order Coniferae, usually evergreen, with cones and nee-
dle-shaped or scale-like leaves, and producing wood known commercially as “softwood.”
Glossary

143
Crook A distortion of a piece of lumber in which there is a deviation in a direction per-
pendicular to the edge from a straight line from end to end of the piece.
Cross sectionSyn: Transverse section. A section of a board or log taken at right angles
to the grain.
CupA form of board warp in which there is a deviation from a straight line across the
width.
Cut stockA term for softwood lumber, indicating that the product generally has been
manufactured to dimensions suitable for a fabricating operation with little additional
processing required.
DecaySyn: Rot, dote. The decomposition of wood substance by fungi. In advanced (or
typical) decay, destruction is readily recognized because the wood has become punky,
soft and spongy, stringy, ring-shaked, pitted, or crumbly. Decided discoloration or
bleaching of the rotted wood is often apparent.
Advanced (or typical) decaythe older stage of decay in which the destruction is
readily recognized because the wood has become punky, soft and spongy, stringy, ring-
shaked, pitted or crumbly. Decided discoloration or bleaching of the rotted wood is often
apparent.
Early (or incipient) decayrefers to the stage at which the decay has not proceeded
far enough to soften or otherwise perceptibly impair the hardness of the wood. Early de-
cay is usually accompanied by a slight discoloration or bleaching of the wood.
DefectAn irregularity or imperfection in a tree, log, bolt, or lumber that reduces its vol-
ume or quality or lowers its durability, strength, or utility value. Defects may result
from knots and other growth conditions and abnormalities, insect or fungus attack, and
milling, drying, machining, or other processing procedures.
DensityThe weight of a body per unit volume, usually expressed in pounds per cubic
foot (grams per cubic centimeter). In wood, density changes relative to moisture content.
DiscolorationSyn: Stain. Change in the color of lumber resulting from fungal and
chemical stains, weathering, or heat treatment.
DrySeasoned: in softwood lumber, the abbreviation S-Dry means not in excess of 19%
moisture content at time of surfacing, in accordance with recognized standards.
Dry-bulb temperatureThe temperature indicated by the dry-bulb thermometer of a psy-
chrometer.
Dry kilnA room, chamber, or tunnel in which the temperature and relative humidity of
air circulated through parcels of lumber and veneer govern drying conditions.
DryingThe process of removing moisture from wood to improve its serviceability in
use.
Drying or kiln scheduleThe prescribed schedule of dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb
temperature or relative humidity used in drying; sometimes expressed in terms of wet-
bulb depression or equilibrium moisture content (EMC). In kiln drying, air velocity is
an important aspect.
DurabilityA general term for permanence or resistance to deterioration. Frequently used
to refer to the degree of resistance of a species of wood to attack by wood-destroying
fungi under conditions that favor such attack. In this connection, the term “decay resis-
tance” is more specific.
EarlywoodSyn: Springwood. Wood formed during the early period of annual growth;
usually less dense and mechanically weaker than wood formed later.
Equilibrium moisture content (EMC)Wood moisture content at which it neither
gains nor loses moisture to the surrounding air.
ExtractivesSubstances in wood, not an integral part of the cellular structure, that can be
removed by solution in hot or cold water, ether, benzene, or other solvents that do not
react chemically with wood substances.
FigureThe pattern produced in a wood surface by annual growth rings, rays, knots, devia-
tions from regular grain such as interlocked and wavy grain, and irregular coloration.
FlatsawnLumber sawed in a plane approximately perpendicular to a radius of the log.
See Grain.

144
FungiLow forms of plants consisting mostly of microscopic threads that may traverse
wood in all directions, converting the wood to materials the plants use for their own
growth. Fungi cause decay and staining of lumber.
FungicideA chemical that is toxic to fungi.
GradeA classification or designation of the quality of manufactured pieces of wood or
logs and trees.
GrainThe direction, size, arrangement, appearance, or quality of the fibers in lumber.
When used with qualifying adjectives, the term designates the orientation of fibers and/or
growth rings in lumber.
Close grain(1) narrow, inconspicuous annual rings. The term is sometimes used to
designate wood having small and closely spaced pores, but, in this sense, the term “fine
textured” is more often used. (2) in stress grading, wood averaging on one end or the
other of each piece not less than 6 nor more than 30 annual rings per inch. Pieces aver-
aging at least 5 or more than 30 rings per inch are accepted as close grain if containing a
third or more of latewood.
Coarse grainwide conspicuous annual rings in which there is considerable differ-
ence between earlywood and latewood. The term is sometimes used to designate wood
with large pores, such as oak, ash, chestnut, and walnut, but, in this sense, the term
“coarse textured” is more often used.
End grainThe ends of wood pieces that are cut perpendicular to the fiber direction.
Flat grainSyn: Flatsawn, plain grain, plainsawn, tangential cut. Lumber sawn or
split in a plane approximately perpendicular to the radius of the log. Lumber is consid-
ered flatgrained when the annual growth rings make an angle of less than 45° with the
surface of the piece.
Medium grainUsed in stress grading to denote wood averaging on one end or the
other of a piece not less than four annual rings per inch.
Straight grainLumber in which the fibers and other longitudinal elements run par-
allel to the axis of a piece.
Green lumber(1) In general, lumber as cut from freshly felled trees. (2) In accordance
with the American Softwood Lumber Standard, lumber containing >19% moisture con-
tent.
Green volumeCubic content of green wood.
Growth ringA layer of wood (as an annual ring) produced during a single period of
growth.
Growth rateThe rate at which a tree has laid on wood, measured radially in the tree trunk
or in the radial direction in lumber. The unit of measure in use is the number of annual
growth rings per inch.
HardwoodGenerally, a botanical group of trees that has broad leaves (e.g., oak, elm,
basswood); in contrast to the conifers or softwoods. Also, the wood produced from such
trees. (The term has no reference to the actual hardness of the wood.)
HeartwoodThe inner layers of wood in growing trees that have ceased to contain living
cells and in which the reserve materials (e.g., starch) have been removed or converted
into resinous substances. Heartwood is generally darker than sapwood, although the two
are not always clearly differentiated.
InfectionThe invasion of wood by fungi or other micro-organisms.
InfestationThe establishment of insects or other animals in wood.
Juvenile woodThe initial wood formed adjacent to the pith, often characterized by lower
specific gravity, less strength, greater longitudinal shrinkage, and different microstruc-
ture than that of mature wood.
KilnA chamber or tunnel used for drying and conditioning lumber, veneer, and other
wood products in which the temperature and relative humidity are controlled.
Kiln dryingThe process of drying lumber in a closed chamber in which the temperature
and relative humidity of the circulated air can be controlled.
KnotThat portion of a branch or limb that has been surrounded by subsequent growth of
the wood of the trunk or other portions of the tree. A knot hole is merely a section of
the entire knot; its shape depends upon the direction of the cut.

145
LatewoodSyn: Summerwood. The portion of the annual growth ring that is formed after
the earlywood formation has ceased. Latewood is usually denser and mechanically
stronger than earlywood.
LumberThe product of the sawmill and planing mill that is not further manufactured
except by sawing, resawing, passing lengthwise through a standard planing machine,
cross cutting to length, and matching.
Lumber, boardsLumber less than 2 in. (50 mm) thick and 2 or more in. wide.
Lumber, dimensionLumber from 2 in. (50 mm) up to 5 in. (127 mm) thick and 2 or
more in. wide, includes joists, rafters, studs, planks, and small timbers.
Lumber, timbersLumber ≥5 in. (≥127 mm) in the smallest dimension. Includes
beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, and purlins.
LumenIn wood anatomy, the cell cavity.
Moisture content, woodWeight of water contained in the wood, expressed as a per-
centage of the weight of the ovendry wood.
Air driedWood having an average moisture content of 25% or less, with no material
more than 30%.
GreenFreshly sawn wood or wood that essentially has received no formal drying.
Kiln driedDried in a kiln or by some other refined method to an average moisture
content specified or understood to be suitable for a certain use. Kiln-dried lumber can be
specified to be free of drying stresses.
Partly airdriedWood with an average moisture content between 25% and 45%,
with no material greater than 50%.
Shipping dryLumber partially dried to prevent stain or mold in brief periods of
transit, preferably with the outer 1/8 in. (3 mm) dried.
MoldA fungus growth on lumber at or near the surface, not typically resulting in deep
discolorations.
Naval storesA term applied to the oils, resins, tars, and pitches derived from oleoresin
contained in, exuded by, or extracted from trees chiefly of the pine species (genus Pinus)
or the wood of such trees.
Old growthTimber in or from a mature, naturally established forest. When the trees
have grown during most, if not all, of their lives in active competition with other trees
for sunlight and moisture, the timber is usually straight and relatively free of knots.
OvendryTerm used to describe wood that has been dried in a ventilated oven at 100oF to
105°F (37°C to 40°C) until there is no additional loss in weight.
PithThe small, soft core at the original center of a tree around which the wood forms.
PlainsawnAnother term for flatsawn or flatgrained lumber.
PostShort timber used in upright position for supporting structures of fencing. It may be
round, split, or sawn.
PreservativeAny substance that is effective, for a reasonable length of time, in prevent-
ing the development and action of wood-rotting fungi, borers of various kinds, and
harmful insects that deteriorate wood.
Pressure-treated woodWood treated by applying pressure to force the preservative into
the wood.
PulpwoodAny wood cut or prepared primarily for the production of wood pulp.
QuartersawnAnother term for edge-grained lumber, showing the radial surface of the
wood.
Radial surfaceA longitudinal surface or plane extending wholly or in part from the pith
to the bark.
RayA ribbon-like grouping of cells extending radially across the grain, so oriented that
the face of the ribbon is exposed as a fleck on the surface.
RefractoryIn wood, implies difficulty in processing or manufacturing by ordinary meth-
ods, difficulty in drying, resistance to penetration of preservatives, or difficulty in ma-
chining,

146
Relative humidityThe amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, expressed as a per-
centage of the maximum quantity that the atmosphere could hold at a given temperature.
The amount of water vapor that can be held in the atmosphere increases with the tem-
perature.
Resin canal (or duct)An intercellular passage that contains and transmits resinous
materials. Resin canals extend vertically or radially in a tree.
Ring, annual growth: See Annual growth ring.
Ring failure (or separation)A separation of the wood during drying. Occurs along the
grain and parallel to the annual rings, either within or between rings; called honeycomb
and ring check in some localities. See Shake.
RotDecay.
SapThe moisture in green wood, containing nutrients and other chemicals in solution.
SapwoodThe outer zone of wood in a tree, next to the bark. In a living tree, sapwood
contains some living cells (the heartwood contains none) as well as dead and dying cells.
In most species, it is lighter colored than the heartwood. In all species, it lacks resis-
tance to decay.
SeasonTo dry lumber and other wood items to the desired final moisture content and
stress condition for their intended use.
Second growthTimber that has grown after the removal, whether by cutting, fire, wind,
or other agency, of all or a large part of the previous stand.
ShakeA separation along the grain, the greater part of which occurs between and within
growth rings. Found in stumps and ends of freshly cut logs and green lumber. See Ring
failure.
ShearA condition of stress or strain where parallel planes slide relative to one another.
ShingleA thin, rectangular piece of wood with one end thinner than the other, which is
lapped lengthwise to cover roofs and outer walls of buildings. Can be sawn or split.
ShookA set of parts for assembling a barrel or packing box.
ShrinkageThe contraction of wood fibers caused by drying below the fiber saturation
point. Shrinkage (radial, tangential, and volumetric) is usually expressed as a percentage
of the dimension of the wood when green.
SillThe lowest horizontal wood member of the framework of a construction (e.g., win-
dow, door, bridge).
Small timbersA term used mostly to designate square or near square dimension and
timber sizes >2 in. and <9 in. in nominal thickness.
SoftwoodGenerally, one botanical group of trees that, in most cases, have needle- to
scale-like leaves; the conifers. Also, the wood produced by such trees. (The term has no
reference to the actual hardness of the wood.)
Sound woodWood free from insect damage or any form of decay (incipient or advanced).
SpeciesA group of individual plants of a particular kind; that is, a group of individuals
sharing many of the same characteristics. Species is lower in classification than the ge-
nus, but greater than the variety.
Specific gravityThe ratio of the ovendry weight of a piece of wood to the weight of an
equal volume of water at 39°F (4°C). Specific gravity of wood is usually based on the
green volume and ovendry weight.
SplitA separation of the wood parallel to the fiber direction, caused by the tearing apart
of wood cells.
SpringwoodSee Earlywood.
StainA discoloration in wood that may be caused by micro-organisms, metal, or chemi-
cals. The term also applies to materials used to impart color to wood.
Blue stainA bluish or grayish discoloration of the sapwood caused by the growth of
certain dark colored fungi on the surface and in the interior of the wood; made possible
by the same conditions that favor the growth of other fungi.
Brown stainA rich brown to deep chocolate brown discoloration of the sapwood of
some pines caused by a fungus that acts much like blue stain fungi.

147
Chemical brown stainA chemical discoloration of wood, which sometimes oc-
curs during the air drying or kiln drying of several species, apparently caused by the con-
centration and modification of extractives.
Sap stainSee Stain.
Sticker stainA brown or blue stain that develops in seasoning lumber where it has
been in contact with the stickers.
StemThe bole or trunk of a tree.
StickersStrips or boards used to separate the layers of lumber in a pile, thus improving
air circulation.
StrengthThe term in its broad sense includes all the properties of wood that enable it to
resist different forces or loads. In its more restricted sense, strength may apply to any
one of the mechanical properties.
Strength-reducing defectsImperfections affecting strength, such as checks, compres-
sion wood, cross grain, decay, knots, shakes, and splits.
StressForce per unit of area.
StudOne of a series of slender wood structural members used as supporting elements in
walls and partitions.
StumpThe part of a tree (above and below ground) remaining after the main stem is cut
off.
SummerwoodSee Latewood.
SwellingIncrease in the dimensions of wood caused by increased moisture content. Swel-
ling occurs tangentially, radially, and, to a lesser extent, longitudinally.
TangentialStrictly, coincident with a tangent at the circumference of a tree or log or
parallel to such a tangent. In practice, however, tangential often means roughly coinci-
dent with a growth ring. A tangential section is a longitudinal section through a tree or
limb and is perpendicular to a radius. Flat-grained and plainsawn lumber are sawn tan-
gentially.
TextureA term often used interchangeably with grain; sometimes used to combine the
concepts of density and degree of contrast between earlywood and latewood. In this pub-
lication, texture refers to the finer structure of the wood (See Grain) rather than the an-
nual rings.
TransverseDirections in wood at right angles to the wood fibers. Includes radial and tan-
gential directions. A transverse section is a section through a tree or timber at right an-
gles to the pith.
TreatmentThe act or manner of treating wood; the quality of preservative or other sub-
stance specified or used to treat wood.
TreeA woody plant having one well-defined stem and a more or less definitely formed
crown, usually attaining a height of at least 8 ft.
TrunkThe main stem or bole of a tree.
TwistA warp distortion caused by the turning or winding of the edges of a board so that
the four corners of any face are no longer in the same plane.
Virgin growthThe original growth of mature trees.
WarpDistortion in lumber causing departure from its original plane, usually developed
during drying. Warp includes cup, bow, crook, twist, and kinks or any combination
thereof.

148
WeatheringThe mechanical or chemical disintegration and discoloration of the surface of
lumber that is caused by exposure, light, the action of dust and sand carried by winds,
and the alternate shrinking and swelling of the surface fibers with continual variation in
moisture content brought by changes in the atmosphere. Weathering does not include
decay.
Wet-bulb temperatureThe temperature indicated by the wet-bulb thermometer of a
psychrometer.
WetwoodGreen wood with an abnormally high moisture content that generally results
from infections in living trees by anaerobic bacteria, but may also result from water
logging during log ponding. Wetwood can occur in both softwoods and hardwoods;
green lumber is usually difficult to dry without defects. Wood with this defect is also
difficult to glue. Although difficult to recognize, wetwood is often characterized by a
translucent, water-soaked appearance and a sour or rancid odor.
White-speckIn western softwoods, pockets of decay caused by the fungus Fomes pini.
Wide ringA rate of growth of less than four annual rings per inch. A growth rate faster
than that described by medium grain.
WoodSyn: Xylem. The tissues of the stem, branches, and roots of a woody plant lying
between the pith and cambium, serving for water conduction, mechanical strength, and
food storage, and characterized by the presence of tracheids or vessels.
Wood-destroying organismsFungi, beetles, termites, carpenter ants, marine borers.
Wood, reactionIn wood anatomy, wood with more or less distinctive anatomical char-
acteristics; formed in parts of leaning or crooked stems and branches. Reaction wood
consists of tension wood in hardwoods and compression wood in softwoods.
WorkabilityThe degree of ease and smoothness of cut obtainable with sharp hand or
machine tools.
XylemThe tissues of the stem, branches, and roots of a woody plant lying between the
pith and cambium, serving for water conduction, mechanical strength, and food storage,
and characterized by the presence of tracheids or vessels.

149
Abbreviations Used
to Identify Properties
and Measurement
Terms
Term Definition
2 by 4’s Nominal 2 by 4 in. (38 by 90 mm)
2 by 10’s Nominal 2 by 10 in. (38 by 240 mm)
4 by 4’s Nominal 4 by 4 in. (90 by 90 mm)
4/4 Nominal 1-in. (standard 25.4-mm) thickness
5/4 Nominal 1-1/4-in. (standard 32-mm) thickness
6/4 Nominal 1-1/2-in. (standard 38-mm) thickness
8/4 Nominal 2-in. (standard 51-mm) thickness
10/4 Nominal 2-1/2-in. (standard 64-mm) thickness
12/4 Nominal 3-in. (standard 76-mm) thickness
16/4 Nominal 4-in. (standard 102-mm) thickness
C| | Compression parallel to grain, maximum crushing strength
C⊥Compression perpendicular to grain, stress at proportional limit
Dry 12% moisture content
Hardness Side hardness
MC Moisture content
MOE Modulus of elasticity
MOR Modulus of rupture
NA Information not available
Shear| | Shear parallel to grain, maximum shearing strength
SG Specific gravity
WML Work to maximum load

150
Pine, Longleaf Pinus palustris
Appendix—Trade
Name Index Trade name Scientific name
Alaska-cedar Chamaecyparis nootkatensis
Atlantic white cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides
Baldcypress Taxodium distichum
Balsam fir Abies balsamea
Black spruce Picea mariana
California red fir Abies magnifica
Cedar, Alaska Chamaecyparis nootkatensis
Cedar, Atlantic white Chamaecyparis thyoides
Cedar, Eastern Red Juniperus virginiana
Cedar, Incense Libocedrus decurrens
Cedar, Northern White Thuja occidentalis
Cedar, Port-Orford- Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
Cedar, Southern Red Juniperus silicicola
Cedar, Western Red Thuja plicata
Cypress, Bald Taxodium distichum
Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
Eastern Hemlock Tsuga canadensis
Eastern Redcedar Juniperus virginiana
Eastern White Pine Pinus strobus
Engelmann Spruce Picea engelmannii
Fir, Balsam Abies balsamea
Fir, California Red Abies magnifica
Fir, Douglas- Pseudotsuga menziesii
Fir, Grand Abies grandis
Fir, Noble Abies procera
Fir, Pacific Silver Abies amabilis
Fir, Subalpine Abies lasiocarpa
Fir, White Abies concolor
Grand Fir Abies grandis
Hemlock, Eastern Tsuga canadensis
Hemlock, Mountain Tsuga mertensiana
Hemlock, Western Tsuga heterophylla
Incense Cedar Libocedrus decurrens
Jack Pine Pinus banksiana
Jeffrey Pine Pinus jeffreyi
Juniper, Western Juniperus occidentalis
Larch, Western Larix occidentalis
Limber Pine Pinus flexilis
Loblolly Pine Pinus taeda
Lodgepole Pine Pinus contorta
Longleaf Pine Pinus palustris
Monterey Pine Pinus radiata
Mountain Hemlock Tsuga mertensiana
Noble Fir Abies procera
Northern White Cedar Thuja occidentalis
Pacific Silver Fir Abies amabilis
Pacific Yew Taxus brevifolia
Pine, Eastern White Pinus strobus
Pine, Jack Pinus banksiana
Pine, Jeffrey Pinus jeffreyi
Pine, Limber Pinus flexilis
Pine, Loblolly Pinus taeda
Pine, Lodgepole Pinus contorta

151
Pine, Monterey Pinus radiata
Pine, Pitch Pinus rigida
Pine, Pond Pinus serotina
Pine, Ponderosa Pinus ponderosa
Pine, Radiata Pinus radiata
Pine, Red Pinus resinosa
Pine, Sand Pinus clausa
Pine, Shortleaf Pinus echinata
Pine, Slash Pinus elliottii
Pine, Spruce Pinus glabra
Pine, Sugar Pinus lambertiana
Pine, Table Mountain Pinus pungens
Pine, Virginia Pinus virginiana
Pine, Western White Pinus monticola
Pinyon Pinus edulis
Pitch Pine Pinus rigida
Pond Pine Pinus serotina
Ponderosa Pine Pinus ponderosa
Port-Orford-Cedar Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
Redcedar, Eastern Juniperus virginiana
Redcedar, Southern Juniperus silicicola
Redcedar, Western Thuja plicata
Red Fir, California Abies magnifica
Red Pine Pinus resinosa
Red Spruce Picea rubens
Redwood Sequoia sempervirens
Sand Pine Pinus clausa
Shortleaf Pine Pinus echinata
Silver Fir, Pacific Abies amabilis
Sitka Spruce Picea sitchensis
Slash Pine Pinus elliottii
Southern Redcedar Juniperus silicicola
Spruce Pine Pinus glabra
Spruce, Black Picea mariana
Spruce, Engelmann Picea engelmannii
Spruce, Red Picea rubens
Spruce, Sitka Picea sitchensis
Spruce, White Picea glauca
Subalpine Fir Abies lasiocarpa
Sugar Pine Pinus lambertiana
Table Mountain Pine Pinus pungens
Tamarack Larix laricina
Virginia Pine Pinus virginiana
Western Hemlock Tsuga heterophylla
Western Juniper Juniperus occidentalis
Western Larch Larix occidentalis
Western Redcedar Thuja plicata
Western White Pine Pinus monticola
White Cedar, Atlantic Chamaecyparis thyoides
White Cedar, Northern Thuja occidentalis
White Fir Abies concolor
White Pine, Eastern Pinus strobus
White Pine, Western Pinus monticola
White Spruce Picea glauca
Yew, Pacific Taxus brevifolia