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Risk assessment of genetically modified crops for nutrition and health
Abstract
The risk assessment of genetically modified (GM) crops for human nutrition and health has not been systematic. Evaluations for each GM crop or trait have been conducted using different feeding periods, animal models, and parameters. The most common result is that GM and conventional sources induce similar nutritional performance and growth in animals. However, adverse microscopic and molecular effects of some GM foods in different organs or tissues have been reported. Diversity among the methods and results of the risk assessments reflects the complexity of the subject. While there are currently no standardized methods to evaluate the safety of GM foods, attempts towards harmonization are on the way. More scientific effort is necessary in order to build confidence in the evaluation and acceptance of GM foods.
... More than 20 years have passed since the approval of genetic modifications in food and the world is yet to fully come to terms with their success albeit increasing number of products. In the same vein, the declaration by the World Health Organization's (WHO) that these products should be subjected to risk assessments for human nutrition and health have not been systematically performed (Domingo, 2007;Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca, 2009). However, with an increasingly less productive environment affecting the yields of most major crops, the future is very promising for GM technologies to meet the future global needs for food, feed and fibre in a sustainable and responsible way (Oliver, 2014). ...
... In summary, GM crops are produced after identifying a trait of interest (in the same or different plant species), isolating that trait through comparative analysis (or via deletion, knock down, seed chipping process), inserting that trait into the genome of the test crop using gene gun or microorganism (commonly used ones are the bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Bacillus thuringiensis), and then propagating the GM crop ( Figure 1). The newly produced plants containing genes from another organism are called "transgenic plant", "GM crop", "genetically engineered plants," or, more broadly, "genetically modified organisms" (Wieczorek, 2013, Magaña-Gómez and Calderón de la Barca, 2009). ...
... A popular notion highlighted in Kok and Kuiper (2003) is that traditional crop plant varieties on which our livelihood depends are not elaborately tested for safety prior to their popular use, therefore this history of safe use can be used as a baseline for the safety assessment of new GM plant varieties derived from established plant lines. Although GM and conventional sources induce similar nutritional performance and growth, adverse microscopic and molecular effects of some GM foods in different organs or tissues have been reported to a certain extent (Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca, 2009;Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011). The norm is to ab initio compare GM outputs with cultivars but this approach is not sustainable. ...
Genetically modified (GM) crops are cultivated in over 30 countries with their products and by-products imported by over 60 countries. This chapter seeks to highlight general concerns and potential lifelong effects of consuming GM plant-based food. The consumption of GM plant-based food is as risky as consuming conventional plant-based food. However, the alien genes in these products may be unstable leading to antinutritional and unintended short-term consequences. Due to the paucity of research, no long-term effects have been attributed to the lifelong consumption of these products. Nonetheless, possible lifelong health and socioeconomic effects may result from outcrossing of genes, increasing antibiotic resistance, development of new diseases, as well as potential effects on the environment and biodiversity. Biotechnology companies need to invest more in interdisciplinary research addressing the potential lifelong effects of these products. Although GM foods are safe for consumption, clarification of current risks and lifelong effects are required.
... More than 20 years have passed since the approval of genetic modifications in food and the world is yet to fully come to terms with their success albeit increasing number of products. In the same vein, the declaration by the World Health Organization's (WHO) that these products should be subjected to risk assessments for human nutrition and health have not been systematically performed (Domingo, 2007;Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca, 2009). However, with an increasingly less productive environment affecting the yields of most major crops, the future is very promising for GM technologies to meet the future global needs for food, feed and fibre in a sustainable and responsible way (Oliver, 2014). ...
... In summary, GM crops are produced after identifying a trait of interest (in the same or different plant species), isolating that trait through comparative analysis (or via deletion, knock down, seed chipping process), inserting that trait into the genome of the test crop using gene gun or microorganism (commonly used ones are the bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Bacillus thuringiensis), and then propagating the GM crop ( Figure 1). The newly produced plants containing genes from another organism are called "transgenic plant", "GM crop", "genetically engineered plants," or, more broadly, "genetically modified organisms" (Wieczorek, 2013, Magaña-Gómez and Calderón de la Barca, 2009). ...
... A popular notion highlighted in Kok and Kuiper (2003) is that traditional crop plant varieties on which our livelihood depends are not elaborately tested for safety prior to their popular use, therefore this history of safe use can be used as a baseline for the safety assessment of new GM plant varieties derived from established plant lines. Although GM and conventional sources induce similar nutritional performance and growth, adverse microscopic and molecular effects of some GM foods in different organs or tissues have been reported to a certain extent (Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca, 2009;Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011). The norm is to ab initio compare GM outputs with cultivars but this approach is not sustainable. ...
Genetically modified (GM) crops are cultivated in over 30 countries with their products and by-products imported by over 60 countries. This chapter seeks to highlight general concerns and potential lifelong effects of consuming GM plant-based food. The consumption of GM plant-based food is as risky as consuming conventional plant-based food. However, the alien genes in these products may be unstable leading to antinutritional and unintended short-term consequences. Due to the paucity of research, no long-term effects have been attributed to the lifelong consumption of these products. Nonetheless, possible lifelong health and socioeconomic effects may result from outcrossing of genes, increasing antibiotic resistance, development of new diseases, as well as potential effects on the environment and biodiversity. Biotechnology companies need to invest more in interdisciplinary research addressing the potential lifelong effects of these products. Although GM foods are safe for consumption, clarification of current risks and lifelong effects are required.
... Ao mesmo tempo que órgãos e instituições indiquem que os produtos GM passam por avaliação de risco para a saúde humana, na literatura científica são poucos os estudos sobre toxicologia e os riscos para saúde humana e animal (Domingo, 2007;Magana-Gomez;De La Barca, 2009). Assim, a afirmação reversa é importante: não temos estudos científicos suficientes para se dizer que os produtos GM são seguros, e, também, não temos estudos epidemiológicos que avaliem a relação de consumo humano desses produtos com a saúde. ...
... Ao mesmo tempo que órgãos e instituições indiquem que os produtos GM passam por avaliação de risco para a saúde humana, na literatura científica são poucos os estudos sobre toxicologia e os riscos para saúde humana e animal (Domingo, 2007;Magana-Gomez;De La Barca, 2009). Assim, a afirmação reversa é importante: não temos estudos científicos suficientes para se dizer que os produtos GM são seguros, e, também, não temos estudos epidemiológicos que avaliem a relação de consumo humano desses produtos com a saúde. ...
O livro “Desafios e tendências da alimentação contemporânea: consumo, mercados e ação pública”, organizado pelos membros do SOPAS Maycon N. Schubert, Jeferson Tonin e Sergio Schneider, foi recentemente publicado pela @editoraufrgs!
Seu objetivo principal é refletir sobre os principais temas e debates em torno da alimentação contemporânea, com foco nos desafios teóricos e conceituais que o campo da Sociologia da Alimentação e do Comer possuem, além de apresentar formas e métodos que possibilitem compreender os novos fenômenos sociais em torno da alimentação, bem como instrumentalizar políticas alimentares com resultados mais efetivos frente aos desafios que se avizinham.
Ele é dividido em duas partes: na primeira, 8 capítulos mobilizam diferentes vertentes teóricas e recursos metodológicos para analisar as dinâmicas emergentes da alimentação contemporânea em âmbito nacional e internacional; na segunda, parte do livro, oito casos/relatos que dialogam com as transformações em curso nos sistemas alimentares contemporâneos.
O livro está na forma de e-book, e pode ser baixado gratuitamente pelo link: https://lume.ufrgs.br/handle/10183/256162
... �� is also an intensive research review made on Bt cotton with various case studies on environmental biosafety [25]. However, compared with them environmental information, the non-target feeding safety and base food safety report are rather nonsystematic [26] and meager [27], and also not yet disclosed enough on Bt technology in general. ...
... For example, most of the previous studies were conducted on Bt corn, Bt brinjal, Bt soybean etc. [18][19][20][21]. Reports on risk assessment of Bt cotton are yet limited as to prove the safety based on the product base [26,27]. It is, therefore, case experiments with ����• species of animals (wild and farm animals, ruminants and monogastrics) are needed to generate comprehensive dietary risk assessment database. ...
Impact of transgenic cotton containing Cry 1Ac (Bt cotton) has been witnessed in term of reduced insecticide use and enhanced cotton production, are compelling factors for its rapid adoption worldwide. Though Bt cotton has been released for cultivation based on the biosafety data generated mostly by the developer, and the information on its safe use are yet meager. Hence additional studies are needed to support the food safety issues by developing different cases with independent Bt-cotton genotypes. In the present study, seed and leaves of IR-NIBGE-901 (containing Bt gene) were fed to rabbits over a period of 90 days as to know 1) non-target mammalian food-safety and 2) primary effect as feed to domestic animals. During the course of study, all rabbits both in treated and control groups grew well without any marked differences in appearance, food/water intake or gain in body weight. Similarly, no differences were observed in complete blood composition, liver enzymes, random blood sugar or cholesterol. Necropsy, at the conclusion of the study revealed neither pathological symptoms in any of the rabbits tested nor histopathological abnormalities in liver and kidney. Potential genotoxicity to liver and kidney cells at the DNA level was measured first time by comet assay. Tail like structures following electrophoresis of extracted DNA in agarose gels (indicative of genetic damage) was not observed among the treated or control groups. This study suggests that Bt cotton in the diet has no adverse effect on growth and development of rabbits as one of examples for mammals.
... Adoption of theses GM crops in agriculture raises global concerns about the environment and food security. In agriculture, the main aim of this technology is to develop GM crops which possess the desirable traits and have specific advantages over conventional crops such as, better nutritional profile, resistance to certain disease, pest, non-biological stress, longer shelf life and better yield (Magaña Gómez -and Calderón de la Barca, 2009). So, it is the prime priority to ensure the regulation and biosafety of such biotechnological innovation (GM crops) before commercialization by the competent authorities worldwide like US Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). ...
... In conclusion, risk assessment of the GM crops is inevitable. Advancement in molecular biology, nutrition, biochemistry, and toxicology hold the promise of providing new methodologies and tools (Magaña Gómez and Calderón de la Barca, 2009) -. That will help in improvement and risk assessment of the GM crops without compromising the human, animal health and natural resources. ...
Genetic engineering (GE) brings the revolution in crop improvement by developing the genetically modified (GM) crops having intentional and novel traits. GM crops hold the great potential to face current challenges, in term of satisficing the increasing demand of agricultural products and food security. Despite the promises they hold, safety assessment of the GM crops is inevitable for their adoption and public concerns. Intense safety research work has been done, which indicates no direct significant adverse effect either on environment or on human health. However, in spite of intense scientific research work and available information some stones still need to be unturned. A deliberate scientific effort is required to uncover many secrets such as, mutagenicity and long-term heath effect of GM crops, in order to build enough confidence for the acceptance of such type of biotechnological innovations.
... In the US, the FDA has reviewed 153 events to date (http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/?set=Biocon), many of which are on the market. Yet, most of the publications that are recurrently cited as evidence against GM crop safety (Hilbeck et al. 2015;Domingo & Bordonaba 2011;Seralini 2011;Dona & Arvanitoyannis 2009;Magaña-Gómez 2009) center on a small number of studies on specific events and that received extensive media coverage. The hundreds of scientific studies that do not support safety concerns go unnoticed in the public debate (Nicolia et al. 2014). ...
... The papers selected for study include those cited in four reviews of adverse effects of GM crops (Dona & Arvanitoyannis 2009;Magaña-Gómez 2009, Domingo & Bordonaba 2011, Seralini 2011. References cited in the Internet by GM Free USA, Coalition for a GM Free ...
GM crops are the most studied crops in history. Approximately 5% of the safety studies on them show adverse effects that are a cause for concern, and tend to be featured in media reports. Although these reports are based on just a handful of GM events, they are used to cast doubt on all GM crops. Furthermore, they tend to come from just a few laboratories and are published in less important journals. Importantly, a close examination of these reports invariably shows methodological flaws that invalidate any conclusions of adverse effects. Twenty years after commercial cultivation of GM crops began, a bona fide report of an adverse health effect due to a commercialized modification in a crop has yet to be reported. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Table 5. Summary of toxicology and health testing trials involving comparisons of GM crops and their non-GM equivalent indicating (A) some concerns and (B) little concern. Also refer to Magana-Gomez and Calderon de la Barca (2009) It should be noted that many non-GM crops also contain potentially toxic or allergenic compounds Purchase 2005). These may result either from the plant itself or from fungal activity before and after harvest leading to mycotoxin production (Miller 2008;Chulze 2010). ...
Food and feed has been produced from genetically modified (GM) crops for 25 years. It is timely to review whether this technology has globally delivered the expected benefits and whether the ongoing debate on risks is justified. Expected benefits associated with GM include increased crop yields, reduced pesticide and insecticide use, reduced carbon dioxide emissions, improved soil structure, improved crop nutritive quality/value, and decreased costs of production. Concerns focus on food safety linked to toxicity and allergenicity, environmental risks associated with potential chances of gene flow, adverse effects on non-target organisms, evolution of resistance in weeds and insects, and genetic perturbations resulting in unintended compounds, new diseases, or antibiotic resistance. This review focusing on benefits and risks of GM crops concludes that they are a valuable option for delivering improved economic and environmental outcomes by providing solutions for many of the challenges facing mankind. GM technologies like many non-GM technologies can bring risks, but these can and have been monitored and quantified, allowing decisions balancing commercial, societal and environmental benefits against measurable risks. While ‘checks’ and ‘balances’ are required, regulatory schemes must focus on balancing risks and benefits and not on ‘checks’ alone which is the case for many countries.
... EU has adopted a zero-tolerance policy towards the low-level presence of unauthorized GMOs in foods, with a 0.1 % threshold for the permissible presence of unauthorized GMO in the feed (The Commission of the European Communities 2011; Turkec et al. 2016). Many studies were performed to investigate the safety of GM food and feed (Elsanhoty et al. 2004(Elsanhoty et al. , 2006He et al. 2008;Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca 2009;Appenzeller et al. 2009a,b;Snell et al. 2012). Feeding trials in which rats were fed GM foods for prolonged periods were reported . ...
... However, most of these studies were conducted on GM crops like brinjal, corn and soybean but not on cotton (Salisu, et al., 2018). Risk assessment studies related to GM cotton are far from being adequate to prove its safety (Magaña-Gómez and Calderón de la Barca, 2009). To generate comprehensive dietary risk assessment data base on GM cotton, a case experimental studies with various animal species ranging from, rodents, small ruminants and large ruminants are the need of time . ...
Ovalbumin isthe major egg white protein synthesized in the hen's oviduct and plays a role in
reproduction and embryonic development. The present investigation aimed at identifying
deleterious non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) in Ovalbumin
gene of ducks using an in silico assay.Amino acid sequence data ofthe Ovalbumin protein of
ducks were retrieved from the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
database. Bioinformatics prediction algorithms used for the detection of deleterious nsSNPs
were PROVEAN, SIFT, PolyPhe-2 and PANTHER.A total of seven nsSNPs were obtained
from the aligned sequences of ducks, out of which two variants (V83S and H84Q) were
predicted to be deleterious by three out of the four algorithms. The H84Q substitution in
ducks was also found to decrease protein stability while V83S was pathogenic. Further
confirmatory analysis also revealed that variants V83S and H84Q including the Cmutant (a
combination of V83S and H84Q mutations) were highly deleterious as there were marked
differences between them and the native protein in terms of physico-chemical properties,
total free energy, interacting residues and secondary structure.These may distort Ovalbumin
protein structural landscape and function. The phylogenetic tree revealed species-wise
clustering of the Ovalbumin sequences. The present deleterious nsSNPs when validated in
large populations using wet lab experimental protocols could be important biological
markers for disease detection and therapy in ducks. Subsequently, breeders may select
againstV83S and H84Qmutantsto boost egg production in ducks.
... EU has adopted a zero-tolerance policy towards the low-level presence of unauthorized GMOs in foods, with a 0.1 % threshold for the permissible presence of unauthorized GMO in the feed (The Commission of the European Communities 2011; Turkec et al. 2016). Many studies were performed to investigate the safety of GM food and feed (Elsanhoty et al. 2004(Elsanhoty et al. , 2006He et al. 2008;Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca 2009;Appenzeller et al. 2009a,b;Snell et al. 2012). Feeding trials in which rats were fed GM foods for prolonged periods were reported . ...
Genetically modified (GM) crops were approved for edible use in several countries but their biosafety for organisms remains to be crucial. The objectives of this work were to compare GM wheat (Triticum aestivum) Hi-line 111 (GMW) with native non-GMW wheat (NGMW) to find the differences, if any, in their biosafety. Three groups of albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) were used to study the biosafety of GMW for 30 days. Group 1 was fed on a basal diet (control), and group 2 on a control diet with 30 % replacement of starch with NGMW, while group 3 was fed on the control diet with 30 % replacement of starch with GMW. There were no significant signs of adverse impacts noted in the clinical appearance of animals fed on GMW in terms of initial body weight, absolute or relative organ weights and serum profile in comparison with the control group. However, slight histopathological changes were observed in the organs of animals fed on GMW. Though our results demonstrate GMW biosafety regarding its biochemical parameters, however, detailed description of submucosal edema and further studies on allergenic potential with long feeding periods should be performed to conclude its impacts on health.
... The European parliament and council for example have set up regulations regarding GM foods to protect human Submit your Manuscript | www.austinpublishinggroup.com health and well-being of citizens, and European social and economic interests. As Strauss, D. M. 2006 the EU regulations segregates between GM food and feed, it further gives specific instructions on how GM products should be labelled in terms of the amount of modifications involved [34,35]. ...
Genetically modified foods are organisms (i.e. plants or animals) in which the genetic material (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. Combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant Deoxyribonucleic Acid technology and the resulting organism is said to be ‘Genetically Modified’, ‘Genetically Engineered’ or ‘Transgenic’. Crops grown commercially and/or field-tested are resistant to a virus that could destroy most of the African harvest, other crops with increased iron and vitamins that may alleviate chronic malnutrition and a variety of plants that are able to survive weather extremes. There are fruits that produce human vaccines against infectious diseases such as hepatitis B, fish that mature more quickly, fruit and nut trees that yield years earlier and plants that produce new plastics with unique properties. Controversies and public concern surrounding Genetically Modified foods and crops commonly focus on human and environmental safety, ethics, food security, poverty reduction and environmental conservation. With this new technology on gene manipulation there are the risks of tampering with nature, effects will have on the environment, the health concerns that consumers should be aware of, and effects related with recombinant technology. This review addresses the major concerns about the safety, environmental and legal issues which are collectively infer health hazards of Genetically Modified foods and recombinant technology in different perspective.
... Neither pathological there have been signs or documented anomalies. It has been concluded the transgenic rice, including T-cell oral administration Japanese cedar epitopes, did not have any adverse effects every day they were free to feed [37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45]. ...
The health of genetically engineered foods/plants, which is one of the significant issues has been raised in recent years. Various non-governmental organizations and customers recommended that all GM foods before authorization for human consumption should be subject to long-term animal feed studies. The fundamental purpose of this review is to assess the new potential harmful impact/safety assessment of genetically engineered plants for the use of humans. A balance in the number of research groups, depending on their research, a variety of GM crops (maize and soybeans in particular) are varied as for traditional non-genetically modified plants. It is worth remembering that most of the experiments were carried out in biotechnology firms that sell these GM plants. In this review, we discussed in detail the risk assessment of genetically modified plants.
... EU has adopted a zero-tolerance policy towards the low-level presence of unauthorized GMOs in foods, with a 0.1 % threshold for the permissible presence of unauthorized GMO in the feed (The Commission of the European Communities 2011; Turkec et al. 2016). Many studies were performed to investigate the safety of GM food and feed (Elsanhoty et al. 2004(Elsanhoty et al. , 2006He et al. 2008;Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca 2009;Appenzeller et al. 2009a,b;Snell et al. 2012). Feeding trials in which rats were fed GM foods for prolonged periods were reported . ...
Genetically modified (GM) crops were approved for edible use in several countries but their biosafety for organisms remains to be crucial. The objectives of this work were to compare GM wheat (Triticum aestivum) Hi-line 111 (GMW) with native non-GMW wheat (NGMW) to find the differences, if any, in their biosafety. Three groups of albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) were used to study the biosafety of GMW for 30 days. Group 1 was fed on a basal diet (control), and group 2 on a control diet with 30 % replacement of starch with NGMW, while group 3 was fed on the control diet with 30 % replacement of starch with GMW. There were no significant signs of adverse impacts noted in the clinical appearance of animals fed on GMW in terms of initial body weight, absolute or relative organ weights and serum profile in comparison with the control group. However, slight histopathological changes were observed in the organs of animals fed on GMW. Though our results demonstrate GMW biosafety regarding its biochemical parameters, however, detailed description of submucosal edema and further studies on allergenic potential with long feeding periods should be performed to conclude its impacts on health.
... What are the major safety concerns related to GM plants? Today the GM plants are produced to bring benefices to the humanity, and based on such a rational, their classification distinguishes three categories (Magaña-Gómez and Calderón de la Barca, 2009;Gasser and Fraley, 1989). Thus, the first category of GM plants would include those that are referred to pest resistance such as Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) resistance (Hutchison et al., 2010), herbicide tolerance such as glyphosate (Gaines et al., 2010), disease resistance such as powdery mildew resistance (Jørgensen, 1988), cold tolerance (Sanghera et al., 2011), drought tolerance, and salinity tolerance (Sinclair, 2011). ...
The book is intended to inform a wide spectrum of readers, not only scientists and certainly not just geneticists, but anyone eager to survey the pros and cons of the proposed topics based on facts (peer-reviewed evidences) and to challenge the misinformation provided abundantly by fake scientists publishing views about how bad and
dangerous genetically modified (GM) food is. It is the responsibility of scientists to explain the quintessence of such a research, as misinformation is more dangerous than ignorance.
Genetic modification is a term that captures the imagination of many people and has generated wide debate among many groups of interest, including life scientists, policy makers, and law and ethical specialists, while citizens from developed, developing, and underdeveloped countries are facing this issue from different perspective.
The ongoing basic research aims to understand the genetic modification -specific cause-effect type of correlations and make use of the GMOs to study the function of genes. On the other hand, the heavily questioned applied research is meant to offer novel and efficient solutions for current problems like biomass production, food
safety and security, treatment of human diseases, adaptation of plant and animal species to climatic changes, etc.
Can we stay impartial and face the reality with respect to genetic modifications?
In order to address in a fairly comprehensive way the main issues related to GM food, we will present the major issues related to the natural occurrence and laboratory-made GM bacteria, plants, and animals. Next we will focus on GM food specific major considerations and concerns. In this way, we will follow the implications of genetic modification across the whole food chain giving a much broader and a more carefully balanced picture of the applicability of such a powerful
and promising life science related research method.
The definition of genetic modification refers to a naturally and/or laboratory assisted genetic materiale/gene-/DNA-based phenomenon that would lead to some kind of modification(s) of the genome/DNA of the host organism, hence the term of genetically modified (recombinant) organism (GMO) emerges. It is also important to notice that initially the genetic modification term would cover both the naturally and laboratory condition assisted genetic modifications, while currently it is more related to the laboratory-obtained transgenic organisms, containing a foreign piece of DNA (gene(s)) from other species.....
... ii. Risk of introduction of allergens and toxins into safe foods (Magaña-Gómez and Calderón de la Barca, 2009). ...
The fourth industrial revolution commenced in the year 2000 and involves use of green energies and computer-generated design, 3D and 4D printer, internet, software, IT intelligence, robots and genetic engineering in High Tech industries and agricultural production, with electric car and ultra-fast train as means of transport. It is seen to pose a substantial social and economic opportunities and challenges regarding employment, education and training, modernization of infrastructure, food production, processing and marketing, and ultimate food security. This paper seeks to explore the various governments policy responses that define guidelines and standards towards supporting the societal transformation in food security issues, in the face of the fourth industrial revolution. Section 1 presents the problem of fourth industrial revolution and food security, section 2 describes the policy approaches to address the problem, section 3 discusses the potential constraints to these policy options, section 4 discusses the potential benefits of the policy options while section 5 provides the criterion on appropriate policy option selection. Section 6 presents the conclusion.
... Estudos realizados com animais mostraram toxicidade hepática e renal, bem como o surgimento de tumores em ratos alimentados com milho GM (De Vendomois et al. 2009, Magana-Gomez e De La Barca 2009Barca , Séralini et al. 2012Barca , Séralini et al. 2014), inflamação no estômago em suínos alimentados com soja e milho GM (Carman et al. 2013) e danos às membranas mucosas da superfície do jejuno em ratos alimentados com milho GM (Ibrahim e Okasha 2016). ...
Resumo Este trabalho se propõe a discutir o consumo de organismos geneticamente modificados (OGM), principalmente considerando a realidade brasileira. O consumo de OGM vem sendo as-sociado ao aumento de doenças crônicas não transmissíveis, obesidade, autismo, doenças hepá-ticas e renais, doença celíaca, entre outras. No ambiente, a produção de OGM se associa a perda da biodiversidade. Nesse contexto é feita uma reflexão quanto o cultivo de OGM no Brasil e a presença dos mesmos na dieta da população brasileira. Isso porque, no Brasil, o principal objetivo das modificações genéticas é desenvolver plantas resistentes ao uso de agrotóxicos, a exemplo do glifosato, cujos malefícios já são comprovados cientificamente. E quase a totalidade da área plantada de soja, milho e algodão são geneticamente modificadas no Brasil. A problemática da liberação e cultivo de alimentos geneticamente modificados (GM) no Brasil se acentua ao se con-siderar o amplo uso dos subprodutos, principalmente de soja e milho, presentes em grande parte dos alimentos industrializados. Ademais, a legislação brasileira de rotulagem de alimentos exige a identificação de OGM no rótulo somente de produtos que contenham mais de 1% de ingre-dientes GM (Brasil 2003a). Considerando a promoção de uma alimentação saudável e sustentável, atrelada à promoção da segurança alimentar e nutricional, deve-se fomentar o consumo de ali-mentos provenientes de produção orgânica e de base agroecológica, produzidos por produtores locais, garantindo o consumo de um produto livre de OGM. A legislação brasileira deve considerar a rotulagem obrigatória aplicada a todos os produtos contendo OGM, permitindo ao consumidor tomar decisões a partir de uma informação adequada. Palavras-chave: Organismos Geneticamente Modificados; Sustentabilidade; Alimentação saudável; Consumo alimentar.
... Studies have shown that the consumption of GM foods can be harmful to health, especially when considering the pesticides associated with them (15) . The following conditions have been observed: hepatic and renal toxicity in animals that were fed GM corn; the appearance of tumours in rats that were fed GM corn (16)(17)(18) ; inflammation in the stomachs of pigs that were fed GM corn and soyabeans (19) ; and damage to the mucous membranes of the jejune surface in rats that were fed GM corn (20) . In man, such harm has been associated with neurological problems, hormonal changes, infertility, cancer, diabetes, obesity, gastrointestinal disorders, depression, heart disease, autism, Alzheimer's disease and coeliac disease (21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26) . ...
Objective
To identify ingredients from products and by-products derived from GM crops in packaged food products and to analyse the presence of these ingredients in the foods most commonly consumed by the Brazilian population.
Design
Cross-sectional study.
Setting
A search of the scientific literature to identify the use of products and by-products derived from GM crops in foods in Brazil and a study of food labels in a supermarket belonging to one of the ten largest supermarket chains in Brazil.
Subjects
To identify the ingredients present in packaged food products and their nomenclatures, the labels of all packaged food products available for sale in a supermarket were analysed. Subsequently, the presence of potential GM ingredients in the foods most commonly consumed by the Brazilian population was analysed.
Results
A total of twenty-eight GM crops’ by-products with applications in the food industry (from soyabeans, corn, cotton and a yeast) were identified. Such by-products are presented as food ingredients or additives on food labels with 101 distinct nomenclatures. Most of the variety (63·8 %) and the quantity (64·5 %) of the foods most commonly consumed by Brazilians may contain a least one GM ingredient.
Conclusions
The presence of at least one potential GM ingredient was observed in more than half of the variety of foods most commonly consumed by the Brazilian population. Such ingredients were identified with distinct nomenclatures and incomplete descriptions, which may make it difficult to identify potential GM foods and confuse consumers when making food choices.
... For instance, most of the earlier experiments were done on GM plants such as brinjal, corn, and soybean (11)(12)(13)(14). Studies on GM cotton with respect to risk assessment are yet inadequate in proving its safety (15,16). Therefore, it is the need of hour to generate comprehensive dietary risk assessment database for case-wise studies on GM cotton with various animals (wild, ruminant, and mono-gastric animals) (17). ...
In recent years, the influence of genetically modified (GM) cotton expressing different types of Bt and EPSPS genes has been attested in term of reduced application of pesticides and insecticides coupled with improved cotton production. Although the cultivation of GM cotton has been authorized by the regulatory authorities of various countries in the world, based on the biosafety studies reported by most of the GM cotton producers, yet the information on its safe use are inadequate. In order to support the issues on food safety, it is therefore mandatory to conduct further safety assessment studies on GM cotton for each independent transgenic event on the basis of case assessment rule. In the present study, the effects of different doses of dietary GM cotton seed expressing Bt and EPSPS genes were studied on the level of serum biochemical in albino rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The rabbits were fed a diet containing different levels of GM cotton seeds (i.e., 20, 30, and 40% w/w) respectively mixed with standard diet for 180 days. During the course of the study, various serum enzymes, electrolytes, proteins, glucose and serum total cholesterol were examined at specific time intervals (0, 45, 90, 135, and 180) days. The results showed non-significant (P > 0.05) dose dependent effects in most of the evaluated serum biochemical parameters. Although, the results in some of the serum biochemistry were significantly different (P < 0.05) among the groups, however, they were not biologically significant, since all the differences were within the normal physiological range. These results thus, suggested that the GM cotton seed meal could be considered as safe as other conventional feed ingredients. The experimental evidence for the safe usage of GM cotton was highlighted in this study.
... And 90 day rodent Feeding studies have been recommended to assess the potential adverse effects of transgenic crops [10,11]. However, experimental studies on safety of GM foods were scant and there are still overwhelming doubts about the immature toxicological assessment procedure for GM food [12,13]. Indeed, A few studies have reported obviously harmful effects of GM food. ...
TT51, with a synthetic Cry1Ab/CryAc gene from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, was the first genetically modified (GM) plant officially certificated in China. This study was undertaken to investigate potential embryotoxicity of TT51 on rats. Whole embryo culture (WEC) is an effective method for safety evaluation when culture medium, containing substances derived from GM food, is available. Rat embryos explanted from uterus were randomly distributed into 6 groups: Transgenic Rice (TR) group with transgenic rice dietary administration, Parental Rice (PR) group with parental rice dietary administration, Blank Control (BC), Positive control A (PCA) group with Bisphenol A being directly added into the culture medium, Positive control B (PCB) group with Bisphenol A oral administration and Bt protein (BP) group with Bt protein directly added into culture medium. After culturing for 48 h, embryos were scored for growth and differentiation at the endpoint. Embryos in TR group had no significantly lower morphological scores or smaller yolk sac diameter, crown-rump length (CRL) and cranial diameter comparing with those in BC and PR group. Embryos in PCA and PCB group both performed significantly lower developmental parameters and morphological scores than the other three groups. Embryos directly exposed to Bt protein (52 mg/L) exhibited severe morphological anomalies but no significant difference in yolk sac diameter compared with PR, TR and BC groups. In this WEC model, TT51 showed no embryotoxicity to rats although Bt toxin had side effect on embryos when the concentration is equal to the daily intake of Bt protein in TT51 diet. And it also indicated that WEC method can make an option for toxicological assessment of GM food.
... Nevertheless, developing countries are already faced with the need to evaluate Genetically Modified (GM) crops and will one day also need to evaluate the possible use of GM trees, livestock and fish. These innovations may offer opportunities for increased production, productivity, product quality and adaptive fitness, but they will certainly create challenges for the research and regulatory capacity of developing countries [19] . ...
... Detailed methods outlining the approach to performing GM food risk assessments are provided by the WHO. 12 However, there can be obstacles such as difficulty acquiring the non-GM parent line of the GM crop for evaluation, assuring nutritional equivalence among diets, and surmounting the best animal model for testing. 13 The food or feed derived from the GM crop is first compared with the natural counterpart to establish equivalence via molecular characterization, and the transgenic protein properties must be described for a toxicological assessment. In order to derive a daily intake level, the estimation of the intake of the protein has to be carried out per unit plant and per unit food compound to predict exposure to the compound. ...
Billions of people worldwide are unable to meet their daily micro nutritional needs. Genetically modified (GM) foods, while initially developed to tolerate herbicides and resist disease and insects, have the potential to help alleviate this issue that is currently posing a serious public health concern. However, there is a negative public perception surrounding GM foods, calling for more research regarding the risks that GM foods could pose to the public, specifically on the topics of allergenicity and gene transfer. The risk assessments of GM foods should be performed on a case-by-case basis, by a process outlined by the WHO. The goal of determining food safety is to obtain reasonable certainty that under normal levels of consumption, there will be no harm to people. Current research has shown that GM foods do not cause increased allergenicity or have a meaningful risk of gene transfer to people. GM foods should become publicly accepted products that can bring significant benefit to people at risk of under nutrition.
... Moreover, some modified crops are able to provide food with supplemental health benefits or renewable raw materials. This generation also includes ''pharmaplants,'' which are used as biological production systems for producing high-grade active pharmaceutical elements (MagañaGómez and de laBarca 2009). This article is an abridged version of the chapter byRahman et al. (2015). ...
... The criteria for risk assessment are based on both genetically modified and original unmodified plants, their potential environmental interactions, as well as the possible effects of plants or their products on the human health (Magaña-Gómez and de la Barca, 2009). Characterization of the novel trait plays a central role in the assessment process and overlaps the assessment of the modified plant. ...
Genetically modified (GM) plants are those whose genomes have been modified by the introduction of foreign DNA constructs derived from bacteria, fungi, viruses, or animals. The most common genetically modified plants include soybeans, maize/corn, rapeseed mustard, potatoes, cotton, sugarcane, tomato, rice, and aspen/Populus. In this chapter, we list 16 goals of genetic engineers in developing GM plants. These are plants that manifest frost hardiness; insect and herbicide tolerance; virus resistance; altered starch, cellulose, and lignin production; altered levels and kinds of oils and proteins in seed crops; higher levels of antioxidants in edible fruits, synthesis of new metabolites like beta-carotene in rice grains and vaccines in non-edible plants; and sequestration of hazardous wastes from polluted (“brown field”) areas. The next section of this chapter includes a discussion of the purported benefits and risks of GM plants. Our goal here is to present this information in as balanced a fashion as possible. Lastly, we address important questions and answers concerning GM plants and food products.
... Eine zuverlässige Risiko-Abwägung der Folgen gentechnisch veränderter Pflanzen für Mensch undUmwelt ist aufgrund fehlender Langzeitstudien und komplexer experimentellen Parameter in der Tat schwierig (Magaña-Gómez und de laBarca, 2009). Zudem erschweren die bestehenden gesetzlichen Regularien die Vermarktung transgener Sorten, vor allem in Europa. ...
This book aims to shed light on land grabbing, which corrupt politicians disguisedly call land leasing that many African countries are now involved in under the guise of investment. The major argument I make in this volume is that rich countries and companies are now committing a sacrilegious crime against poor Africans, which is likely to backfire soon than later after its adverse ramifications surface. To put it in context, such a crime is not only detrimental but self-inflicted wounds if not a suicidal act for Africa whose greedy and myopic rulers give a good name of investment. This sort of investment is not a panacea for Africa’s problem. Instead, it is a catalyst of land colonisation, which soon will exacerbate the problem. There are ways of solving Africa’s economic tanking.
The book poses a few simple questions: Instead of leasing out the land, why can’t such countries enter agreements with those they are leasing land to and produce food or whatever produce and supply them? Does Africa have any plan B in case things go skewwhiff in this agricultural geopolitics and land grabbing? Where did Africa study the entire project to assess its performance before swallowing it hook, line, and sinker for its peril. Also, the book considers landlessness in many African countries as a ticking bomb, especially when victims evidence how the land they call theirs is decadently and recklessly dished out by corrupt and irresponsible rulers or official in their countries while they are not only landless but also starving simply because those they wrongly trust have openly betrayed and sold them. Africa has always suffered from food insecurity. Land grabbing soon will become a food and national security issue.
Although there are thousands of plant species growing on the surface of the globe, whether wild or cultivated, the number of cultivated plant species is very little, of which have been distinguished and identified with 287,655 plant species, of which 258,650 flowering plants and more than 15,000 of the bryophyte until now, and that 50% of the world's food needs are provided by crops of wheat, rice and maize, and there are up to thirty plant species that provide up to 95% of the world's food need.
With the steadily increasing world population for fewer the yield of the economic crops, the problem of shrinking agricultural areas is exacerbated by the main abiotic stress problems, they are drought first and salinity second, in addition to the emergence of global warming, along with several reasons. Therefore, the urgent need for vertical expansion in agriculture is represented by the role played by the science of plant breeding and improvement through the development, improvement and transfer of varieties and strains that are superior in productivity and resistance or tolerant to disease and insect infestation and their environmental adaptation. As well as improving their qualities and others, a role that plant breeders and researchers play in the field of molecular biology.
Over decades of research, studies and programs, workers in the field of plant breeding have been able to create and produce many varieties, strains, and hybrids that are high-yielding and resistant or tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses which contributed to reducing the difference between the reality of agricultural production and the increasing number of people and the abundance and diversity of its needs, but these contributions remain small compared to the size of the challenges that impose on plant breeders and the genetic engineer greater efforts to achieve the required balance.
With the aim of enriching and supplying our researchers with specialized modern methodological resources that deal with the latest findings and achievements of the breeders and genetic improvement scientists in the world, with the rapid development and new scientific additions taking place in this rich field, as well as the importance of this branch of the branches of biological and agricultural sciences that is looking at improving Genetic traits of plants that have an economic value for humans, this book came to the subject of breeding and genetic improvement of plants after more than 14 years of extrapolation, preparation, authoring and scientific review for undergraduate, graduate students and a reference for professors of the Faculties of Agricultural Sciences, Agricultural Institutes and researchers as well as plant breeders.
The seventeen chapters of this book dealt with the facilitated explanation of all classical and modern genetic breeding and improvement methods, including the techniques of tissue culture, genetic engineering and the associated molecular technologies for self-pollinating crops, cross-pollination, vegetatively reproduction and what accompanies these methods, what the breeder needs in terms of familiarity with some genetic principles, molecular techniques and others with a review Applied examples, shapes, charts, pictures and tables that help them understand the methods of scientific, practical field and laboratory application, as well as details of the application and implementation of some improvement and hybridization programs for a number of important economic crops, as well as dealing with the most important principles, genetic laws, and statistical programs that will facilitate the implementation of researchers' experiments and their various applied studies and collecting Its data, analysis, interpretation, and other related topics.
The present chapter deals with the topic Molecular Computation. The chapter first defines the basic terminologies associated with the processes. The chapter discusses the basic molecular biology and DNA and membranes. Emphases are given on the structural arrangements of DNA and the molecular architecture of biological membranes. The chapter also focuses on the molecular logic behind the applications of DNA and bimolecular membranes in computations. There are discussions on the current researches that are going on in the field of DNA and membrane computations. There are comparative analyses of the existing computational techniques with molecular computations. There are very few reports that deal with the underlying basics of molecular computation techniques. Thus the chapter may be a first hand guide for researchers interested in the field. The chapter is written for the benefits of both the biologists as well as computer scientists.
This chapter seeks to explore possible explanations for the rise in allergies and immune reactivities and the epidemic proportions of autoimmune disease. A major hypothesis is that this modern sort of plague derives from the modern civilization in which most of the world now lives. The technological advances of progress inevitably bring with them changes in lifestyle and diet, which can affect our immune system in various ways. Individuals today are surrounded and bombarded by genetically modified foods completely different from what their ancestors used to eat and an unending torrent of chemicals that not only pervade the environment around them but are in the very food and drink that they consume daily without a second thought. Thus, the necessary homeostatic balance between type 1 and type 2 T helper cells (Th1 and Th2) can be swayed toward pathogenesis by, ironically, too hygienic a lifestyle. Likewise, the balance of the commensal bacteria in the gut microbiome can be disturbed by environmental triggers, which may lead to intestinal permeability, immune reactivity, and autoimmunity. Xenobiotics (haptens) in food can form neo-antigens or adducts, leading to autoimmunity and cancer. The increased use of food additives to make our food look better, taste better, last longer, and be cheaper and easier to grow has come with an accompanying rise in reports of food reactivities and autoimmune disorders. It has been proven that many of the common foods that are universally eaten without a second thought are actually cross-reactive with different tissues of the human body, and this includes the brain. It seems all too easy, then, for the healthy relationship and mechanisms between the brain and the immune system to succumb to the overwhelming assault mounted by the environmental triggers of today’s modern world. What is required is a way to detect the beginnings of these environmental attacks, which leave traces or biomarkers, so that years of suffering from immune reactivity or autoimmune disease may be avoided or prevented by early diagnosis and proper therapeutic action.
En 1983, después de una década de investigaciones en ingeniería genética, se creó la primera planta transgénica de tabaco. Unos diez años después se aprobó la introducción de plantas transgénicas en la producción agrícola, iniciándose una vertiginosa carrera ascendente en la presencia de los organismos genéticamente modificados (OGMs) en la agricultura. Sin embargo, hasta hoy se mantiene una álgida controversia entre los que, por un lado, defienden la inocuidad
de los alimentos transgénicos y los que, en el extremo opuesto, se oponen tajantemente a su consumo. El debate ha conducido a que muchos países hayan legislado sobre el uso de los cultivos
transgénicos y los alimentos resultantes. Los objetivos de este artículo fueron analizar el posible riesgo de los alimentos transgénicos y el estado en que se encuentran las legislaciones sobre
ellos en Sudamérica. Se realizó una investigación documental sobre los riesgos de los alimentos obtenidos a partir de OGMs y las legislaciones vigentes en el subcontinente. El estudio permitió
definir que aunque no se han informado afectaciones de los alimentos transgénicos a la salud humana, los datos no son concluyentes. Existen legislaciones en varios países sudamericanos, pero su perdurabilidad no está garantizada, lo que podría acarrear perjuicio a los consumidores.
Food products from genetically modified (GM) crops for human consumption, referred to as ‘GM foods’ in this chapter, have been available on the market since 1994. A few years after their introduction, controversy and negative reactions arose because of their potentially harmful environmental effects and the health risks associated with their intake. In spite of ongoing concerns, the growing of GM crops has increased more than 100-fold during the last 20 years. Nowadays, one of the most controversial aspects of GM foods consumption is still the risk to human health. The first complaint is that genes are inserted randomly into the crop genome that in turn may modify non-target gene sequences or cause genetic mutations during the transformation process. Therefore, the insertion site and copies of the new DNA sequence should be analysed before the approval of the product for human consumption. This raises the possibility of new conjugated proteins or peptides with unknown biological effects on human health. Another critical point to consider is the presence of proteins without a natural history of consumption. Recently, the potential carcinogenicity of herbicides used in GM crop land has been used to argue for the lack of safety of GM foods. The majority of results show that GM foods have no adverse effects on model animals. Only a few studies have detected serious risks attributable to some GM foods, principally at the microscopic and molecular levels. In this respect, assessment of the health risk associated with GM foods has not been standardized and, as a result, a wide variety of protocols are being used. In the near future, it will be possible to study the effects of specific nutrients, foods or whole diets on the expression of thousands of genes at the same time, as well as changes in metabolic pathways or the use of specific metabolites as biomarkers for human intake or animal models. This ‘omics’ approach will be an alternative for characterizing the health risks of any GM food. This chapter reviews the current published information on nutrition and health concerns associated with the consumption of GM foods, presents the pros and cons for GM food consumption, and discusses some future perspectives on the risk assessment based on current science and technology developments.
Toxicology assessment, also known as safety assessment or toxicity testing, is conducted to determine the degree to which a substance can damage a living or nonliving organism. It is often conducted by researchers using standard test procedures to comply with governing regulations, for example, for medicines and pesticides. Stages of in vitro and in vivo research are conducted to determine safe doses of exposure in humans. In this chapter, we mainly introduce the toxicity tests including in vitro and in vivo research used in the safety assessment of GMOs. The in vitro research includes a mutagenicity study in bacteria (Salmonella Typhimurium/mammalian microsomal enzyme test, Ames test). The in vivo research includes acute oral toxicity, bone marrow cell micronucleus test in mice, spermatogonium mice or spermatocyte chromosome aberration test, and chronic toxicity studies, including the 90-day sub-chronic study and a 2-year chronic study. GMOs and the corresponding non-GMOs were analyzed in the same experiment condition. The results of toxicology assessment of GMOs were compared with the corresponding non-GMOs. The GMOs are considered safe if there was no significant difference when compared with the non-GMOs.
The success or otherwise of novel grain-based products is ultimately determined by the consumers because they ‘vote’ with their purchasing power. Trends are also determined by the scientist (who develops notional feasibilities) and the technologist (who dwells on realities in pursuing innovations). The breeder has a key role to play by introducing genotypes with novel quality attributes, which can be exploited further down the grain chain. New technologies are being introduced to assist the grain grower in providing quality grain, even though in a changing climate. New technologies will facilitate quality-based segregation of grain at harvest, helping to maximise returns to growers and to provide more uniform quality for processors. The nutritional value of grain-based foods will continue to feature as a major factor in the processing and retailing of foods based on grains.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/1807-1384.2013v10n1p261Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar a legislação brasileira sobre organismos geneticamente modificados - OGMs (ou transgênicos). As normas foram identificados nas bases de dados do SICON e LEXML, ambas disponíveis no site do Senado Federal. Foram localizadas 25 normas, sendo a maioria de autoria do Poder Executivo no governo Lula. Os principais temas debatidos foram plantio, fiscalização, comercialização e rotulagem dos OGMs. Conclui-se que a produção legislativa brasileira é, em sua maioria, baseada em medidas provisórias cujo objetivo principal foi autorizar a comercialização de soja GM plantada ilegalmente no país até 2003. As exigências brasileiras com relação à rotulagem assemelham-se à européia, no entanto muito ainda necessita ser feito para melhorar as estratégias de fiscalização do cumprimento das normas. Normas brasileiras relevantes não foram identificadas pelas bases de dados utilizadas.
Genomic technologies started in the early 1980s to improve the genomes of cultivated crop species. For example the term “Bt” comes from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis containing genes, e.g. Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab, Cry1F, Cry3Bb1, that provides protection against lepidopteran insect pests. Those genes have been inserted in crops such as corn, cotton, soybean, rice, potato and canola released for cultivation in mid 1990s in USA, and later in many other countries like China and India. About 29 countries commercialized genetically-modified (GM) or ‘transgenic’ crops while 30 countries granted regulatory approvals for planting GM-crops; together making 75 % of the world population. Potential harmful effects of the Bt-crops on non-targets were quantified before releasing such non-conventional crops into the environment. The cultivation of Bt-crops were most commonly found safe, based on various studies including the insertional impact of transgene and its regulatory elements on plant phenotype and agronomic performance, effect on non-target organisms (NTOs) and nutritional impacts on multiple experimental models. Albeit the studies were conducted for limited durations. However, the skeptics always claim for conducting extensive clinical as well as field trials, and also doubt on methods and procedures of calculating the ecological risks. This debate is still on-going, especially after reports on substantial reduction of monarch butterfly caterpillars exposed to Bt-maize pollen, though later nullified; and detection of traces of transgene in various tissues of experimental animals. Procedures, methods and protocols for evaluating potential risks of GM-crops and foods should be standardized as the first step to build trust of researchers and end-users. Many efforts should be exerted in deploying genes of interest, marker genes and regulatory sequences invoking no or little issues of potential risks to the ecosystem.
Due to the social circumstances surrounding agricultural biotechnology, its potential to help achieving environmental improvement and more healthy foodstuffs has not been actualized. With respect to health, biotechnology can improve the micronutrient contents of staple food. It can provide crops with a more balanced amino acid composition and a more healthy fatty acid composition. Toxic and allergenic substances can be removed, and energy density can be reduced in order to lessen the risk of obesity and diabetes. With respect to the environment, cultivars can be developed that require less tilling, thereby bringing down soil erosion and nitrogen leakage. More drought tolerant cultivars will decrease the need for irrigation that is a major cause of environmental problems. Plants with improved nitrogen efficiency will diminish the use of fertilizers, and pesticide resistant crops the use of pesticides. Although by no means a panacea, genetic technology facilitates breeding and widens the scope of what it can achieve, not least in terms of more healthy products and a more environmentally friendly production.
Introduction The Principle of Gene-Deletor Technology and Supporting Experimental Data Characteristics and Requirements of Gene-Deletor Technology Potential Applications of Gene-Deletor Technology Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgments References
All commercialized bioengineered insect-resistant crops (with one exception) contain genes derived from or based on the soil-dwelling bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). To guard against the potential for resistance to these Bt toxins, new strategies have been developed to maintain transgenic insect protected plants. This involves a range of stewardship principles including rotating the type of modified crop to ensure insects are exposed to different toxins, and the use of Bt free refugia. These refuges allow populations of nonresistant insects to multiply and breed with any insects that may have developed resistance. The benefits of genetically modified insect-protected crop plants have far outweighed the risks associated with them. Bt crops expressing Cry proteins are in their second decade of safe use. The use of Bt free refugia and other IRM techniques have delayed the onset of insect resistance to single Cry toxins, but many experts consider it only a matter of time before they lose their effectiveness in controlling their target pests. The future of genetically modified insect protected plants relies on the discovery and development of new approaches.
Studies on factors affecting root-knot nematode reproduction in tomato rootstocks with the Mi-resistance gene indicated that the resistant response is highly variable and the rootstocks show nematode-isolate specific resistant responses. Repeated cultivation of resistant tomatoes selected Mi-virulent populations from an avirulent one over three cropping cycles. Bioassays to determine the stability of the acquired Mi-virulence indicated that the Mi-virulence remained stable for at least two nematode generations in susceptible tomato irrespective of whether the virulent populations were generated on a Mi-resistant rootstock or cultivar. Management of Meloidogyne with resistant tomatoes should consider the differential efficacy of the rootstocks in suppressing nematode reproduction.
Genetic engineering involves the transfer of genes between organisms that are not normally able to cross breed because of incompatibility barriers. This technology aims to express novel and desirable traits, which offer advantages for the producer or the consumer, over conventional crops. Using genetic engineering, it is possible to introduce specific genetic material derived from any species of plant, animal, or microorganism, or even synthetic material, into different plant species. The resulting plants are commonly known as genetically engineered or genetically modified (GM) plants; and when used as food sources, they are known as GM plant foods or GM foods. The global area of planted biotech crops has increased more than 80-fold, from 1.7 million hectares in 6 countries in 1996, to 143 million hectares in 23 countries in 2007. GM crops offer a range of advantages like increase in the nutritional composition, more food production and increased resistance to abiotic stresses. However, the introduction of GM crops has also raised eyebrows and many possible negative impacts are being discussed that include threat to soil fertility, creation of super weeds and health risks to humans and other life forms. Therefore, we must proceed with caution to avoid causing unintended harm to human health and the environment as a result of our enthusiasm for this powerful technology.
Prominent scientists and policymakers assert with confidence that there is no scientific controversy over the health effects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)—that genetically modified crops currently in commercial use and those yet to be commercialized are inherently safe for human consumption and do not have to be tested. Those who disagree are cast as “GMO deniers.” This article examines scientific reviews and papers on GMOs, compares the findings of professional societies, and discusses the treatment of scientists who have reported adverse effects in animal feeding experiments. This article concludes by exploring the role that politics and corporate interests have had in distorting an honest inquiry into the health effects of GMO crops.
Modern agriculture is concerned with the production of crops used primarily for human and animal food, but in so doing there is often the need (in some cases by law) to protect the environment. In crop production there is also the need to lower production costs, and especially reduce the use of expensive pesticides and fertilizers. It is often an important aim, which is not always fulfilled to apply fertilizers and pesticides only when needed, but in order for this strategy to succeed, a better understanding of biotic stress and associated influences from plant breeding achievements is required. Therefore the impact of biotic stress and injury to plants and plant yield is not only of economic importance to agriculture but is directly related to other biological and environmental questions. For example, biological and economic decision made over the control of biotic stress forms an important part of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). In this chapter, we deal with the latest results and conclusions of yield losses in plant pathology, entomology and weed science, and successful application of breeding approaches to limiting such yield reductions. We intend to cover all biological classes of biotic stressors, and plant breeding methods commonly used for the diversity of organisms involved. It will focus on current knowledge of yield and fitness loss in agricultural ecosystems, and improved approaches in order that crops can better tolerate these biotic factors. Therefore in the first part of the chapter we intend to cover agricultural crops, production and limitations, conventional and molecular breeding, and where DNA-based molecular markers have been used with advantages over traditional phenotype trait selection. Molecular markers can be used to tag biotic resistance genes, and they can serve for improvement of the efficiency of selection in plant breeding, by so called marker assisted selection (MAS). The potential benefits of MAS are discussed, especially with the use of MAS to overcome some of the problems faced by classical phenotypic screening approaches in conventional plant breeding programs. In the second part of the chapter we intend to discuss biotic stress within the context of each biological class of organisms involved in crop losses, and attempt to evaluate the knowledge available in breeding and control of biotic stress damage. Abiotic stress (dealt with elsewhere in the book) will be mentioned from time to time and we certainly make a strong argument for an integrated approach to these two types of stresses in agriculture whenever possible.
Genomic technologies have been used to improve cultivated crop species. For example, Bt genes such as Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab, Cry1F and Cry3Bb1 are derived from Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium. Such genes provide protection against lepidopteran insect pests. Bt genes have been introduced in corn, cotton, soybean, rice, potato and canola. Genetically modified (GM)-cotton, containing the Cry1Ac gene, was released for cultivation in the mid-1990s in the USA and later in 28 countries including China and India. Potential harmful effects of the Bt-crops on non-targets were assessed before release into the environment. Most commonly, cultivation of the Bt-crops was found safe. Safety was tested using various experiments including: the insertional impact of transgene and its regulatory elements on plant phenotype and agronomic performance; effect on non-target organisms; and nutritional impacts on multiple experimental models, albeit the studies were conducted for limited durations. However, skeptics always claim for conducting extensive clinical as well as field trials and also cast doubt on methods and procedures of calculating the ecological risks. This debate got further momentum especially after the publication of reports on substantial reduction in monarch butterfly caterpillars when exposed to Bt-maize pollen—though later nullified—and detection of traces of transgene in various tissues of experimental animals. It is generally accepted that procedures, methods and protocols for evaluating the potential risks of GM-crops and foods should be standardized for building confidence of all stakeholders. Efforts should be exerted in deploying genes of interest, marker genes and regulatory sequences invoking no or little issues of potential risks to the ecosystem.
During the last 2 decades, the public and private sectors have made substantial international research progress toward improving the nutritional value of a wide range of food and feed crops. Nevertheless, significant numbers of people still suffer from the effects of undernutrition. In addition, the nutritional quality of feed is often a limiting factor in livestock production systems, particularly those in developing countries. As newly developed crops with nutritionally improved traits come closer to being available to producers and consumers, we must ensure that scientifically sound and efficient processes are used to assess the safety and nutritional quality of these crops. Such processes will facilitate deploying these crops to those world areas with large numbers of people who need them. This document describes 5 case studies of crops with improved nutritional value. These case studies examine the principles and recommendations published by the Intl. Life Sciences Inst. (ILSI) in 2004 for the safety and nutritional assessment of foods and feeds derived from nutritionally improved crops (ILSI 2004). One overarching conclusion that spans all 5 case studies is that the comparative safety assessment process is a valid approach. Such a process has been endorsed by many publications and organizations, including the 2004 ILSI publication. The type and extent of data that are appropriate for a scientifically sound comparative safety assessment are presented on a case-by-case basis in a manner that takes into account scientific results published since the 2004 ILSI report. This report will appear in the January issue of Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
The presence of DNA fragments in tissues from rabbits given genetically modified (GM) soya-bean meal (solvent extracted) was investigated by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) approach. Moreover, the possible effects on cell metabolism were evaluated by determination of several specific enzymes in serum, heart, skeletal muscle, liver and kidney. The chloroplast sequence for tRNA Leu by using the Clor1/Clor2 primers designed on chloroplast trnL sequence was clearly detected. On the contrary, two couples of species specific primers for conventional (Le1-5/Le 1-3 which amplifies the soya bean lectin gene) and genetically modified (35S1/35S2 which amplifies the 35S CMV promoter that is present in the genomic structure of GM soya bean) soya bean were not found in all samples. No differences in enzyme levels were detected in serum, but a significant increase of lactic dehydrogenase, mainly concerning the LDH1 isoenzyme was found in particular in kidney and heart but not in the muscle, thus suggesting a potential alteration in the local production of the enzyme. Finally, no significant differences were detected concerning body weight, fresh organ weights and no sexual differences were detected.
The acreage for genetically modified crops (GMOs)—particularly soybean—has steadily increased since 1996, when the first crop of Roundup Ready soybean (intended for food production) was grown. The Roundup Ready soybean varieties derive from a soybean line into which a glyphosate-resistant enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate-synthase (EPSPS) gene was introduced. The inserted and the flanking regions in Roundup Ready soybean have recently been characterized. It was shown that a further 250-bp fragment of the epsps gene is localized downstream of the introduced nos terminator of transcription, derived from the nopaline synthase gene from Agrobacterium tumefaciens. We examined whether this 250-bp fragment could be of functional importance. Our data demonstrate that at least 150bp of this DNA region are transcribed in Roundup Ready soybean. Transcription of the fragment depends on whether read-through events ignore the nos terminator signal located upstream. Our data also indicate that the read-through product is further processed, resulting in four different RNA variants from which the transcribed region of the nos terminator is completely deleted. Deletion results in the generation of open reading frames which might code for (as yet unknown) EPSPS fusion proteins. The nos terminator is used as a regulatory element in several other GMOs used for food production. This implies that read through products and transcription of RNA variants might be a common feature in these GMOs.
In this article we describe the isolation and characterisation of the junction between insert DNA and plant DNA in the transgenic Roundup Ready soybean line event 40-3-2. Our results establish that during integration of the insert DNA several rearrangements occurred at the 3' NOS junction and that the genomic plant DNA at the pre-integration site may have been rearranged. These findings highlight the utility of characterising junction regions to fulfil the request for information regarding which DNA sequences have been incorporated in commercialised transgenic lines. Furthermore, the characterisation of junction regions is, in our opinion, the method of choice to support method development for detection and identification of plant biotechnology-derived products.
The present study was designed to evaluate if genetically modified (GM) maize (Bt maize, event MON810) compared with the near-isogenic non-modified (nGM) maize variety, added as a starch source at low or high inclusions, affected fish health of post-smolt Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. To evaluate the health impact, selected stress- and immune-response biomarkers were quantified at the gene transcript (mRNA) level, and some also at the protein level. The diets with low or high inclusions of GM maize, and its near-isogenic nGM parental line, were compared to a control diet containing GM-free suprex maize (reference diet) as the only starch source. Total superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in liver and distal intestine was significantly higher in fish fed GM maize compared with fish fed nGM maize and with the reference diet group. Fish fed GM maize showed significantly lower catalase (CAT) activity in liver compared with fish fed nGM maize and to the reference diet group. In contrast, CAT activity in distal intestine was significantly higher for fish fed GM maize compared with fish fed reference diet. Protein level of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) in liver was significantly higher in fish fed GM maize compared with fish fed the reference diet. No diet-related differences were found in normalized gene expression of SOD, CAT or HSP70 in liver or distal intestine. Normalized gene expression of interleukin-1 beta in spleen and head-kidney did not vary significantly between diet groups. Interestingly, fish fed high GM maize showed a significantly larger proportion of plasma granulocytes, a significantly larger sum of plasma granulocyte and monocyte proportions, but a significantly smaller proportion of plasma lymphocytes, compared with fish fed high nGM maize. In conclusion, Atlantic salmon fed GM maize showed some small changes in stress protein levels and activities, but none of these changes were comparable to the normalized gene expression levels analysed for these stress proteins. GM maize seemed to induce significant changes in white blood cell populations which are associated with an immune response.
A lo largo de 1999, se ha venido intensificando el debate sobre la seguridad de los alimentos modificados genéticamente, una importante y compleja área de investigación científica, la cual demanda unos estándares rigurosos. Diversos grupos, incluyendo asociaciones de consumidores y Organizaciones no Gubernamentales (ONGs) han sugerido que todos los alimentos modificados genéticamente deberían ser sometidos a estudios a largo plazo con animales antes de su aprobación para el consumo humano. El principal objetivo de la presente revisión ha sido conocer cual es el estado actual de la cuestión en lo referente a los potenciales efectos adversos sobre la salud de los alimentos modificados genéticamente. Dos bases de datos, Medline y Toxline, así como una serie de direcciones de internet, han sido empleadas para la obtención de bibliografía. Aunque son numerosos los comentarios, noticias generales y cartas al Editor aparecidos en prestigiosas revistas, los artículos referentes a estudios experimentales sobre la seguridad de los alimentos modificados genéticamente son, sorprendentemente, muy escasos. Si se han obtenido resultados procedentes de la evaluación toxicológica de estos alimentos, no han sido publicados en revistas científicas y, por lo tanto, no han podido ser debidamente juzgados o contrastados.
Feeding trials have been done with rats to assess the effects of long-term (700 d) consumption of diets based on raw cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata; moderate Bowman-Birk inhibitor content, low lectin content), lupin seeds (Lupinus angustifolius; low lectin and protease inhibitor content) or soya beans (Glycine max; high Kunitz inhibitor content, moderate Bowman-Birk inhibitor content, moderate lectin content) or diets containing low levels of raw kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris; high lectin content, low Bowman-Birk inhibitor content) on body weight and composition and organ weights. All the legume-based diets reduced feed conversion efficiency and growth rates during the initial 250 d. However, after 250 d the weight gains by rats given legume-based diets were similar to those of controls given the same daily feed intake. Long-term consumption of diets containing low levels of kidney bean significantly altered body composition of rats. The levels of lipid in the body were significantly reduced. As a result, carcasses of these rats contained a higher proportion of muscle/protein than did controls. Small-intestine relative weight was increased by short- and long-term consumption of the kidney-bean-based diet. However, the increase in relative pancreatic weight observed at 30 d did not persist long term. None of the other legume-based diets caused any significant changes in body composition. However, long-term exposure to a soya-bean- or cowpea-based diet induced an extensive increase in the relative and absolute weights of the pancreas and caused an increase in the incidence of macroscopic pancreatic nodules and possibly pancreatic neoplasia. Long-term consumption of the cowpea-, kidney-bean-, lupin-seed- or soya-bean-based diets by rats resulted in a significant increase in the relative weight of the caecum and colon.
The safety of 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase enzyme derived from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) was assessed. CP4 EPSPS is the only protein introduced by genetic manipulation that is expressed in glyphosate-tolerant soybeans, which are being developed to provide new weed-control options for farmers. Expression of this protein in plants imparts high levels of glyphosate tolerance. The safety of CP4 EPSPS was ascertained by evaluating both physical and functional characteristics. CP4 EPSPS degrades readily in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids, suggesting that this protein will be degraded in the mammalian digestive tract upon ingestion as a component of food or feed, There were no deleterious effects due to the acute administration of CP4 EPSPS to mice by gavage at a high dosage of 572 mg/kg body wt, which exceeds 1000-fold tha anticipated consumption level of food products potentially containing CP4 EPSPS protein. CP4 EPSPS does not pose any important allergen concerns because this protein does not possess characteristics typical of allergenic proteins. These data, in combination with seed compositional analysis and animal feeding studies, support the conclusion that glyphosate-tolerant soybean are as safe and nutritious as traditional soybeans currently being marketed.
Animal feeding studies were conducted with rats, broiler chickens, catfish and dairy cows as part of a safety assessment program for a soybean variety genetically modified to tolerate in-season application of glyphosate. These studies were designed to compare the feeding value (wholesomeness) of two lines of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS) to the feeding value of the parental cultivar from which they were derived. Processed GTS meal was incorporated into the diets at the same concentrations as used commercially; diary cows were fed 10 g/100 g cracked soybeans in the diet, a level that is on the high end of what is normally fed commercially. In a separate study, laboratory rats were fed 5 and 10 g unprocessed soybean meal 100 g diet. The study durations were 4 wk (rats and dairy cows), 6 wk (broilers) and 10 wk (catfish). Growth, feed conversion (rats, catfish, broilers), fillet composition (catfish), and breast muscle and fat pad weights (broilers) were compared for animals fed the parental and GTS lines. Milk production, milk composition, rumen fermentation and nitrogen digestibility were also compared for dairy cows. In all studies, measured variables were similar for animals fed both GTS lines and the parental line, indicating that the feeding value of the two GTS lines is comparable to that of the parental line. These studies support detailed compositional analysis of the GTS seeds, which showed no meaningful differences between the parental and GTS lines in the concentrations of important nutrients and antinutrients. They also confirmed the results of other studies that demonstrated the safety of the introduced protein, a bacterial 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthase from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4.
A 38-d feeding study evaluated whether standard broiler diets prepared with transgenic Event 176-derived "Bt" corn (maize) grain had any adverse effects on male or female broiler chickens as compared to diets prepared with nontransgenic (isogenic) control corn grain. No statistically significant differences in survival or BW were observed between birds reared on mash or pelleted diets prepared with transgenic corn and similar diets prepared using control corn. Broilers raised on diets prepared from the transgenic corn exhibited significantly better feed conversion ratios and improved yield of the Pectoralis minor breast muscle. Although it is not clear whether this enhanced performance was attributable to the transgenic corn per se, or due to possible slight differences in overall composition of the formulated diets, it was clear that the transgenic corn had no deleterious effects in this study.
To improve the iron content of rice, we have transferred the entire coding
sequence of the soybean ferritin gene into Oryza sativa (L. cv. Kita-ake)
by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The rice seed-storage protein
glutelin promoter, GluB-1, was used to drive expression of the soybean
gene specifically in developing, self-pollinated seeds (T1 seeds) of transgenic
plants, as confirmed by reverse transcription PCR analysis. Stable accumulation
of the ferritin subunit in the rice seed was demonstrated by western blot
analysis, and its specific accumulation in the endosperm by immunologic tissue
printing. The iron content of T1 seeds was as much as threefold greater than
that of their untransformed counterparts.
Although plants transformed with genetic material from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt ) are generally thought to have negligible impact on non-target organisms, Bt corn plants might represent a risk because most hybrids express the Bt toxin in pollen, and corn pollen is dispersed over at least 60 metres by wind. Corn pollen is deposited on other plants near corn fields and can be ingested by the non-target organisms that consume these plants. In a laboratory assay we found that larvae of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus, reared on milkweed leaves dusted with pollen from Bt corn, ate less, grew more slowly and suffered higher mortality than larvae reared on leaves dusted with untransformed corn pollen or on leaves without pollen.
The effect of expression of bean alpha-amylase inhibitor (alpha-AI) transgene on the nutritional value of peas has been evaluated by pair-feeding rats diets containing transgenic or parent peas at 300 and 650 g/kg, respectively, and at 150 g protein/kg diet, supplemented with essential amino acids to target requirements. The results were also compared with the effects of diets containing lactalbumin with or without 0.9 or 2.0 mg bean alpha-AI, levels equivalent to those in transgenic pea diets. When 300 and 650 g peas/kg diet were fed, the daily intake of alpha-AI was 11.5 or 26.3 mg alpha-AI, respectively. At the 300 g/kg level, the nutritional value of the transgenic and parent line peas was not significantly different. The weight gain and tissue weights of rats fed either of the two pea diets were not significantly different from each other or from those of rats given the lactalbumin diet even when this was supplemented with 0.9 g alpha-AI/kg. The digestibilities of protein and dry matter of the pea diets were slightly but significantly lower than those of the lactalbumin diet, probably due to the presence of naturally occurring antinutrients in peas. The nutritional value of diets containing peas at the higher (650 g) inclusion level was less than that of the lactalbumin diet. However, the differences between transgenic and parent pea lines were small, possibly because neither the purified recombinant alpha-AI nor that in transgenic peas inhibited starch digestion in the rat small intestine in vivo to the same extent as did bean alpha-AI. This was the case even though both forms of alpha-AI equally inhibited alpha-amylase in vitro. Thus, this short-term study indicated that transgenic peas expressing bean alpha-AI gene could be used in rat diets at 300 g/kg level without major harmful effects on their growth, metabolism and health, raising the possibility that transgenic peas may also be used at this level in the diet of farm animals.
Rice (Oryza sativa), a major staple food, is usually milled to remove the oil-rich aleurone layer that turns rancid upon storage, especially
in tropical areas. The remaining edible part of rice grains, the endosperm, lacks several essential nutrients, such as provitamin
A. Thus, predominant rice consumption promotes vitamin A deficiency, a serious public health problem in at least 26 countries,
including highly populated areas of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Recombinant DNA technology was used to improve its nutritional
value in this respect. A combination of transgenes enabled biosynthesis of provitamin A in the endosperm.
One usually thinks of plant biology as a non-controversial topic, but the concerns raised over the biosafety of genetically modified (GM) plants have reached disproportionate levels relative to the actual risks. While the technology of changing the genome of plants has been gradually refined and increasingly implemented, the commercialization of GM crops has exploded. Today's commercialized transgenic plants have been produced using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation or gene gun-mediated transformation. Recently, incremental improvements of biotechnologies, such as the use of green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a selectable marker, have been developed. Non-transformation genetic modification technologies such as chimeraplasty will be increasingly used to more precisely modify germplasm. In spite of the increasing knowledge about genetic modification of plants, concerns over ecological and food biosafety have escalated beyond scientific rationality. While several risks associated with GM crops and foods have been identified, the popular press, spurred by colorful protest groups, has left the general public with a sense of imminent danger. Reviewed here are the risks that are currently under research. Ecological biosafety research has identified potential risks associated with certain crop/transgene combinations, such as intra- and interspecific transgene flow, persistence and the consequences of transgenes in unintended hosts. Resistance management strategies for insect resistance transgenes and non-target effects of these genes have also been studied. Food biosafety research has focused on transgenic product toxicity and allergenicity. However, an estimated 3.5 x 10(12) transgenic plants have been grown in the U.S. in the past 12 years, with over two trillion being grown in 1999 and 2000 alone. These large numbers and the absence of any negative reports of compromised biosafety indicate that genetic modification by biotechnology poses no immediate or significant risks and that resulting food products from GM crops are as safe as foods from conventional varieties. We are increasingly convinced that scientists have a duty to conduct objective research and to effectively communicate the results--especially those pertaining to the relative risks and potential benefits--to scientists first and then to the public. All stakeholders in the technology need more effective dialogues to better understand risks and benefits of adopting or not adopting agricultural biotechnologies.
The term "golden rice" was coined by a Thai busi- nessman who is active in initiatives aimed at reduc- ing the birth rate, a major cause of the food security problem. As it turned out, the term "golden rice" has proven to be enormously successful in piquing the interest of the public. (I gave up tallying its mention in the popular media after more than 30 television broadcasts and 300 newspaper articles, but I am still busy with requests for interviews every week.) It is difficult to estimate how much of its celebrity stems from its catchy moniker and how much is from the technological breakthrough it represents. Needless to say, we live in a society that is strongly influenced (not to say manipulated) by the media. As the pop- ular media live by selling news, "catchy" names are especially useful in attracting the interest of media consumers. The "story," however, must also be ac- companied by an important message, in this case, that the purely altruistic use of genetic engineering technology has potentially solved an urgent and pre- viously intractable health problem for the poor of the developing world. And this is my first message and my response to Chris Somerville's (2000) contribu- tion: I, too, believe in the power of education and rational discourse. However, after more then 10 years on the frontlines of the public debate concerning genetically modified organisms (GMOs), I have learned that even with the help of the media, rational arguments succeed in influencing only a small mi- nority of the public-at-large. In short, rational argu- ments are poor ammunition against the emotional appeals of the opposition. The GMO opposition, es- pecially in Europe, has been extraordinarily success- ful in channeling all negative emotions associated with the supposed dangers of all new technologies as well as economic "globalization" onto the alleged hazards presented by the release of GMOs into the food chain. This is one reason why the story of "gold-
A genetically modified Bt176 corn hybrid (Rh208Bt)--providing control of European corn borer damage--and the conventional isogenic hybrid (Rh208)--harvested as whole plant silage--were evaluated in three separate feeding trials to verify that the in vivo feeding value was substantially equivalent among modified and conventional hybrids. In the first trial, after a week of preexperiment, two sets of six Texel sheep, housed in digestibility crates, were fed silage sources of Rh208 and Rh208Bt hybrids, and silage of three additional control varieties of low, intermediate, and high feeding value (Rh289, Adonis, and Adonis bm3) for 1 wk. Feed offered to sheep was adjusted to maintenance requirements based on metabolic body weight. Agronomic and biochemical traits were similar among the Rh208 and Rh208Bt hybrids. Organic matter digestibility (67.1 and 67.6%), crude fiber digestibility (52.9 and 54.2%), and neutral detergent fiber digestibility (50.2 and 49.0%) were not significantly different among Rh208 and Rh208Bt hybrids. In the second trial, two sets of 24 Holstein cows were fed silage from Rh208 and Rh208Bt corn hybrids for 13 wk, 9 wk after calving, and including 2 wk of preexperiment. Fat-corrected milk yield (31.3 and 31.4 kg/d), protein content (31.7 and 31.6 g/kg) and fat content (36.7 and 37.0 g/kg) in milk of dairy cows were unaffected by hybrid source. Body weight gains of cattle were not different. However, intake was significantly higher in cows fed Rh208Bt silage. In the third trial, five midlactation multiparous Holstein cows were successively fed the silage from Rh208 and Rh208Bt corn hybrids 2 or 3 wk. Data were considered only for the last week of each period. There were no significant effects on protein fractions, fatty acid composition, or coagulation properties of milk between Rh208 and Rh208Bt fed cattle. Cattle and sheep can perform equally well with a conventional or a genetically modified Bt176 corn silage.
One key challenge for the twenty-first century is how to produce the food we need, yet ensure the landscape we want. Genetically modified crops have focused our attention on how to answer this question for one part of agriculture. The same principles could be applied to assess environmental impacts of future land-use change in a much broader context.
Lactating dairy cows were used to determine effects of feeding glyphosate-tolerant or insect-protected corn hybrids on feed intake, milk production, milk composition, and ruminal digestibility. Corn resistant to European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) infestation (Bt-MON810), or its nontransgenic control (Bt-CON), were planted in alternating fields during two successive years. One-half of each strip was harvested for whole plant corn silage and the remainder was allowed to mature and harvested as grain. Effects of feeding diets containing either Bt-MON810 or Bt-CON grain and silage were determined in two experiments (1 and 2) conducted during successive years. In experiment 3, glyphosate-tolerant Roundup Ready corn (RR-GA21) or its nontransgenic control (RR-CON) corn were grown in alternating fields during one cropping season. Diets contained 42 to 60% corn silage and 20 to 34% corn grain from Bt-MON810, RR-GA21, or the appropriate nontransgenic counterpart; treatments were applied using a switchback design. Cows were fed ad libitum and milked twice daily. There were no differences for nutrient composition between silage sources or between grain sources within an experiment. Data for experiments 1 and 2 indicated similar dry matter intake (DMI), 4% fat-corrected milk (FCM) production, and milk composition between Bt-MON810 and Bt-CON diets. There were no differences for DMI, 4% FCM production, and milk composition between RR-GA21 and RR-CON diets. There was no difference in ruminal degradability, determined separately for corn silage and corn grain, for RR-GA21 or Bt-MON810-hybrids compared with their respective controls. These data demonstrate equivalence of nutritional value and production efficiency for corn containing Bt-MON810 compared with its control and for RR-GA21 corn compared with its control.
Sixteen multiparous Holstein cows averaging 74 d in milk were used in a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square to compare the effects on animal performance of feeding whole plant silage and grain from a glyphosate-tolerant corn hybrid (event NK603), a nontransgenic control hybrid, and two commercial nontransgenic hybrids (DK647 and RX740). The grain and silage from the four corn hybrids were produced using the same procedures and under similar agronomic conditions at the University of Illinois. On a dry matter (DM) basis, diets contained 30% corn silage and 27.34% corn grain produced either from event NK603, a nontransgenic control, or commercial hybrids. Apart from the DM content of silages, the chemical composition of both grain and silage produced from the four corn hybrids were substantially equivalent. Feeding diets that contained event NK603 and DK647 hybrids tended to decrease DM intake (DMI) compared with the control nontransgenic and RX740. The intakes of crude protein (CP), acid and neutral detergent fiber, and nonfiber carbohydrates were not different for cows fed event NK603 and control diets. The RX740 diet resulted in the highest intakes of fiber and CP, whereas the DK647 diet resulted in the lowest intake of CP. These differences in nutrient intake arose from small variations in both the DMI and the chemical composition of feed ingredients and experimental diets. Production of milk and 3.5% fat-corrected milk; milk fat, CP, and true protein percentage and yield; milk urea N; milk total solids percentage and yield; and somatic cell count were not affected by treatments. These data indicate that the stable insertion of the gene that confers tolerance to glyphosate (event NK603) in the corn line used in this experiment does not affect its chemical composition and nutritional value for lactating dairy cows when compared with conventional corn.
Glyphosate (N-phosphonomethyl-glycine) is the active ingredient in the nonselective herbicide Roundup. The sensitivity of crop plants to glyphosate has limited its in-season use as a postemergence herbicide. The extension of the use of Roundup herbicide to allow in-season application in major crops such as soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] would provide new weed control options for farmers. A glyphosate-tolerant soybean line, 40-3-2, was obtained through expression of the bacterial 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSP synthase, EPSPS) enzyme from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4. Line 40-3-2 is highly tolerant to glyphosate, showing no visual injury after application of up to 1.68 kg acid equivalent (a.e.) ha -1 of glyphosate under field conditions. Molecular characterization studies determined that the single genetic insert in line 40-3-2 contains only a portion of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (P-E35S), the Petunia hybrida EPSPS chloroplast transit peptide (CTP), the CP4 EPSPS gene, and a portion of the 3' nontranslated region of the nopaline synthase gene (NOS 3') terminator. Inheritance studies have shown that the transgene behaves as a single dominant gene and is stable over several generations.
The growing clinical interest in and use of soybean-based food products or extracts to increase dietary phytoestrogen intake makes the precise composition of the key biologically active ingredients of soybeans, notably genistin and daidzin, of substantial medical interest. Conventional soybeans are increasingly being replaced by genetically modified varieties. We analyzed the phytoestrogen concentrations in two varieties of genetically modified, herbicide-tolerant soybeans and their isogenic conventional counterparts grown under similar conditions. An overall reduction in phytoestrogen levels of 12-14% was observed in the genetically altered soybean strains, mostly attributable to reductions in the concentrations of genistin and, to a lesser extent, in daidzin. Significant sample-to-sample variability in these two phytoestrogens, but not in glycitin, was evident in the genetically altered soybeans. Given the high biological potency of isoflavones and their metabolic conversion products, these data suggest that genetically modified soybeans may be less potent sources of clinically relevant phytoestrogens than their conventional precursors. These observations, if confirmed in other soybean varieties, heighten the importance of establishing baselines of expected isoflavone levels in transgenic and conventional soy products to ensure uniformity of clinical results. Disclosure of the origins and isoflavone composition of soyfood products would be a valuable adjunct to clinical decision-making.
The diversity of novel foods and novel ingredients covered by the scope of the EU regulation is such that a check list approach to safety evaluation is inappropriate. Rather, a case-by-case approach is required taking into account the composition of the novel food, its intake, its role in the diet and the intended target group. The SAFEST approach provides a means of targeting the safety evaluation on those aspects, nutritional or toxicological, of a novel food which are of particular concern. Using this approach, novel foods are assigned to one of three classes on the basis of certain background information. For those novel foods which can be shown to be in SAFEST class 1, namely those which are substantially equivalent to a traditional counterpart, no further information is required to demonstrate their safety. For those novel foods in SAFEST class 2, i.e. those sufficiently similar to a traditional counterpart or differing from it only in particular, well defined, characteristics, the evaluation will focus on those differences. Only in the case of novel foods which are not in class 1 or class 2 is extensive testing of the whole food likely to be required. Even in these cases, the testing should follow a scientifically-based hierarchical approach involving: literature reviews; chemical analysis; appropriate in vitro and in vivo tests; and, if necessary, confirmation of safety and nutritional value in humans. Examination of the causes of any adverse effects reported by consumers after the novel food or ingredient has been approved and is introduced into the market may provide additional reassurance of safety.
the sulfur amino acid content of soybean, genetic engineering appears Experimental evidence suggests that this method over- tobeamorerealisticapproach.Introductionofmethionine-richheter- estimates the quality of proteins containing antinutri- ologous proteins has resulted in a modest increase of this amino acid tional factors (Sarwar, 1997). Nevertheless, on the basis in soybean. Either elevating the expression of endogenous methio- nine-rich proteins or introducing synthetic proteins containing a high of PDCAAS, it has been established that the quality of percentage of essential amino acids are other possible approaches that soybean protein is equivalent to casein and egg white mayincreasethenutritionalqualityoftheseed.Eventhoughconsider- (Fig.2, FoodandAgricultural Organization-WorldHealth able progress has been made in enhancing the methionine content of Organization, 1991). In addition to well-established health soybean, several obstacles remain. A thorough understanding the sul- benefits of soybean isoflavones in reducing the risk of furassimilatory pathwayin soybeanisa prerequisitefor improvingthe cancer and heart disease, soybean protein consump- sulfuraminoacid content.Expressionoffeedback-insensitive formsof tion has been associated with a diminution of chronic serine acetyl transferase and O-acetylserine (thiol) lyase, two key en- ailments such as osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, and renal zymes in sulfur assimilatory pathway, could lead to an increase in the disease (Messina, 1999). availability of sulfur amino acids. An adequate supply of sulfur amino Soybean is extensively used as high-protein feed in-
The corn rootworm (CRW: Diabrotica spp.) is one of the most serious pests of corn in the USA. Chemical insecticides and crop rotation have been the only two options available to growers for managing CRW. Unfortunately, both of these tactics can be ineffective as a result of either resistance or behavioral modifications. In this paper, we describe transgenic maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids that control CRW. These hybrids were created with a Cry3Bb1 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) variant that is approximately eight times more lethal to corn rootworm larvae than the wild-type protein. A DNA vector containing the modified crv3Bb1 gene was placed under control of a root-enhanced promoter (4-AS1) and was introduced into embryonic maize cells by microprojectile bombardment. Described here is the molecular genetic characterization, protein expression levels, and field performance of the recently commercialized MON863 hybrids.
Almost all of the key molecules involved in the innate and adaptive immune response are glycoproteins. In the cellular immune
system, specific glycoforms are involved in the folding, quality control, and assembly of peptide-loaded major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) antigens and the T cell receptor complex. Although some glycopeptide antigens are presented by the MHC, the
generation of peptide antigens from glycoproteins may require enzymatic removal of sugars before the protein can be cleaved.
Oligosaccharides attached to glycoproteins in the junction between T cells and antigen-presenting cells help to orient binding
faces, provide protease protection, and restrict nonspecific lateral protein-protein interactions. In the humoral immune system,
all of the immunoglobulins and most of the complement components are glycosylated. Although a major function for sugars is
to contribute to the stability of the proteins to which they are attached, specific glycoforms are involved in recognition
events. For example, in rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease, agalactosylated glycoforms of aggregated immunoglobulin
G may induce association with the mannose-binding lectin and contribute to the pathology.
The present paper represents a part of a major scientific effort aiming to reveal possible effects, nutritional or health related, of genetically modified (GM) feed ingredients for Atlantic salmon. For 3 months groups of post-smolt Atlantic salmon were treated with diets holding 130 g kg1 of the protein as soybean, one which contained 800 g kg−1 GM type RR (Roundup Ready™), and compared with a standard counterpart (commercial hybrid, not isogenic line) analysed to be non-GM (nGM), and again compared with a standard fishmeal diet without soybean protein. All diets were composed to be within the category ‘compositional equivalent’ and held exactly the same proximate compositions, starch and sugar levels, above requirements for methionine and lysine, equal fatty acid profiles, vitamin, mineral and pigment contents. There was, however, a slight difference in levels of anti-nutrients between the three diets. The various dietary treatments resulted in more than tripling of fish weight in all groups. In addition no significant differences in feed utilization, whole body, liver and muscle proximate compositions, and no significant differences in muscle fatty acid profiles were measured. The diet without soybean of either type resulted in greater retention of lipid, but equal retention of protein (protein productive value). The relative sizes of liver, kidney, head–kidney and brain were the same in all dietary groups, while the relative size of the spleen showed significant differences between fish fed the genetically modified soy diet compared with fish fed the nGM soybeans. Fish fed the soy diets of either type also showed a somewhat reduced mean erythrocyte cell volume. All other haematological values were equal between diet groups. The detoxification system, measured as glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and lysozyme activities, showed equal values for all groups when measured in plasma and liver or head–kidney. The distal part of the intestine showed reduced sizes as an effect of soybean additions, without any differences between the GM and nGM type. Our results showed high growth, no mortality, haematological values within normal ranges, and efficient and equal responses in the detoxification system. This was a first indication that up to 130 g kg−1 RR-soybean protein can safely be used in diets for Atlantic salmon. However, there is still a need to elucidate higher inclusion levels of GM feed ingredients, and why spleen index was reduced, and if this was a long- or short-term effect.
The influence of transgenic event CBH 351 (StarLink; SL)-derived hybrid corn on the growth performance, health condition and physiological function in broiler chicks, as well as the possible transfer of the cry9C gene and Cry9C protein to blood, liver and muscle were examined in comparison with chicks fed on a diet with non-transgenic corn (SL-F). Bodyweight gain and feed conversion ratio in the chicks fed on a diet with SL were significantly greater than in chicks fed on a diet with SL-F during the starter phase (0–3 weeks of age), but this significant difference disappeared during the finisher phase (4–7 weeks of age). No abnormalities in health condition in either SL or SL-F groups were observed, and livability did not differ significantly between SL and SL-F groups. Moreover, no significant differences in serum biochemical and hematological values, histopathological observation and necropsy findings were observed between SL and SL-F groups at the end of the experiment. The cry9C gene and Cry9C protein were not detected in blood, liver and muscle of chicks at 3, 5 or 7 weeks of age. The results indicate that feeding SL does not influence growth performance, health condition or physiological function in broiler chicks, and the cry9C gene and Cry9C protein are not transferred to the blood, liver and muscles of broilers.
International consensus has been reached on the principles regarding evaluation of the food safety of genetically modified plants. The concept of substantial equivalence has been developed as part of a safety evaluation framework, based on the idea that existing foods can serve as a basis for comparing the properties of genetically modified foods with the appropriate counterpart. Application of the concept is not a safety assessment per se, but helps to identify similarities and differences between the existing food and the new product, which are then subject to further toxicological investigation. Substantial equivalence is a starting point in the safety evaluation, rather than an endpoint of the assessment. Consensus on practical application of the principle should be further elaborated. Experiences with the safety testing of newly inserted proteins and of whole genetically modified foods are reviewed, and limitations of current test methodologies are discussed. The development and validation of new profiling methods such as DNA microarray technology, proteomics, and metabolomics for the identification and characterization of unintended effects, which may occur as a result of the genetic modification, is recommended. The assessment of the allergenicity of newly inserted proteins and of marker genes is discussed. An issue that will gain importance in the near future is that of post-marketing surveillance of the foods derived from genetically modified crops. It is concluded, among others that, that application of the principle of substantial equivalence has proven adequate, and that no alternative adequate safety assessment strategies are available.
Bt corn has been genetically modified to express the Cry1Ab protein of Bacillus thuringiensis to kill lepidopteran pests. Fluorescence microscopy and staining with toluidine blue indicated a higher content of lignin in the vascular bundle sheaths and in the sclerenchyma cells surrounding the vascular bundle in all ten Bt corn hybrids, representing three different transformation events, studied than of their respective non-Bt isolines. Chemical analysis confirmed that the lignin content of all hybrids of Bt corn, whether grown in a plant growth room or in the field, was significantly higher (33-97% higher) than that of their respective non-Bt isolines. As lignin is a major structural component of plant cells, modifications in lignin content may have ecological implications.
During the last 2 decades, the public and private sectors have made substantial international research progress toward improving the nutritional value of a wide range of food and feed crops. Nevertheless, significant numbers of people still suffer from the effects of undernutrition. In addition, the nutritional quality of feed is often a limiting factor in livestock production systems, particularly those in developing countries. As newly developed crops with nutritionally improved traits come closer to being available to producers and consumers, we must ensure that scientifically sound and efficient processes are used to assess the safety and nutritional quality of these crops. Such processes will facilitate deploying these crops to those world areas with large numbers of people who need them. This document describes 5 case studies of crops with improved nutritional value. These case studies examine the principles and recommendations published by the Intl. Life Sciences Inst. (ILSI) in 2004 for the safety and nutritional assessment of foods and feeds derived from nutritionally improved crops (ILSI 2004). One overarching conclusion that spans all 5 case studies is that the comparative safety assessment process is a valid approach. Such a process has been endorsed by many publications and organizations, including the 2004 ILSI publication. The type and extent of data that are appropriate for a scientifically sound comparative safety assessment are presented on a case-by-case basis in a manner that takes into account scientific results published since the 2004 ILSI report. This report will appear in the January issue of Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety.
Russet Burbank potato plants have been genetically improved to resist insect attack and damage by Colorado potato beetles (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)) by the insertion of a cryIIIA gene encoding the insect control protein of Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis. A modified gene that dramatically improved plant expression of this protein was utilized. Its expression in Russet Burbank potato plants resulted in protection from damage by all insect stages in the laboratory and in dramatic levels of protection at multiple field locations. Analysis of these genetically modified potatoes indicated that they conform to the standards for Russet Burbank potatoes in terms of agronomic and quality characteristics including taste.
One important aspect of the safety assessment of genetically engineered crops destined for food and feed uses is the characterization of the consumed portion of the crop. One crop currently under development, glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS), was modified by the addition of a glyphosate-tolerance gene to a commercial soybean cultivar. The composition of seeds and selected processing fractions from two GTS lines, designated 40-3-2 and 61-67-1, was compared with that of the parental soybean cultivar, A5403. Nutrients measured in the soybean seeds included macronutrients by proximate analyses (protein, fat, fiber, ash, carbohydrates), amino acids and fatty acids. Antinutrients measured in either the seed or toasted meal were trypsin inhibitor, lectins, isoflavones, stachyose, raffinose and phytate. Proximate analyses were also performed on batches of defatted toasted meal, defatted nontoasted meal, protein isolate, and protein concentrate prepared from GTS and control soybean seeds. In addition, refined, bleached, deodorized oil was made, along with crude soybean lecithin, from GTS and control soybeans. The analytical results demonstrated the GTS lines are equivalent to the parental, conventional soybean cultivar.
The diversity of novel foods and novel ingredients covered by the scope of the EU regulation is such that a check list approach to safety evaluation is inappropriate. Rather, a case-by-case approach is required taking into account the composition of the novel food, its intake, its role in the diet and the intended target group. The SAFEST approach provides a means of targeting the safety evaluation on those aspects, nutritional or toxicological, of a novel food which are of particular concern. Using this approach, novel foods are assigned to one of three classes on the basis of certain background information. For those novel foods which can be shown to be in SAFEST class 1, namely those which are substantially equivalent to a traditional counterpart, no further information is required to demonstrate their safety. For those novel foods in SAFEST class 2, i.e. those sufficiently similar to a traditional counterpart or differing from it only in particular, well defined, characteristics, the evaluation will focus on those differences. Only in the case of novel foods which are not in class 1 or class 2 is extensive testing of the whole food likely to be required. Even in these cases, the testing should follow a scientifically-based hierarchical approach involving: literature reviews; chemical analysis; appropriate in vitro and in vivo tests; and, if necessary, confirmation of safety and nutritional value in humans. Examination of the causes of any adverse effects reported by consumers after the novel food or ingredient has been approved and is introduced into the market may provide additional reassurance of safety.
The present work has been designed to study the effect of feeding on transgenic potatoes, which carry the CryI gene of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki strain HD1, on the light and electron microscopic structure of the mice ileum, in comparison with feeding on potatoes treated with the 'delta-endotoxin' isolated from the same bacterial strain. The microscopic architecture of the enterocytes of the ileum of both groups of mice revealed certain common features such as the appearance of mitochondria with signs of degeneration and disrupted short microvilli at the luminal surface. However, in the group of mice fed on the 'delta-endotoxin', several villi appeared with an abnormally large number of enterocytes (151.8 in control group versus 197 and 155.8 in endotoxin and transgenic-treated groups, respectively). Fifty percent of these cells were hypertrophied and multinucleated. The mean area of enterocyte was significantly increased (105.3 microm(2) in control group versus 165.4 microm(2) and 116.5 microm(2) in endotoxin and transgenic-treated groups, respectively). Several forms of secondary lysosomes or auotophagic vacuoles were recognized in these cells. These changes were confirmed with the scanning electron microscope which revealed a remarkable increase in the topographic contour of enterocytes (23 microm in control group versus 44 microm and 28 microm in endotoxin and transgenic-treated groups, respectively) at the divulged surface of the villi. The basal lamina along the base of the enterocytes was damaged at several foci. Several disrupted microvilli appeared in association with variable-shaped cytoplasmic fragments. Some of these fragments contained endoplasmic reticulum, as well as ring-shaped annulate lamellae. In addition, the Paneth cells were highly activated and contained a large number of secretory granules. These changes may suggest that delta-endotoxin-treated potatoes resulted in the development of hyperplastic cells in the mice ileum. Although mild changes are reported in the structural configuration of the ileum of mice fed on transgenic potatoes, nevertheless, thorough tests of these new types of genetically engineered crops must be made to avoid the risks before marketing.
The regulatory processes employed in the UK and the European Union to assess the safety of novel foods and novel food ingredients, including those resulting from the application of recombinant DNA technology (genetically modified foods), are described. Examples are given of yeasts that have been genetically modified and can be used in food and drink manufacture and food enzymes derived from genetically modified microorganisms that have been deemed safe for use by the UK regulatory system. Social acceptance of such novel foods or food ingredients is not uniform in countries of the developed world. Consumer concerns can be based on ethical considerations (scientists "playing God") or safety worries ("more testing needs to be done"). The general acceptance of such foods and food ingredients in Europe is still unclear.
Diets containing genetically modified (GM) potatoes expressing the lectin Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) had variable effects on different parts of the rat gastrointestinal tract. Some effects, such as the proliferation of the gastric mucosa, were mainly due to the expression of the GNA transgene. However, other parts of the construct or the genetic transformation (or both) could also have contributed to the overall biological effects of the GNA-GM potatoes, particularly on the small intestine and caecum.
The compositional analyses and safety assessment of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS) were previously described. These analyses were extensive and included addressing the potential effects on seed composition from the genetic modification. Detailed compositional analyses established that GTS, which had not been treated with glyphosate, were comparable to the parental soybean line and to other conventional soybeans. In this study, two GTS lines, 40-3-2 and 61-67-1, were treated with commercial levels of glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup herbicide. The composition of the seed from soybeans sprayed with glyphosate was compared to that of a nonsprayed parental control cultivar, A5403. The nutrients measured in the seed included protein, oil, ash, fiber, carbohydrates, and amino acids. The concentration of isoflavones (also referred to as phytoestrogens) was also measured as these compounds are derived from the same biochemical pathway that was engineered for glyphosate tolerance. The analytical results from these studies demonstrate that the GTS soybeans treated with glyphosate were comparable to the parental soybean cultivar, A5403, and other conventional soybean varieties.
Discussions of the environmental risks and benefits of adopting genetically engineered organisms are highly polarized between
pro- and anti-biotechnology groups, but the current state of our knowledge is frequently overlooked in this debate. A review
of existing scientific literature reveals that key experiments on both the environmental risks and benefits are lacking. The
complexity of ecological systems presents considerable challenges for experiments to assess the risks and benefits and inevitable
uncertainties of genetically engineered plants. Collectively, existing studies emphasize that these can vary spatially, temporally,
and according to the trait and cultivar modified.
In the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, standards for risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been set. The criteria and information basis for the risk assessment of GMOs have been modified by the EU Directive 2001/18/EC. Various approaches to further improve the criteria for environmental risk assessment of GMOs are described in this study. Reports on the ecological impacts of the cultivation of certain non-transgenic crop plants with novel or improved traits as analogy models to transgenic plants showed that the effects of agricultural practice can be at least equally important as the effects of gene transfer and invasiveness, although the latter currently play a major role in risk assessment of transgenic crops. Based on these results the applicability of the methodology of 'Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)' for genetically modified plants in comparison with conventionally bred and organically grown crop plants was evaluated. The methodology was regarded as applicable with some necessary future improvements. In current projects, the assessment of toxicology and allergenicity of GM crops are analysed, and suggestions for standardization are developed. Based on results and recommendations from these efforts there are still the challenges of how to operationalize the precautionary principle and how to take into account ecologically sensitive ecosystems, including centres of origin and centres of genetic diversity.
Genes change continuously by natural mutation and recombination enabling man to select and breed crops having the most desirable traits such as yield or flavour. Genetic modification (GM) is a recent development which allows specific genes to be identified, isolated, copied and inserted into other plants with a high level of specificity. The food safety considerations for GM crops are basically the same as those arising from conventionally bred crops, very few of which have been subject to any testing yet are generally regarded as being safe to eat. In contrast a rigorous safety testing paradigm has been developed for GM crops, which utilises a systematic, stepwise and holistic approach. The resultant science based process, focuses on a classical evaluation of the toxic potential of the introduced novel trait and the wholesomeness of the transformed crop. In addition, detailed consideration is given to the history and safe use of the parent crop as well as that of the gene donor. The overall safety evaluation is conducted under the concept known as substantial equivalence which is enshrined in all international crop biotechnology guidelines. This provides the framework for a comparative approach to identify the similarities and differences between the GM product and its comparator which has a known history of safe use. By building a detailed profile on each step in the transformation process, from parent to new crop, and by thoroughly evaluating the significance from a safety perspective, of any differences that may be detected, a very comprehensive matrix of information is constructed which enables the conclusion as to whether the GM crop, derived food or feed is as safe as its traditional counterpart. Using this approach in the evaluation of more than 50 GM crops which have been approved worldwide, the conclusion has been that foods and feeds derived from genetically modified crops are as safe and nutritious as those derived from traditional crops. The lack of any adverse effects resulting from the production and consumption of GM crops grown on more than 300 million cumulative acres over the last 5 years supports these safety conclusions.
No direct evidence that genetically modified (GM) food may represent a possible danger for health has been reported so far; however, the scientific literature in this field is quite poor. Therefore, we investigated the possible effects of a diet containing GM soybean on mouse exocrine pancreas by means of ultrastructural, morphometrical and immunocytochemical analyses. Our observations demonstrate that, although no structural modification occurs in pancreatic acinar cells of mice fed on GM soybean, quantitative changes of some cellular constituents take place in comparison to control animals. In particular, a diet containing significant amount of GM food seems to influence the zymogen synthesis and processing.
The coat protein (CP) gene of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was cloned from a Chinese CMV isolate, the CaMV promoter and NOS terminator added and the gene construct was transformed into both sweet pepper and tomato plants to confer resistance to CMV. Safety assessments of these genetically modified (GM) plants were conducted. It was found that these two GM products showed no genotoxicity either in vitro or in vivo by the micronucleus test, sperm aberration test and Ames test. Animal feeding studies showed no significant differences in growth, body weight gain, food consumption, hematology, blood biochemical indices, organ weights and histopathology between rats or mice of either sex fed with either GM sweet pepper or tomato diets compared with those with non-GM diets. These results demonstrate that the CMV-resistant sweet pepper and tomato are comparable to the non-GM counterparts in terms of food safety.
This synopsis reviews published in vivo studies on possible health consequences of genetically modified food and feed where the ingredients in question have consisted of genetically modified plant materials. The following, however, have not been taken into consideration: ingredients consisting of genetically modified microorganisms or parts of animals/fish ingredients produced by/from genetically modified organisms but without any DNA present studies on consequences for the environment or biodiversity in vitro studies or computer simulations
According to a Norwegian report “Gen-mat” (NOU 2000:29), and a more recent search in Medline and Citations Index, to our knowledge a total of ten studies have been published on the health effects of GM-foods and feeds. In this minireview the data made available in these published studies is discussed.