Swiss Ecological Scarcity Method: The New Version 2006

Abstract

The Swiss Ecological Scarcity method has first been introduced in 1990 and updated in 1997. Currently the Swiss version of this method is updated and extended. The update and extension of the method takes into account the recent developments in Swiss and European (as far as it is relevant for Switzerland) legislation and environmental targets. Furthermore, ISO standard revisions and recent developments in scientific knowledge on environmental effects are also considered where appropriate. The basic principle and main strength of the method, measuring the environmental scarcity with the help of actual pollutants (and resources) flows and maximum allowed (so-called critical) flows, remained untouched. Hence, it is still a distance to target rather than a damage oriented impact assessment method. Nevertheless, the representation of the formula is slightly changed to comply with ISO requirements, but also to allow for a more flexible and powerful interpretation of the terms. The possibilities of the revised formula are presented on the example of the new eco- factor for freshwater resources. The major changes in the impact assessment results are highlighted using examples from the agricultural and industrial sector.

Full text

Swiss Ecological Scarcity Method: The New Version 2006
Rolf Frischknecht1, Roland Steiner1, Braunschweig Arthur2, Egli Norbert3, Hildesheimer Gabi4
1 ESU-services GmbH
Kanzleistrasse 4, CH-8610 Uster, Switzerland
frischknecht@esu-services.ch, steiner@esu-services.ch
2 E2 Management Consulting AG
Wehntalerstrasse 3, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
abraunschweig@e2mc.com
3 Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN)
CH-3003 Berne, Switzerland
norbert.egli@bafu.admin.ch
4 oe b u
Obstgartenstrasse 28, CH-8035 Zurich, Switzerland
hildesheimer@oebu.ch
Keywords: keywords
ABSTRACT
The Swiss Ecological Scarcity method has first been introduced in 1990 and updated in 1997. Currently the Swiss
version of this method is updated and extended. The update and extension of the method takes into account the recent
developments in Swiss and European (as far as it is relevant for Switzerland) legislation and environmental targets.
Furthermore, ISO standard revisions and recent developments in scientific knowledge on environmental effects are also
considered where appropriate. The basic principle and main strength of the method, measuring the environmental scarcity
with the help of actual pollutants (and resources) flows and maximum allowed (so-called critical) flows, remained untouched.
Hence, it is still a distance to target rather than a damage oriented impact assessment method. Nevertheless, the
representation of the formula is slightly changed to comply with ISO requirements, but also to allow for a more flexible and
powerful interpretation of the terms. The possibilities of the revised formula are presented on the example of the new eco-
factor for freshwater resources. The major changes in the impact assessment results are highlighted using examples from the
agricultural and industrial sector.
THE ECOLOGICAL SCARCITY METHOD
The Swiss ecological scarcity method is based on the
distance to target principle. A critical flow is deduced for
every substance where legislative guidelines or political
goals exist. The current flow corresponds to the actual
situation. The calculation of the eco-factor is determined by
setting the current flow into relation with the critical flow.
Simplicity and transparency of the eco-factor
calculation on one hand, and direct derivation from political
targets on the other are this method’s strength. The use of
political targets is the main difference to damage oriented
approaches such as the Lime method or the eco-
indicator 99. As a consequence, ecological scarcity eco-
factors can only be determined for substances with an
applicable political target.
There is a main advantage for companies to use the
ecological scarcity method. It measures the ecological
performance of a company (or its products) with reference
to the political agenda of the country or region. In the case
of a company this information can be more valuable and
relevant than a damage oriented assessment.
The ecological scarcity method is quite popular
among Swiss companies. Furthermore, several nations, for
example Japan (JEPIX, [1]), have adopted the methodology
and are calculating own eco-factors based on their national
environmental situation and legislation.
ECOLOGICAL SCARCITY FORMULA
Former and Revised Formula Representation
The formula representation (1) that was used in the
former two editions of the Swiss ecological scarcity method
[2, 3] is slightly changed (see next page). It allows for a
more powerful interpretation. However, from a mathemati-
cal point of view the new representation (2) is only a con-
version, leading to identical eco-factors as the previous one.
Characterisation
The characterisation term improves the transparency
of applying such factors. Characterisation was implicitly
used in the previous versions (e.g. global warming poten-
tial) but is only now made explicit. The explicitly separated
but optional characterisation term is in line with the impact
assessment procedure according to the ISO standards.

Normalisation and Weighting
Formerly, the formula contained two weighting terms
(see (1)). First, the emission is weighted with regard to the
critical flow (how important is an emission in relation to
the critical flow?). The second term weights according to
the relation between the current flow and the critical flow
(how important is the current flow in relation to the critical
flow?). Thus normalisation was done with the critical flow
and not the current flow as suggested by the ISO standard
14042. Changing normalisation to current flows, the
weighting gets actually a squared function.
Furthermore, the weighting factor can be determined
independent of the normalisation. This allows for example
to determine a weight specific for a local situation (e.g.
pollution level of a lake or the water pressure in different
countries). The normalisation based on the current flow of
the whole country makes eco-factor deduced from a local
situation compatible with eco-factors deduced for the whole
country. This extension is called “regionalisation”. A simi-
lar procedure can be applied to define temporally differen-
tiated eco-factors.
NEW ECO-FACTORS
Several new eco-factors are introduced in the ecologi-
cal scarcity method 2006 such as factors for dioxin and
diesel soot emissions into air, emission of endocrine dis-
ruptors or radioactive emissions into the ocean. A major
progress, however, are the newly introduced assessments of
land use and fresh water resources (based on work by Köll-
ner [4] and OECD [5] respectively). While the land use
assessment is based on a biodiversity approach very similar
to the one already introduced by the eco-indicator 99, the
assessment of fresh water resources follows a completely
new approach. Furthermore, the assessment of freshwater
resources makes use of regionalisation, which became only
operationable with the revised formula.
Freshwater Resources – a Regionalised eco-factor
Freshwater is a scarce resource in some regions,
while in others it is not. A sound impact assessment method
has, therefore, to take these regional differences into
account. As a consequence, different weights need to be
attributed to water consumption depending on the water
scarcity at the place of consumption. Only with the revised
formula has it become possible to determine weights
separate from normalisation, which is a crucial feature to
realise the regionalisation of the weighting.
{
{
{
flow critical:F
flowcurrent :F
unit) (thepoint -eco :EP
)2(
1
1
)1(
1
factor -eco
k
UBP/a)(1e12
Constant
Weighting
2
ionNormalisat
(optional)
sationCharacteri
c
F
F
F
KEP
c
F
F
F
EP
k
kk
⋅








⋅⋅⋅=
⋅⋅=
321 The OECD [5] measures the pressure on the fresh-
water resources (i.e. the scarcity) by setting the consump-
tion (drinking water, irrigation, industrial use) in relation to
the available renewable water resources. A consumption of
a share greater than 40% of the renewable resources is seen
as a high pressure while 20% is regarded as medium. It is
assumed that a medium pressure is the limit for a su-
stainable and therefore acceptable pressure (= critical flow,
see equations (3) and (4)). From these indications the
country or region specific weighting terms can be cal-
culated:
)4(
20% A)· (Reg. resource water renew.
A)(Region n consumptiowater
)3(
ARegion for flow critical
ARegion in flowcurrent
A)(Region Weight
2
2








=








=
The normalisation scales the weighting factors to a
country (i.e. Switzerland in our case) for which the
resulting eco-factors are valid.
Application of the Regionalised Freshwater Resources
eco-factor
Switzerland is a country with a rather low water
pressure. Only 5% of the available renewable resources are
used. However, Switzerland depends to a good share on
imports of fruits and vegetables from countries with a
medium to high water pressures (e.g. Spain and Italy, 32%
and 23% respectively [6]). Valuating the agricultural water
use in the producing countries with the Swiss eco-factor
does seriously underestimate the impact from water
consumption. Using the proposed regionalised weighting
factors avoids this bias; each water consumption would be
valuated according to its regional scarcity situation.
Challenges of Applying Regionalised eco-factors
Commercially available LCI databases do not yet
differentiate water consumption according to a local water
pressure, but only consider the different sources of water
such as river, lake, ground-water and ocean. Since it is
obvious that a differentiation on a country level is not
realistic for a general purpose database (there are about 200
countries in the world), it is proposed to introduce a
classification system with a few water pressure levels
encompassing the whole range of scarcity. Each level will
then be attributed an individual weighting factor (Table 1).
In the previously mentioned example Switzerland
(water pressure category: low) imports food products from
Spain and Italy with a higher water pressure (category:

medium). Using a regionalised weighting factor results in a
factor 36 times higher than without regionalisation. This
leads to an increase of the impact from freshwater resources
in the same order. Depending on the importance of water
resources in the impact assessment this can greatly in-
fluence the outcome.
Table 1: Proposed water pressure ranges and
resulting weighting factor assuming a
critical load of 20%.
water pres-
sure range
value used for
calculation
(current load)
weighting
factor
low <0.1 0.05 0.0625
moderate 0.1 to <0.2 0.15 0.563
medium 0.2 to <0.4 0.3 2.25
high 0.4 to <0.6 0.5 6.25
very high 0.6 to <1.0 0.8 16.0
extreme ≥1 1.5 56.3
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Non-
irrigated
Irrigation in
Switzerland
Irrigation in
Spain
Non-
irrigated
Irrigation in
Switzerland
Irrigation in
Spain
Asparagus Tomatoes
Emission into Air Emission into Water
Emission into Groundwater Emission into Soil
Resources (except water) Land Use
Waste (incl. radioactive) Freshwater Resources
IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESULTS
Agricultural Products
The assessment shows results for the two vegetables
asparagus and tomato produced at a farm (LCI data from
Jungbluth [7]). In order to demonstrate the importance of
freshwater resources, each vegetable is assessed 1) without
irrigation, 2) with irrigation taking place in Switzerland
(low weighting-factor for freshwater) and 3) with irrigation
taking place in Spain (medium weighting-factor).
As can be seen in Fig. 1 freshwater is of little
importance when the asparagus and tomatoes are produced
and irrigated in Switzerland (1.6% and 0.13% of the total
environmental impact). However, if the asparagus are
produced in Spain the freshwater resources contribute 40%
to the total impact (5% in the case of tomatoes).
In this example, the assessment of the water use is
based on a national average water scarcity in Spain.
Differentiating further between individual provinces in
Spain (i.e., consider the elevated water pressure of
Andalusia), the consumption of freshwater resources would
become even more relevant.
These results clearly demonstrate that it can be
sensible to use eco-factors that consider the regional or
local situation.
Fig. 1: Assessment of asparagus and tomato
with the Swiss ecological scarcity
method 06 assuming a low (Swiss)
and a medium (Spain) eco-factor for
freshwater consumption.
Industrial Goods
The same variation of the eco-factor for the fresh-
water resources as for the agricultural products is applied
on industrial goods (LCI data from the ecoinvent database
v1.2 [8]). In contrast to the water dependent agriculture the
industrial goods show almost no difference (Fig. 2).
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
low
weighting
factor for
water
medium
weighting
factor for
water
low
weighting
factor for
water
medium
weighting
factor for
water
low
weighting
factor for
water
medium
weighting
factor for
water
Chromium steel Glued laminated
timber
Recycling paper
Emission into Air Emission into Water
Emission into Groundwater Emission into Soil
Resources (except water) Land Use
Waste (incl. radioactive) Freshwater Resources
Fig. 2: Assessment of chromium steel, glued
laminated timber and recycling paper
with the Swiss ecological scarcity
method 06 assuming a low and a
medium weighting-factor for fresh-
water consumption.
Hence, the environmental impact from freshwater
consumption is often negligible in relation to the other im-
pacts. Recycling paper is the only product shown where a
visible share of 1% results with the medium eco-factor for
freshwater. Water consumption of industrial processes
operated in arid regions might, however, show up in the

ecological scarcity results.
CONCLUSIONS
The formula to calculate the ecological scarcity eco-
factor has undergone a slight revision. The revised formula
provides more possibilities of deducing the eco-factors. The
example of the freshwater resource weighting factor, which
was deduced for different water scarcity situations, showed
on one hand the potential and at the same time the
soundness of the approach.
The new structure allows for a use of the ecological
scarcity method 2006 (up to the characterisation step) in
ISO-compliant studies, a significant improvement with
regard to the current situation.
With newly introduced eco-factors the method is
capable to include the use of different categories of land,
the release of radionuclides to the Sea, the release of
endocrine disruptors as well as the consumption of fresh
water resources into the impact assessment.
The impact from freshwater resource consumption
becomes relevant for products with a high water intensity
(e.g. agricultural products with irrigation) and for local
situations where the water scarcity is elevated.
REFERENCES
[1] Miyazaki N., Siegenthaler C., Schoenbaum T. and
Azuma K., Japan Environmental Policy Priorities Index
(JEPIX) - Calculation of Ecofactors for Japan: Method
for Environmental Accounting based on the EcoScarcity
Principle, International Christian University Social
Science Research Institute, Monograph Series No. 7,
Tokyo, 2004
[2] Ahbe S., Braunschweig A. and Müller-Wenk R.,
Methodik für Ökobilanzen auf der Basis ökologischer
Optimierung, Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und
Landschaft (BUWAL) No. 133, Bern, 1990
[3] Brand G., Scheidegger A., Schwank O. and
Braunschweig A., Bewertung in Ökobilanzen mit der
Methode der ökologischen Knappheit - Ökofaktoren
1997, Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft
(BUWAL) No. Schriftenreihe Umwelt 297, Bern, 1998
[4] Köllner T., Land Use in Product Life Cycles and its
Consequences for Ecosystem Quality, in Difo-Druck
GmbH, Bamberg. 2001, Universität St. Gallen,
Hochschule für Wirtschafts-, Rechts- und
Sozialwissenschaften (HSG), St. Gallen, pp. 237
[5] OECD, Key environmental indicators, OECD
Environment Directorate, Paris,
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/32/20/31558547.pdf,
16.06.2005 2004
[6] FAO, Aquastat: FAO's Information System on Water
and Agriculture, Database,
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.st
m, Withdrawn Date: Date
[7] Jungbluth N., Umweltfolgen des
Nahrungsmittelkonsums: Beurteilung von
Produktmerkmalen auf Grundlage einer modularen
Ökobilanz. 2000, Eidgenössische Technische
Hochschule Zürich, Umweltnatur- und
Umweltsozialwissenschaften, dissertation.de, Berlin, D,
pp. 317
[8] ecoinvent Centre, ecoinvent data v1.2 with corrections,
Final reports ecoinvent 2000 No. 1-16, Swiss Centre for
Life Cycle Inventories, CD-ROM No. ISBN 3-905594-
38-2, Dübendorf, CH, www.ecoinvent.org, 2006