Leadership and Complexity of Mind: The Role of Executive Coaching

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This chapter concerns a relatively new field of study—the develop-
ment of complexity of mind in adults and the ways in which understand-
ing that development affects those who work to support adults.
We ha v e al l k no w n for s o me t ime t h at chi l d re n and a d u lt s see v a stly d i f-
ferent worlds. For example, spend fifteen minutes with a three-year-old on
an airplane, and you’ll discover that, for her, the cars below actually are tiny
cars, driven by tiny people and parked in tiny garages, and that, after you
land, the cars—and the people and garages—grow large again. This kind of
“magical thinking,” as it has been described (Fraiberg, 1959), disappears
fairly early in children’s lives. The world changes as children discover that
the size of objects is constant, regardless of how far from the objects they
[2]
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LEADERSHIP AND
COMPLEXITY OF MIND
The Role of Executive Coaching
JENNIFER GARVEY BERGER
CATHERINE FITZGERALD
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themselves move. The world becomes stabler, and we say—sometimes with
nostalgia, sometimes with great relief (often with both)—that the children
have developed.
Those who study adult development, however, are learning that such
drastically different ways of looking at the world may well continue
throughout a person’s life span. The magical thinking of a three-year-old
who believes cars grow and shrink may become the magical thinking of a
thirty-year-old who watches a report transform from an accomplishment of
which to be proud, when his colleague praises it, into a source of shame,
when his manager criticizes it. This chapter explores the implications of
adult development for executive coaching, arguing that if coaches are to be
able to support leaders well, it is vital that they understand the many differ-
ent worlds these leaders may inhabit.
We ha v e w o rke d with c lient s fro m a d i vers e array o f o rgani z a tion s —
from Fortune 500 companies to struggling Internet start-ups, from leaders
of schools to leaders of the military. We have seen a wide variety of differ-
ences in the external worlds these leaders inhabit: in the public, private, and
nonprofit sectors; in local and multinational companies; in stable and
emerging technologies. One of the most difficult differences to understand,
however, is found not in the external world of the executives with whom we
work, but in the internal complexity with which those executives view
that world. The constructive-developmental theory of Robert Kegan (1982,
1994) offers us a powerful way to understand the complexity of mind
of the leaders with whom we work—and to support the development of
complexity.
Executive coaches bridge the two different—but clearly interacting—
worlds of the executive and the executive’s organization. A good coach
knows that it is vital to have a sense of the key corporate issues that sur-
round the executive and, also, that he or she must understand those issues
both from the executive’s perspective and from the perspectives of others in
the organization. Often, the way an executive makes meaning of key corpo-
rate issues—rather than the issues themselves—shapes the work of the
coaching.
Kegan’s work focuses on the ways in which people make meaning of the
world around them. As a constructive-developmental psychologist, Kegan,
like other constructivists, believes not that the world is out there to be dis-
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covered but that we create our world through our interaction with and
interpretation of it. Like other developmentalists, Kegan believes that hu-
mans grow and change over time and enter qualitatively different phases in
the process. Kegan’s framework is powerful because he joins these two
schools of thought and suggests a clear pattern for the development of the
systems by which people make meaning.
This chapter focuses on two key aspects of Kegan’s work:
●The movement from Subject to Object—the basic process for be-
coming more complex
●Orders of mind—five qualitatively different ways of constructing
reality, which develop from less to more complex
For each of these aspects of Kegan’s theory, the following sections define the
concepts and explain the theory surrounding them, outline the implica-
tions for executive coaching practice, and suggest ways in which executive
coaches can support the performance and development of executives
through an understanding of these concepts.
The Movement from Subject to Object
The more elements we can see, respond to, and make decisions about, the
more complex a view we have. Kegan’s theory explicates this idea and sug-
gests ways to increase the number of elements we have under our control.
The Theory
Kegan distinguishes between informational learning, which is new knowl-
edge added to the current form of one’s mind, and transformational learn-
ing, or learning that changes the very form of one’s mind, making it more
spacious, more complex, and more able to deal with multiple demands and
with uncertainty. According to Kegan (1994), transformation occurs when
we develop the ability to step back and reflect on something that used to be
hidden or taken for granted and to make decisions about it. He says trans-
formative learning happens when someone changes “not just the way he
behaves, not just the way he feels, but the way he knows—not just what
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he knows but the way he knows” (p. 17). Transformation happens in many
ways; the most vital to Kegan is the movement of things from Subject to
Object.
In Kegan’s scheme, things that are Subject are by definition experienced
as unquestioned, simply a part of the self. They can include many different
things—a theory, a relational issue, a personality trait, an assumption about
the way the world works, behaviors, emotions—and they can’t be seen
because they are the lenses through which we see. For this reason, they are
taken for granted, taken for true—or not even taken at all. We generally
can’t name things that are Subject to us, and we certainly can’t reflect on
them—that would require the ability to stand back and take a look at them.
We don ’t have things that are Subject; things that are Subject have us.
Things that are Object, however, can be seen and considered, questioned,
shaped, and acted on. Something that is Object can be a theory, a rela-
tional issue, a personality trait, a belief, behaviors, or emotions. And, while
things that are Subject have us, we have things that are Object. Because it
isn’t the lens through which we see, something that is Object can be held out
and examined. Although we each necessarily have many parts of our world
that are Subject, one key aspect of development involves moving more and
more things from Subject to Object. The more we take as Object in our
lives, the more complex our worldview becomes because we can see, reflect
on, be responsible for, and act on more things.
Implications for Practice
Understanding the movement from Subject to Object has profound impli-
cations for executive coaching practice for three reasons. First, although
executive coaching often focuses on increasing the executive’s knowledge or
skill, a substantial amount of executive coaching involves helping executives
make Subject–Object shifts. In many cases, this happens when coaches help
executives surface and examine their hidden assumptions about the world.
Uncovering these assumptions can lead to important insights for executives.
The following are some examples of insight that involve a Subject–Object
shift:
●I was always the responsible one in my family and I guess I ended up
controlling things. I’ve been talking about empowering staff, but I
haven’t really been willing to give up control.
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●I was taught that being loyal to my boss and my company came first, but
now I see that doing the right thing can be much more important than
loyalty.
●I always prided myself on being the smartest and the quickest person in
the room. It’s amazing to realize that I’m keeping my staff dependent on
me by always having the answer first and that by doing so I’m keeping
them—and me—from being more successful.
If coaches can identify when a client is working on a move from Subject to
Object and if they are skillful in supporting that move, they will be more
successful in helping their clients both be effective and develop.
Second, it is essential for coaches to realize that the movement from
Subject to Object is more challenging than it may appear. Clients may have
difficulty seeing the limitations of ways of understanding and dealing with
the world that have worked well for them and that they experience as coher-
ent. Kegan notes that the first impulse of those who make discoveries about
the limited nature of their beliefs, assumptions, or worldviews is not to wel-
come that discovery. Instead, people work to change the shape of the world
itself by selectively ignoring data, eliciting particular responses, or making
creative interpretations of events such that the belief, assumption, or world-
view might remain true.
In addition, no matter how valuable and important it might seem to hold
on to and examine an insight as Object, the insight tends to fade and
become Subject again. This tendency for insights to be reabsorbed as
Subject accounts for the familiar experience of encountering an important
new insight and realizing that you made the same discovery in, say, a con-
flict situation last year, a workshop two years ago, and in therapy five years
ago. It also explains why a client can have a critical new insight during a
coaching session, and be very taken by and influenced by the insight, and
then in a short time be back to business as usual, behaving as if the insight
had never taken place. Kegan and Lahey (2001) suggest that we need to con-
sciously build some “psychological muscle” over time so that we can hold
out an insight as an Object to be examined instead of reabsorbing it as
Subject again. (See the Strategies section on pages 32 to 35 for ways of help-
ing clients sustain the Subject–Object shift.)
This psychological muscle is hard to build because giving up a way of
understanding oneself and/or one’s world can be painful. Discussions about
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executive coaching typically pay little attention to the losses that can come
with a change in belief or perspective. The adult development literature, on
the other hand, explains why giving up an old belief might be associated
with loss. Committing ourselves to a new belief means giving up an old one,
actually losing our former sense of the world before we have fully articu-
lated our new world (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule, 1986:
Kegan, 1994; Perry, 1968).
Third, it is important for coaches to understand the Subject–Object shift
because it represents an increase in complexity. Although the movement
may seem fairly small (and perhaps straightforward and even obvious to the
coach), an increase in complexity can shake up a client’s way of seeing and
dealing with the world, thus affecting the client’s self-concept, relation-
ships, goals, and plans. The assumption that the world was flat—which
fourteenth-century Europeans accepted as fact—made ocean travel terrify-
ing and extremely limited. The simple questioning of that assumption—
which seemed ludicrous at the time because the assumption seemed so
obvious and true—opened up the oceans and greatly expanded the known
world. Tiny shifts in what seems possible can literally change the world.
Executive coaches must understand and respect their clients’ inclinations
to hold on to their previous notions of the way that the world works—even
as they try to influence those notions and help make them more complex.
Strategies for Supporting the Movement from Subject to Object
There are two aspects to supporting a Subject–Object shift in executive
coaching:
●Recognizing when a client is dealing with a Subject–Object shift
●Providing support for understanding and maintaining a Subject–
Object shift
Each is addressed below.
Recognizing When a Client Is Dealing with a Subject–Object Shift
A client may need to make a Subject–Object shift when she reports feeling
stuck or at her wit’s end, or when a client who is typically articulate, per-
ceptive, and resourceful becomes uncharacteristically tongue-tied, mud-
dled, or helpless.
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David, an executive coach, was coaching Jeanne, an executive who was seen as
very smart and capable and had risen quickly to a key position in her company.
Jeanne talked with David about how burned out she felt and discussed her con-
cerns about neglecting both her health and her life outside of work. After some
brainstorming, Jeanne agreed, as a first step, to set some modest limits on her
work hours. However, after a number of coaching sessions, she expressed frus-
tration with her lack of progress with setting limits. It became clear that Jeanne
was driven by something she could neither name nor see that was making it
difficult for her to cut back. David inquired about Jeanne’s earlier work history,
and after an intense discussion of her aspirations for the future, Jeanne realized
that she was driven by the belief that if she wasn’t constantly the fastest-rising
star, she would lose all of her hard-earned success and quickly sink into medioc-
rity and failure.
Like Jeanne in the case above, a client may have identified both her cen-
tral problem (overworking) and a possible solution (setting modest limits
on her hours) and—even with the best of intentions and plenty of motiva-
tion to make the change—still seem unable to change her behavior. Jeanne
is mired in her earlier paradigm and can’t seem to keep a clear and con-
structive view of the problem or move toward resolving it. To help such a
client escape the paradigm, a coach needs to be able to recognize that the
client is stuck and to support her in both seeing the paradigm and seeing a
way out of it.
Providing Support for Understanding and Maintaining
a Subject–Object Shift
Once a Subject–Object shift has been identified, the newly recognized exist-
ing belief must be treated with seriousness and respect. Kegan (1994)
reminds us that, to be a supportive, useful structure, “a bridge must be well
anchored on either side” (p. 37). In other words, coaches must have respect
for and pay close attention to their clients’ current beliefs as well as to the
more complex way of understanding the issues at hand they hope to en-
courage in their clients. (See Chapter 6 for a related approach.)
Kegan (1995; see also Kegan and Lahey, 2001) postulates five steps that
may help a belief about the world move from Subject to Object:
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●Naming the belief
●Noticing the implications of the belief
●Looking for discrepant evidence
●Charting the history of the belief
●Te s t i n g t h e t r u t h o f t h e b e l i e f
Kegan’s suggested first step toward making Subject into Object is simply
to know that it exists, to name it. Once Jeanne named what she felt was the
root of her behavior, she was able to reflect on it. The important change here
wasn’t discovering the behavior—after all, she knew she had been driven for
most of her adult life—but discovering the root of the behavior.
Kegan asserts that the second step in changing an assumption about the
world is simply to notice how the assumption or belief changes the possi-
bilities available to the person who holds it. Because Jeanne had previously
believed—albeit unconsciously—that this behavior was the foundation of
her success, she had been unable to make any changes, even though some
aspects of that behavior were problematic. As soon as she named her belief,
however, she and David were able to take a more systematic look at how it
was interfering in her life.
After spending some time simply paying attention to the way her belief
worked in her life, Jeanne was ready for the third step—looking for any evi-
dence that might cast even a small amount of doubt on her assumption. She
recalled the times she had been compelled to take time off from work—for
an illness, for example—and realized that her world had not fallen apart nor
had she lost all that she had worked so hard to attain.
The fourth step in Kegan’s approach is to go back and look for the roots
of our beliefs and try to identify where and when they first began to oper-
ate in our lives. Jeanne discovered that her belief came from being one of
many children in her family, performing unexceptionally in elementary and
high school, and attending a middle-of-the-road state university. Once at
the university, she began to push herself hard and found that she could
excel. She had continued to push herself ever since.
For the fifth step, Kegan recommends constructing small tests of our
assumptions or beliefs, trying to see how our experiences and actions might
be different if they were based on different assumptions or beliefs about the
world. The shift from Subject (something that is assumed or unexamined)
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to Object (something that is reflected on and that therefore can be changed)
may sound like a small change, but it can open up many new opportunities
for the client.
One of the most powerful interventions coaches can provide is simply to
help keep critical insights alive for their clients in order to support the
movement of a belief from Subject to Object. Without both internal will-
ingness and external support, any insight can quickly become Subject again.
For Jeanne, the Subject–Object shift did not mean that she gained
complete control of her world and established an optimal life/work balance.
She still thinks of herself as a driven person. But she has realized that she
doesn’t have to keep such a vigilant watch over things, that she can take time
off for a vacation and not worry about job security, and that enjoying her
personal life isn’t the end of her professional life. She may always work
hard, but she now feels more in control of the pace of her work life and less
at risk of burning out.
Orders of Mind
In addition to describing the process of movement (from Subject to Object),
Kegan’s theory also describes qualitatively different stages—or Orders—
along the developmental journey.
The Theory
The most profound example of a move from Subject to Object is when the
entire meaning-making system moves from that which unquestioningly
runs the person involved to that which the person can actively control. The
slow but measurable1shift of entire systems from Subject to Object is what
gives form to different Orders of mind in Kegan’s theory. These Orders
involve five ways of constructing reality, ranging from the way of a two-
year-old to that of a person well into the second half of life.2Each Order
represents a qualitative shift in meaning making and complexity from the
Order preceding it. In moving from one Order to the next, we do not give
up what we’ve already learned; we transform our relationship to it, moving
it from the lens through which we see to one among several possible alter-
natives to be seen and acted on.
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Perhaps the most important thing to remember about the Orders is that,
although they become more complex with time, no Order is inherently bet-
ter than any other (just as a more complex idea isn’t necessarily more valu-
able than a simple one). Our clients can be kind or unkind, just or unjust,
moral or immoral while they are at any of these Orders; it is impossible to
measure a person’s worth—or judge his or her satisfaction with his or her
life—by looking at that person’s Order of mind. What is more important is
the fit between the Order of mind and the tasks required of each person.
The five Orders of mind are described briefly below; note especially the
ones at which the majority of adults spend most of their lives—the Third
and Fourth Orders of mind.
The First Order
Kegan’s First Order is made up almost entirely of young children. Executive
coaches do not work with those who inhabit this Order, but it serves as a
useful reference point because the differences between this world and the
others are so easy to see.
People in this Order cannot yet hold the idea that things in the world
retain the same qualities over time. They believe they can slip down the
bathtub drain because they can’t hold themselves as different from the water
that slips away. The First Order is a time of magic and mystery, with the
world changing inexplicably from moment to moment.
The Second Order
Kegan’s Second Order was once thought to belong exclusively to older chil-
dren and young adolescents, but there is increasing evidence that adults can
spend many years here as well. Therefore, while it is unlikely that executives
are still operating at this Order of mind, at least some people in their orga-
nizations probably live in this world.
When people learn that objects stay the same regardless of their own
relationship to them (when I walk away from the car, it looks smaller, but it
isn’t actually shrinking), their world becomes less magical and more com-
plex. They discover that their beliefs and feelings also remain constant over
time (I love chocolate but hate mashed potatoes; I’m good at math even if I
can’t do this problem). This insight helps them understand that other peo-
ple have feelings and beliefs that remain constant, too. Second Order chil-
dren—and adults—are self-centered and see others as helpers or barriers on
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the road to attaining their desires. If they do not break rules, it’s because
they are afraid of being caught; when friends don’t lie to each other, it’s
because they fear retaliation.
The Third Order
People can begin to enter the Third Order during adolescence, and there is
a great deal of evidence that they can live much or all of their lives in this
Order. Studies have shown that a surprisingly large percentage of adults—
of all ages, occupations, and socioeconomic classes—inhabit this world
(Kegan, 1994, pp. 192–195).
At the Third Order, people no longer see others as simply a means to an
end; they have internalized one or more systems of meaning (their family’s
values, a political or national ideology, a professional or organizational cul-
ture). They have developed the ability to subordinate their desires and be
guided by the norms and standards of their meaning system(s). Their im-
pulses and desires, which were Subject to them in the Second Order, have
become Object. They now internalize the ideas or emotions of others who
represent their meaning system and are guided by the ideologies, institu-
tions, or people that are most important to them. They are able to think
abstractly, are self-reflective about their actions and the actions of others,
and are devoted to something that’s greater than their own needs. It is as if,
in their growth from the Second Order, those at the Third Order have wel-
comed a board of directors into their decision making and now have the
ideas or voices of important others with them as they make their decisions.
The major limitation of this Order shows up when there is a conflict
between important ideologies, institutions, or people. At such times, people
at the Third Order feel torn in two and cannot find a way to make a deci-
sion. If, for example, someone at the Third Order has internalized—and
really believes—some of the culture of his organization (e.g., that levels of
power should be collapsed and managers should consult with their staff
about decisions) and has also internalized the ideology of his culture (e.g.,
that consulting with others shows that you do not know the answers your-
self and is a sign of weakness), he will feel stuck when it comes to making
decisions the Right Way. The person may turn to others to tell him how to
best resolve the conflict and will become increasingly bewildered if there is
no consensus about the resolution or if others counsel him to decide inde-
pendently, saying that there is no Right Answer.
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Because life often requires us to mediate between different ideologies,
institutions, and/or key people in our lives, Kegan suggests that many peo-
ple in the Third Order feel “in over their heads” much of the time. It is
important to remember, though, that the Third Order is not a personality
flaw to be corrected with appropriate intervention; it is a necessary point on
a developmental continuum. Executive coaches who recognize this can have
a vastly different perspective on their clients who are at the Third Order, as
well as a more extensive set of tools with which to support them and their
development.
The Fourth Order
The Fourth Order seems most familiar to those who work with adults
because it is the Order that most closely resembles our modern image of the
way adults are supposed to be. The most surprising thing about this Order,
in fact, is that there are so many adults who have not yet reached this level
of complexity.
Adults at the Fourth Order have achieved all that those at the Third
Order have, and, in addition, they have created a self that exists even out-
side of its connection to the meaning systems and people surrounding it.
The perspectives, opinions, and desires of the meaning systems they have
adopted, which had great control over them when they were making mean-
ing at the Third Order, are now Object to them. These individuals are able
to examine and mediate among the various rule systems and opinions. The
board of directors that was welcomed in the Third Order now undergoes a
startling transformation. While the voices and ideas of important others are
still internalized at the Fourth Order as they were in the Third Order, the
great achievement of the Fourth Order is that the individual becomes the
chairperson of the board.
Those at the Fourth Order have an internal set of rules and regulations—
a self-governing system—that they use to make decisions and mediate con-
flicts. Unlike those at the Second Order, people at the Fourth Order feel
empathy for others and take their wishes and opinions into consideration
when making decisions. Unlike those at the Third Order, Fourth Order
adults don’t feel torn apart by the conflicts of different meaning systems
because they have their own system within which to make decisions. These
are the people we read about in the literature who “own”their work and are
self-guided, self-motivated, and self-evaluative.
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The Fifth Order
Kegan’s Fifth Order is never seen before midlife, and then only rarely. Even
though it is not commonly seen in the general population, this Order is
important to our work because many senior executives are at midlife or
beyond, and many of them may be developing toward the Fifth Order.
Adults at the Fifth Order have achieved all that those at the Fourth Order
have, and, in addition, they have learned the limits of their inner system—
and the limits of having an inner system in general. Instead of viewing
others as people with separate and different inner systems, those at the Fifth
Order can look across inner systems to see the similarities hidden within
what previously looked like differences. Adults at the Fifth Order are less
likely to see the world in terms of dichotomies or polarities. They are more
likely to understand and deal well with paradox and with managing the ten-
sion of opposites. They are also more likely to believe that what we often
think of as black and white are just various shades of gray whose differences
are made more visible by the lighter or darker colors around them. While
they still make use of their Fourth Order board of directors, people at the
Fifth Order recognize its inherent frailties. They are more likely to consider
the advantages not just of other opinions (which the board might entertain)
but of entirely different forms of governing systems. For example, they may
realize that their internal system itself contributes to their inability to per-
ceive a wide field of alternatives.
A Historical Analogy for Orders of Mind
According to Kegan (1994), societal demands made at different points in
human history are helpful for understanding the different Orders of mind
and grasping why so many of us are now in over our heads—not yet devel-
opmentally ready to meet the demands placed on us. Kegan explores three
historical eras—traditionalism, modernism, and postmodernism—and
relates them to the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Orders, respectively. While it is
clear that these societal eras are useful mostly as a developmental analogy,
it’s enlightening to look at the society at large and see how it makes de-
mands on its citizens.
Tradit i onalis m
Traditionalism has been the typical form of society around the world for
much of human history. This society requires loyalty to the group and the
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ability to put the needs of the group before the needs of the self. People
in traditional societies tend to live in the same place for long periods of
time (perhaps even generations) with people who are similar (from the
same tribe, religion, nationality, socioeconomic background). Leaders who
espouse their society’s ideologies (religious or philosophical leaders, doctors
or healers, political leaders, leaders in the workplace) are part of their group.
Members of this society look to these leaders or to other representations of
the external theology or philosophies (scholarly or religious texts, for exam-
ple) for the Right Answers to all kinds of problems. These leaders have the
authority to help people raise their children, heal their sick, do their jobs,
and live their lives by setting out a right action and right belief that others
can confidently follow. For the most part, the demands of this society are
suited to adults at the Third Order.
Modernism
The modern era began when people became more mobile and society was
transformed from small, relatively homogeneous groups to larger, more
diverse groups. Instead of belonging to and being committed to a small
group, people in modern societies focus on Big Ideas—Science, Democracy,
Freedom, Truth. No longer tied down to a single place or job, people move
around more and are exposed to new ideas and to different kinds of people.
With the increase in diversity, as well as the increase in communication,
group leaders are harder to identify—one of many competing doctors? one
of a variety of religious leaders? one of the increasingly mistrusted political
leaders? It is also less clear what to do when those leaders disagree. There is
general disillusionment with external leaders and so-called heroes because
these leaders and heroes are soon shown to be the flawed human beings they
are. Because people in modern societies don’t have leaders whom they trust,
they must turn to other sources of wisdom on raising children, doing their
jobs, and being citizens.
In this era, employers demand that people own their own work, become
self-motivated, make their own decisions. The self-help section of book-
stores continues to expand as people search for guidance. Individuals at the
Fourth Order (less than half of all adults) are well suited to the demands of
the modern age. The rest of us are in over our heads.
Postmodernism
Some say Postmodernism is here now, but others insist we’re still firmly in
a modernist world. Those who argue for postmodernism say that the Big
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Ideas have failed us, that Truth doesn’t exist. Rejecting both the old tribal
systems and the search for Big Ideas, postmodern society fosters an aware-
ness that we all belong to greater systems that are linked to one another and
to this planet in important ways.
Instead of being enmeshed in a particular philosophy or ideology
(which, at the Third Order or in traditional societies might come from
external sources, and in the Fourth Order or in more modern societies
might be self-constructed), those who exist in a postmodern manner can
draw from many philosophies and ideologies, seeing the strengths and
weaknesses inherent in all of them or in ideologies in general. They no
longer seek to perfect a philosophy or idea; instead, postmodernists look at
the ways in which dichotomous philosophies create one another and focus
on the system that underlies the dichotomies. The very few who are at the
Fifth Order are well suited to the demands of the postmodern age. Thus, in
a postmodern world almost all of us are in over our heads.
Implications for Practice
We a r e s t ill i n a n earl y stag e in a p plying a n u nder s t and i n g o f Ke g a n’s O r der s
of mind to executive coaching practice. However, we believe that the fol-
lowing observations are relevant to executive coaching:
●The amount of complexity executive roles require is variable.
●The amount of complexity executive roles require is probably
increasing.
●The match between an executive’s complexity of mind and the re-
quirements of his or her role is critical for both effectiveness and job
satisfaction.
●Development requires both challenge and support.
Each observation is discussed below.
The Amount of Complexity Executive Roles Require Is Variable
The complexity of mind an executive role requires is influenced by a num-
ber of factors, including the following:
●The characteristics of the role (the kinds of data that need to be gath-
ered and grasped; the kinds of decisions that need to be made; the
kinds of relationships that need to be developed; the clarity of objec-
tives; the amount and nature of conflict to manage)
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●The expectations regarding coordinated versus independent judg-
ment and action (the amount of consultation and collaboration for
decision making that is expected and considered acceptable by
bosses, peers, and others; the degree of independence of thought and
action that is expected and considered acceptable by bosses, peers,
and others)
●The nature of the support provided by the executive’s environ-
ment (the extent to which the policies, practices, and traditions of
the organization provide adequate guidance to the executives; the
amount of support for decision making provided by bosses, peers,
and others)
We h a ve d e velo p e d t h re e w o rking h y p oth e s es abo u t t h e r equir e d c om-
plexity of mind in executive jobs:
●At a minimum, executive jobs require Third Order meaning making.
●Most executive jobs require Fourth Order meaning making.
●As executives develop beyond the Fourth Order, they may have the
capacity to make additional and/or unique contributions to their
organizations, but they may feel constrained by and/or dissatisfied
with the nature and definition of many executive roles. Moreover,
their additional and/or unique contributions may be invisible and
undiscussable.
The Amount of Complexity Executive Roles
Require Is Probably Increasing
There are a number of trends within organizations and marketplaces that
are likely to lead to higher requirements for complexity in executives. These
include
●An increase in the occurrence and speed of change
●An increase in the span of control of executives, which results in less
time and attention for supporting their direct reports
●Greater ambiguity and uncertainty in decision making
●Less focus within many organizations on tradition and continuity in
management and executive careers
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The Match between Complexity and Role Requirements Is Critical
The match between an executive’s complexity of mind and the require-
ments of her role is critical for both effectiveness and job satisfaction.A role
will be a poor match when it requires an Order of complexity that is higher
or lower than the executive’s capability.
When the role is over the head of the executive, she is likely to feel over-
whelmed and inadequate. Executives often respond by trying harder; work-
ing longer hours; and using all the skills, abilities, and resources at their
command in an attempt to meet the expectations of the role. If the issue is
a mismatch in complexity, however, additional effort is unlikely to be suc-
cessful. (See pages 48 through 52 for suggestions about coaching executives
who are in over their heads.)
When the role requires less complexity than the executive is capable of,
the executive may be perceived as effective and successful but over time may
begin to feel underutilized and unchallenged. A growing but often vague
sense of dissatisfaction and frustration may occur, which can be difficult for
both the executive and the organization to understand and resolve. (See
pages 52 through 56 for suggestions about coaching executives who have
outgrown their roles.)
Development Requires Both Challenge and Support
Development is difficult, so people tend not to develop unless they are chal-
lenged in some way. Such challenges are presented by anything that prompts
us to question whatever we take for granted. Some are self-created (moving
to or spending time in another country, changing careers, going back to
school as an adult, going into therapy); others result from external events
(being fired, being promoted to a more complex position, losing a parent or
spouse, going through a long illness). None of these events or situations
causes development; in fact, it is quite possible to engage in nearly all these
events without developing at all. Challenges such as those described will be
experienced differently by different people and by those at different Orders
of mind. Yet each new challenge, as long as it is combined with support,
makes development possible.
Support is also a necessary ingredient in development. Because develop-
ment can be filled with uncertainty and discomfort, people tend to slip back
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into more comfortable roles and ways of thinking—at least at first.
Supporting people in their new ways of experiencing the world can help
them hold on to the developmental aspects of these experiences and test
their previous assumptions about the way the world works. Support, like
challenge, can come from many different places (and people at different
Orders of mind will probably be supported by different things). In a perfect
world, each challenge would come with its own kind of support. In reality,
however, people often have to be resourceful—and perhaps lucky—to get
support that matches the challenges they are facing. For example, someone
who gets a promotion at work—but not the necessary support on the job—
could seek coaching to deal with the new challenges.
Strategies for Supporting the Performance and Development
of Clients at Different Orders of Mind
Different executive coaching strategies may be appropriate for different
situations:
●When there is a reasonably good fit between the complexity of mind
of the executive and his or her role and environment
●When the executive’s complexity is less than that required by his or
her role or environment
●When the executive’s complexity is greater than that required by his
or her role or environment
Before describing possible strategies to use in these three circumstances,
we offer a note of caution. In our view, it is never appropriate for an execu-
tive coach to insist that a client develop in a particular direction or manner
or even that he or she develop at all. While development may have some
advantages for a client, it also invariably comes, as mentioned earlier, at a
cost. The executive coaching approaches we present here illustrate interven-
tions we have found to be useful to clients in circumstances similar to the
ones described. These interventions were developed to respond to dilemmas
and concerns that the clients brought to the coaching relationship and
were not imposed on clients because of our attachment to this, or any other,
theory.
Additionally, we don’t believe that this—or any other—chapter on
Kegan’s theory will enable anyone to determine a client’s Order of mind;
such determination requires the administration of a Subject–Object
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Interview (Lahey, Souvaine, Kegan, Goodman, and Felix, 1988). Our intent
in this section is to offer a sufficiently clear view of the Orders of mind
so that the patterns we describe are illuminated in a new way, allowing
coaches to see new solutions to old concerns. We have used this theory to
build tools with which to help executives be more effective and happier in
their positions—not to diagnose or label them.
When There Is a Good Fit between Complexity and Role
When there is a reasonably good fit between an executive’s complexity of
mind and his or her role and environment, an executive coach can look for
opportunities to support the executive’s development in a way that enables
him or her to take on more complex challenges. Because the developmental
issues around complexity of mind are different at different Orders of mind,
this section addresses separately the strategies for supporting development
in Third Order clients and in Fourth Order clients. For each, a description
of the key developmental issues involving complexity of mind and strategies
for executive coaching are discussed.
Supporting Development in Third Order Clients The key developmental
issue in moving from the Third Order to the Fourth is the development of
a self-authored system: the appointment of the individual as chairperson
of his internal board of directors. Before the executive can begin to
listen to and trust his internal guide, he first needs to recognize the limita-
tions of the meaning systems—the external guides—on which he has relied
thus far. The executive discovers that the internalized voices of external ide-
ologies, institutions, or people cannot make all of his decisions; this may
become especially clear when two important others disagree. Over time, the
person learns to pay attention to and trust his own emerging voice.As men-
tioned earlier, a move to the Fourth Order doesn’t mean that a person has
abandoned key meaning systems—it reflects instead an ability to mediate
across meaning systems.
An executive coach can support the development of a Third Order exec-
utive by
●Giving the executive opportunities to explore his view of critical
events and issues, by asking questions such as What did you observe,
think, feel? What’s most important to you in the situation? What
would you prefer to have happened?
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●Noticing and pointing out even subtle differences between the exec-
utive’s perspective or reaction and that of another person (a boss, a
peer). For example, the coach might say, “So your boss thought
Joe was out of line, but you thought Joe had some good points—
although you agree with your boss that Joe’s timing was a problem.”
●Exploring with the executive relevant aspects of his key meaning sys-
tems (the values of his family, ethnic group, or religion); the per-
spectives of his profession (law, economics); the assumptions and
implicit code of conduct of his organization
●Paying particular attention to issues and situations in which key
meaning systems disagree and helping the executive develop strate-
gies for mediating such disagreements
●Recommending activities that can help the executive identify his own
views (journaling, taking time off alone for reflection)
●Using psychological instruments, such as the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator®instrument, that portray individual differences as normal
and natural and that support a differentiated approach to individual
perspectives, interests, and reactions
●Helping the executive identify bosses, peers, and others who are espe-
cially good at articulating an independent perspective while taking
into account the organization’s culture and brainstorming about
ways to observe and interact with bosses, peers, and others
Supporting Development in Fourth Order Clients In moving from the
Third Order to the Fourth, the challenge is to question the infallibility of
external guides and learn to trust the internal, self-authored guide. In the
move from the Fourth Order to the Fifth, in contrast, the key task for
the client is to question the infallibility of her self-authored system and see the
need to transcend her reliance on that system.
Just as those moving from the Third Order to the Fourth retain the inter-
nalized voices of others as they develop their own voice, those moving from
the Fourth Order to the Fifth retain their own self-authored system even as
they recognize the need to link their system with those of others. Now,
instead of having a hierarchical board of directors with herself as chair, the
emerging Fifth Order executive might search for new metaphors. She might
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work to see herself as a member of a council of elders, for example, with
each member representing his or her own internal and external constituen-
cies and at the same time listening to the ways other council members shape
and create the available options.
One of the most valuable ways in which a coach can support a client’s
movement from the Fourth Order to the Fifth is to make note of any think-
ing and behavior that demonstrate increasing complexity, as well as any
positive effects of such thinking or behavior. The transition to Fifth Order
might manifest itself in an executive in an increased ability to
●Understand and integrate the perspectives of other people and/or
groups: We’ ve a lw ay s di sm iss ed t ha t view of t hi ng s, b ut I ca n s ee n ow
why it looks that way to them.
●Integrate apparent opposites: I told them we weren’t going to announce
a solution until we had one that provided some structure and closure so
that ____ can do their job, but that also has flexibility for our staff and
our customers.
●Take a fresh look at taboos or undiscussable issues: The practice in my
profession has always been ____ , but I’m beginning to see that we need
to rethink our approach.
●To l e r a t e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ( i n t h e m s e l v e s o r t h e i r w o r k ) i n s t e a d o f
denying, ignoring, or trying to fix them: I always thought I was one of
the good guys, but I’m beginning to see that what I always held as my
altruism is really another form of selfishness.
●Demonstrate awareness of their own meaning systems: I’m increas-
ingly recognizing that my training as a lawyer has accustomed me to see
things in adversarial terms, which in this case has caused some real dif-
ficulty for the project.
●Make connections across levels: As I was listening to the two sides
argue at the meeting, I was struck by the fact that I have some of those
same arguments inside my head and that I sometimes feel both ways
about that issue at the same time.
●See the influence of their mind-set and expectations on their view
of reality: I realize that I went in there determined to see them as the
bad guys and my expectations helped lead us to an impasse.
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When appropriate, executive coaches can highlight and reinforce such
examples of increasing complexity and can discuss with clients their impli-
cations and potential positive effects on the organization.
As clients become more complex, they may begin to voice somewhat
vague concerns about the inadequacy of processes and practices with which
they previously had been comfortable: I know we've always done it that way,
but I'm starting to see more of the downsides.
Executive coaches can help clients articulate what seems to be lacking
and brainstorm about alternative approaches. Coaches also can help nor-
malize the situation for clients, as clients often feel torn about their criti-
cisms. Their sense of the inadequacy of the process or practice in question
may be strong and insistent, while at the same time they may feel that they
are being unreasonable, overly critical, even harsh: I’m sure they’re thinking,
“How come he’s so picky all of a sudden?” And it’s not as if I have a lot of great
ideas about how to change things. I don’t blame them—I don't like it when
people just criticize and don’t offer solutions.
When the Executive’s Complexity Is Less Than Required
There are, of course, times when executives are themselves in over their
heads as their jobs require more complex ways of making meaning than
they possess. This can happen to Third Order clients whose roles have
Fourth Order expectations as well as to Fourth Order clients whose roles
have Fifth Order expectations.
Supporting Third Order Clients Whose Roles Have Fourth Order
Expectations Executive coaching clients can be in over their heads when the
expectations they face from their boss, peers, staff, organization, or others
are that they be able to make meaning at the Fourth Order (that is, that
they be self-authoring) when their level of complexity—like that of much
of the adult population—is at the Third Order.3For example, changing jobs
can create strain for Third Order executives by increasing the level of com-
plexity expected or decreasing the available support. Such job changes can
involve promotions, changes in scope and scale, and a move from a more
structured to a more ambiguous part of an organization.
Third Order executives can experience similar dilemmas due to a change
in the nature of or circumstances surrounding a current job, such as getting
a new boss. We have seen clients who were very successful under one boss
struggle and even fail under another boss who wanted the client to take
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more ownership of the process. In addition, changes in an organization
resulting from mergers, reorganizations, transitions in top management,
strategy redirection, or technological changes can disrupt a work setting
that has provided a sense of coherence and clarity about roles, relationships,
work practices, and operating procedures, thus creating challenges for
Third Order executives.
A Third Order executive who faces Fourth Order expectations is likely to
feel overwhelmed, strained, and uncertain. He may have excellent skills and
a great capacity to respond to the demands of a situation. However, the
Fourth Order requirement typically involves not just meeting the demands
but also identifying and deciding among them—in essence choosing the
demands. Third Order executives in this situation are likely to try in a vari-
ety of ways to get clarity (from their bosses or others) about what they and
their part of the organization should be doing, and they may feel intensely
frustrated and confused when the message comes back as some form of
“You decide.” They may expend a great deal of effort trying to get results
and be successful, and they may experience heightened confusion and anx-
iety when their hard work doesn’t pay off, sensing that somehow they’re not
getting it. They can become resentful of their bosses and other people in
authority for not providing enough direction, for being vague and unclear
about what they want.
Bosses and others in the environment who are expecting Fourth Order
meaning making (usually without being aware of the real nature of their
expectations) may interpret the executives’ behavior as indecisive, risk-
averse, dependent on authority. They may give messages, directly or indi-
rectly, that say in effect
●Ta k e s o m e i n i t i a t i v e .
●Don’t be so dependent on others.
●Why are you unwilling (or afraid or unable) to decide?
Conversations across Third Order–Fourth Order differences can lead to
increasing frustration on both sides. A Third Order client might complain,
I don’t know what she wants and whenever I try to get some clarity, she’s elu-
sive (or not helpful or vague or dismissive). A Fourth Order boss might assert,
I can’t figure out why he isn’t getting on top of his assignment. He’s a smart
guy—it’s not asking that much for him to take the initiative and start things
moving.
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An executive coach can support a Third Order executive who is facing
Fourth Order demands by
●Helping to identify and articulate the expectations that are causing
strain and confusion
●Brainstorming with the executive about sources of information,
expertise, and judgment that might support the executive’s decision
making; these sources might involve people (peers, subordinates,
experts) or frameworks, policies, or research
●Helping the executive craft an explicit decision-making process that
can be used (with helpful resources) to make difficult decisions
●Proposing ways to have constructive discussions with bosses, peers,
and others
●Reframing the situation as a valuable developmental opportunity
Supporting Fourth Order Clients Whose Roles Have Fifth Order
Expectations Executive coaching clients can be in over their heads even
when they meet the modernist expectations of complexity—the Fourth
Order—if their role and environment require meaning making that goes
beyond the Fourth Order. The same kinds of events (a job change or a
change in the circumstances surrounding a current job) that lead Third
Order clients to be strained and overwhelmed can affect Fourth Order
clients. A new role that requires an executive not simply to deal with but to
really integrate a wider range of perspectives or to demonstrate substantial
subtlety and flexibility in mediating among different constituencies or
domains (e.g., economics, law, and diplomacy) can be experienced as over-
whelming or even impossible by a Fourth Order executive. A new boss or
changing organizational circumstance (e.g., a merger) that requires these
or similar capabilities could also lead to an executive’s being in over his or
her head.
Fourth Order executives who face Fifth Order expectations are likely to
feel frustrated. It may be very clear to them what needs to be done and,
when a suggestion is made about integrating other perspectives or kinds of
considerations, they may be defensive (“I know what they want and I’ve
considered their views in my decision”) or stymied (“I’ve come up with a
plan that takes all the factors into account, but my boss seems to think I’m
not going far enough in understanding and representing all the different
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views. I don’t see how anyone could go farther than I have in giving people
what they want”).
Fourth Order executives are likely to try to explain the coherence and
logic of their decision making and to be frustrated or even angry when their
logic is not seen as sufficient or perhaps is not even engaged with. They may
struggle to find a better, more finely tuned internal system that allows them
to have a better grasp of the situation. They may not realize, however, that
what is needed isn’t a better system, but rather an awareness that no single
system is complex enough to deal with the circumstances.
Bosses and others in the environment who are expecting Fifth Order
meaning making from a Fourth Order executive may see the executive as
arrogant, too cut-and-dried, and/or unable to reach beyond her own way of
thinking. Interactions can have a broken-record quality, with the executive
reiterating the underpinnings of her approach and others continuing to
suggest that she include other perspectives in her thinking and decision
making.
An executive coach can help a Fourth Order client who is facing Fifth
Order expectations by
●Helping her enhance her ability to understand the relationship
between her own system and the systems of others (see Chapter 6
for strategies for helping clients increase their perspective-taking
ability)
●Reviewing with her conversations she has had that were unsatisfying
and looking for opportunities to reframe others’ perspectives and
reinterpret interactions with others such that the executive can see
those different perspectives as ones that she holds—at least a little
bit—as well
●Helping the executive see that even belief systems that are very dif-
ferent from hers can have their own admirable internal coherence;
the experience of being able to admire the coherence of another’s sys-
tem while holding an awareness of the deficiencies of that system
may increase the executive’s ability to understand both the strengths
and the limitations of her own system and ultimately to see that any
one system is limited
●Looking for circumstances—however minor or peripheral to the
points that are in contention—in which she can identify with or
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admire another system of meaning making, especially when it is very
different from her own
●Encouraging her to identify peers or bosses who are especially effec-
tive in mediating across different perspectives or domains and then
to find opportunities to interact with or observe such people in
action
●Reinforcing that the process of growth and discovery, however diffi-
cult, is a valuable one that will enhance other skills and add impor-
tant competence for future, more complex roles
●Supporting her in managing her frustration (and perhaps anger) and
maintaining a sense of equilibrium and patience with the process
When the Executive’s Complexity
Is Greater Than Required
A different set of dilemmas are created and different opportunities for exec-
utive coaching are presented when executives have developed beyond what
is expected in their roles. This can happen in Fourth Order clients whose
roles have Third Order expectations as well as in Fifth Order clients
whose roles have Fourth Order expectations.4
Supporting Fourth Order Clients Whose Roles Have Third Order
Expectations Fourth Order executives can encounter Third Order expecta-
tions either when they develop and therefore outgrow their roles or their
parts of the organization or when their jobs or the circumstances sur-
rounding their jobs change. In the latter case, a change in bosses, a move to
a more tradition-based part of an organization, or an organizational change
that results in a more constrained, rule-bound, or “back-to-basics”
approach can result in placing Fourth Order executives into Third Order
roles and environments.
Fourth Order executives in Third Order environments are likely to feel
constrained, controlled, and frustrated. They may experience a lack of free-
dom to act and make decisions, and may feel that they are being prevented
from exercising their own judgment and being successful in their own way.
In such circumstances, executives may consciously try to exercise self-
control to hide their discomfort and frustration. They may go underground
with their initiative and work around the rules so that they can feel at least
somewhat in charge of the situation. They may drop out psychologically
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and go through the motions of the job, while seeking satisfaction in other
parts of their lives. They are likely to feel stuck, sensing that they’ve lost any
forward momentum in their development, or even feel that they’re slipping
backward in their capacities and achievements.
A boss with Third Order expectations may experience a Fourth Order
subordinate as insufficiently respectful of authority and/or tradition, as an
upstart, as undisciplined, or even as insubordinate. Concerns can be
expressed in the following ways:
●He’s a capable guy, but he’s not with the program.
●She thinks she can just make up her own rules.
●I don’t know what he wants—I’ve given him a lot of responsibility, but
he’s always complaining that he doesn’t have enough authority to
really take the initiative.
Interactions between the executive and others can be strained, with each
side seeing the other’s expectations and behavior as off-base, offensive, or
even outrageous. Unless there is a compelling reason to stay (intense com-
mitment to the mission, a skill or knowledge base that can’t be attained else-
where, great attachment to the people involved, extraordinarily unattractive
alternatives), Fourth Order executives will often do whatever they can to
leave Third Order environments as soon as possible because being there is
so uncomfortable and unsatisfying.
An executive coach can support a Fourth Order executive who is facing
Third Order demands by
●Supporting the executive in describing and understanding the situa-
tion, the issues the situation raises for him, and his reactions to vari-
ous aspects of the situation
●Brainstorming with the executive about language that supports the
rules but makes a case for an exception and about actions thatallow
independence of thought and action but aren’t seen as insubordinate
●Helping the executive identify and avoid specific settings and events
(e.g., awards ceremonies) that are particularly frustrating, demoti-
vating, or offensive
●Brainstorming with the executive about ways to increase his freedom
of action (e.g., by taking on leading-edge assignments or engaging in
cross-functional projects)
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●Encouraging the executive to identify and try to expand the more sat-
isfying parts of the job (e.g., mentoring staff, working with cus-
tomers, learning a new skill or knowledge base)
●Proposing ways to continue growing and developing, both within
and outside of the job, to counteract the sense of being stuck or
regressing
●Helping to manage the frustration that stems from the situation and
providing an outlet for the executive to express his negative reactions
or feelings
●Supporting the executive in articulating the kind of role or environ-
ment that would be a better fit and in seeking to find and move
toward that role or environment
Supporting Fifth Order Clients Whose Roles Have Fourth Order
Expectations As discussed previously, modern expectations for adults
involve Fourth Order meaning making; Fifth Order meaning making is far
less common and far more difficult to understand or describe. As a result,
executives who develop past the Fourth Order are likely to operate in roles
and environments that are primarily Third and Fourth Order. Exceptions
are roles and environments in which a leader is highly developed and over
time both supports and calls for post–Fourth Order development or in
which the work is particularly complex, requiring, for example, mediation
across different perspectives and domains.
When an executive grows in complexity of mind beyond the Fourth
Order, she begins to develop perspectives and capacities that are elusive and
that are mostly undiscussable—because we do not have adequate language
to talk about Fifth Order phenomena—and invisible—because the sensibil-
ities and capacities of the Fifth Order are Subject to the vast majority of
people.
Post–Fourth Order perspectives and capacities may enable the executive
to make unique contributions to her organization (e.g., by dealing with
diverse perspectives or by crafting solutions that integrate apparent oppo-
sites). However, the executive may find the environment narrow and con-
straining and may feel that there is a lack of understanding and recognition
of her most developed—and most interesting—capabilities. As a result,
there can be a tension between a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment
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and a subtle dissatisfaction or discomfort with not really being heard or
understood, in all of the executive’s developing complexity. The executive
may experience others as too cut-and-dried in their views and as lacking in
flexibility, subtlety, or depth.
●It’s not a simple as my boss (or peer) thinks.
●They don’t see the limitations of their perspectives.
●I basically agree with them, but there’s somehow more to it.
Others in the executive’s environment may see him or her as capable, but
may think that he or she sometimes makes things too complicated.
●He’s not always good at laying down the law about things—he listens
too much sometimes to ____.
●The solution is really simple—why does she always have to make things
so complicated?
Others may also sense a vague unhappiness or dissatisfaction.
●She’s hard to please sometimes. I’ve given her a lot of recognition, but
she still doesn’t seem very happy with my response to her work.
●I’m trying to be supportive, but I can’t figure out what he really wants.
An executive coach can support a Fifth Order executive who operates in
a Fourth Order role or environment by
●Supporting the executive in articulating the dilemmas and dissatis-
faction she may be experiencing
●Brainstorming with the executive about aspects of his or her current
role or about possible new assignments that might be rewarding and
could contribute to her development
●Helping the executive accept that there may be things that the boss
(or peers) may never really understand or appreciate and lower her
expectations for such understanding and appreciation
●Supporting the executive in identifying the ways in which she would
love to develop, as well as specific strategies for pursuing that devel-
opment
●Encouraging the executive to develop or expand a “kitchen cabinet”
of diverse, wise colleagues, former bosses, and others that will sup-
port her development
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●Brainstorming with the executive about ways to explain, frame,
or justify post–Fourth Order perspectives, approaches, and achieve-
ments in ways that are persuasive and accessible in a Fourth Order
environment
●Highlighting the developmental nature of the dilemmas and dissatis-
factions she has been experiencing, as well as the value of possible
future contributions based on her ongoing development
Conclusion
In previous centuries, adults thought of children as little adults—people
who could understand and interact with the world in the same way adults
could as soon as their physical capacities were mature enough. As
researchers and teachers discovered more and more about the internal
worlds of children, they were able to create environments far more sup-
portive of the growth and development of those children. Similarly, people
often think of adults as being generally all the same developmentally—with
differences in skills or intelligence. While such variables as skills and intelli-
gence are clearly important, we believe that understanding the different
worlds adults inhabit is a key factor in helping them be more successful and
effective in their work. The constructive-developmental theory of Robert
Kegan offers shape to these worlds, and this chapter has attempted to apply
Kegan’s theory to the evolving field of executive coaching. Our hope is that
executive coaching that is informed by Kegan’s theory can help both leaders
and their organizations be more effective.
Notes
1Order of mind can be measured by the Subject–Object Interview (SOI; Lahey,
Souvaine, Kegan, Goodman, and Felix, 1988). This measure, an intense, hour-long
qualitative interview administered, transcribed, and scored by a skilled practitioner,
identifies the meaning-making system of the interviewee.
2This system actually begins at birth with babies and toddlers at a kind of Zero Order,
which has its own way of constructing the world.
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3Actually, most of our lives are spent in the transitional spaces between the Orders.
Kegan has identified four such places between each of the major poles (there are four
poles between Third Order and the Fourth Order). Therefore, we may have many
clients who are not yet fully Fourth Order who have characteristics of both Third and
Fourth Order meaning-making systems.
4Another caveat about the Fifth Order: In the following sections we’ll talk about Fifth
Order clients and also about Fourth Order clients in Fifth Order roles or environ-
ments. It is unlikely that there are many clients who are fully Fifth Order, and it is even
less likely that any organizations have demands that are universally Fifth Order.What
does seem likely is that there will be some clients who are beginning the journey
toward the Fifth Order and there are some organizations that, because of their
global orientation or diversity of ideas or complexity of missions, will have some Fifth
Order demands.
References
Belenky, M., B. Clinchy, N. Goldberger, and J. Tarule. (1986). Wom en’s wa ys of k no w-
ing: The development of self, voice, and mind. San Francisco: HarperCollins.
Fraiberg, S. H. (1959). The magic years: Understanding and handling the problems of
early childhood. New York: Scribner.
Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
———. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life.Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press.
———. (1995). Supporting our development at work: An interactive and reflective
workshop. Paper presented at Collaboration and community building: New
approaches to violence prevention, Harvard University Graduate School of
Education.
Kegan, R., and L. Lahey. (1984). Adult leadership and adult development. In B.
Kellerman (ed.), Leadership (pp. 199-230). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
———. (2001). How the way we talk can change the way we work: Seven languages for
transformation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lahey, L., E. Souvaine, R. Kegan, R. Goodman, and S. Felix. (1988). A Guide to the
subject-object interview: Its administration and interpretation. Cambridge, Mass.:
Laboratory of Human Development, Graduate School of Education, Harvard
University.
Perry, W. G. (1968). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years.
Cambridge, Mass.: Bureau of Study Counsel, Harvard University.
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