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Relationships between autistic-like and schizotypy traits: An analysis using the Autism Spectrum Quotient and Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences
Abstract
To further investigate claims of a relationship between autism and schizophrenia, the current study examined the associations between specific dimensions of autistic-like and schizotypy traits. These traits were assessed using the Autism Spectrum Quotient and the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences. After using factor analysis to explore the dimensions of autistic-like and schizotypy traits represented in these measures in two separate groups of students (N1 = 362, N2 = 639), the relationships between these dimensions were examined. While the results are consistent with suggestions in the literature of an overlap in the interpersonal deficits associated with autism and schizophrenia, they offer little support for Crespi and Badcock’s (2008) claim that autism and positive schizophrenia are diametrically opposed disorders.
... Autistic traits are commonly measured in both typical and autistic populations using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; . Despite originally being designed with five subscales, psychometric evaluation yields three separable domains that resemble the three areas of difficulty experienced by autistic people described above (English et al., 2020;Russell-Smith et al., 2011; but see Hoekstra, Bartels, Cath, & Boomsma, 2008 for an alternative two-factor solution). Two domains correspond to social difficulties in autism spectrum disorder -communication and social skills. ...
... Here, investigated whether separate domains of autistic traits and alexithymia are relevant in the same way to genuineness discrimination and approach judgements of facial expressions in the typical population. We measured the association between these abilities and individual differences in autistic traits (using the three domains identified by Russell-Smith et al. (2011)), while also assessing alexithymia (via a widely used measure, the twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale; TAS-20; . We also collected self-report of depression and anxiety symptoms. ...
... Each item is a descriptive statement and participants rated their agreement with each statement using a 4-point Likert scale from definitely disagree (1) to definitely agree (4), with higher scores reflecting higher levels of autistic traits. We measured the three domains of the AQ identified by Russell-Smith et al. (2011) and replicated by English et al. (2020). The three domains are Social Skills (Social Skills; maximum score of 52), which includes items such as "I enjoy social chitchat", Communication/Mind Reading (Communication; maximum score of 32), which includes items such as "I find it easy to work out what someone is thinking or feeling just by looking at their face" 2 , and Details/Patterns (Attention to Details and Patterns; maximum score of 28), which includes items such as "I tend to notice details that others do not". ...
People with autism and higher levels of autistic traits often have difficulty interpreting facial emotion. Research has commonly investigated the association between autistic traits and expression labeling ability. Here, we investigated the association between two relatively understudied abilities, namely, judging whether expressions reflect genuine emotion, and using expressions to make social approach judgements, in a nonclinical sample of undergraduates at an Australian university (N = 149; data collected during 2018). Autistic traits were associated with more difficulty discriminating genuineness and less typical social approach judgements. Importantly, we also investigated whether these associations could be explained by the co-occurring personality trait alexithymia, which describes a difficulty interpreting one’s own emotions. Alexithymia is hypothesized to be the source of many emotional difficulties experienced by autistic people and often accounts for expression labeling difficulties associated with autism and autistic traits. In contrast, the current results provided no evidence that alexithymia is associated with differences in genuineness discrimination and social approach judgements. Rather, differences varied as a function of individual differences in specific domains of autistic traits. More autistic-like social skills and communication predicted greater difficulty in genuineness discrimination, and more autistic-like social skills and attention to details and patterns predicted differences in approach judgements. These findings suggest that difficulties in these areas are likely to be better understood as features of the autism phenotype than of alexithymia. Finally, results highlight the importance of considering the authenticity of emotional expressions, with associations between differences in approach judgements being more pronounced for genuine emotional expressions.
... Given the differences between ASC and SSC clinical groups (i.e., enhanced and impaired, respectively) compared to NT control groups, we may expect poor ODT performance in individuals with higher schizotypal personality traits. However, there is a link between autistic and schizotypal personality traits (Dinsdale et al., 2013;Ford et al., 2017;Ford and Crewther, 2014;Nenadić et al., 2021;Russell-Smith et al., 2011); see (Zhou et al., 2019). Thus, we may expect a similar enhanced ODT performance of individuals with high autistic personality traits in those with higher schizotypal personality traits. ...
... Specifically, individuals with higher schizotypal personality traits showed increased OD thresholds (i.e., worse performance) in the vertical condition. Finally, we found that higher autistic personality traits are associated with higher schizotypal personality traits, consistent with previous findings (Dinsdale et al., 2013;Ford et al., 2017;Ford and Crewther, 2014;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). ...
... In line with previous studies (Dinsdale et al., 2013;Ford et al., 2017;Ford and Crewther, 2014;Russell-Smith et al., 2011), we also found a significant association between autistic and schizotypal personality traits as high AQ scores are associated with high SPQ-BR scores. This is expected based on previous studies showing an association between ASC and SSC (Burbach and van der Zwaag, 2009;Chisholm et al., 2015;King and Lord, 2011;Pilowsky et al., 2000;Volkmar and Cohen, 1991;Wood, 2017). ...
Imbalances in cortical excitation and inhibition (E-I) have been implicated in both autism spectrum conditions (ASC) and schizophrenia spectrum conditions (SSC). However, most studies investigate these clinical conditions independently, possibly due to the difficulty of obtaining comorbid clinical populations. As such, the current study investigated the relationship between performance in the orientation discrimination task “ODT” as a potential proxy for E-I balance and the autistic (as assessed by Autism Spectrum Quotient “AQ”) and schizotypal personality traits (as assessed by Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire-Brief “SPQ-BR”) in the general population. 87 healthy adult volunteers participated in the study. We found that high autistic personality traits are associated with enhanced performance in the oblique condition of ODT. In contrast, high schizotypal personality traits are associated with poor performance in the vertical condition of ODT. Such associations support the suggested disruption of cortical E-I balance in ASC and SSC.
... Although the AQ is a widely used measure, its reliability has been questioned (9). After its first publication, several researchers proposed factor structures and models for the AQ (2,(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20). However, the findings were inconsistent. ...
... Table 2 shows the EFA results for the AQ-J data. Using the criteria described in the Methods section, we excluded 21 items (1,2,4,7,15,18,21,24,25,26,28,29,30,33,34,35,40,41,43,49,50) with factor loadings <0.4, excluded 4 items (5,12,20,23) with dual-factor loadings, and retained 25 items (3,6,8,9,10,11,13,14,16,17,19,22,27,31,32,36,37,38,39,42,44,45,46,47,48) with factor loadings >0.4 without dual-factor loadings. ...
... The validity of a measure or a factor structure likely depends on its intended purpose (2). Previous studies have had different goals in generating proposed factor structures, including assessing the relationship of autistic traits to personality (10), assessing the relationship of autistic traits to schizotypy traits (15), and identifying a range of psychological constructs that may be relevant not only to ASC but to a wide variety of clinical phenomena related to schizophrenia spectrum and anxiety disorders (2). The three-factor structure identified in the present study will elucidate the expression of autistic traits by the general population of pregnant Japanese women. ...
Background
There is a rising interest in perinatal mental health studies, and proper psychometric tools to assess autistic traits among this population in Japan are vital.
Objective
This study aimed to clarify the optimal factor structure of the AQ as part of a perinatal mental health research project.
Methods
We used the Japanese version of the AQ (AQ-J) to measure autistic-like traits in pregnant women. Participants were 4,287 Japanese women who were pregnant or who had given birth within the last month. We performed exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using the first sample group (n = 2,154) to obtain factor structures for the final item selections. We performed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using the second sample group (n = 2,133) to obtain a model with good fit, then compared the model to all previously proposed models to determine the best-fitting model.
Results
The EFA analysis identified a model consisting of 25 items distributed across three factors. Cronbach’s alpha for the total 25-item AQ-J, 9-item “Social interaction” factor, 11-item “Non-verbal communication” factor, and 5-item “Restricted interest” factor was 0.829, 0.829, 0.755, and 0.576, respectively. McDonald’s omega and its 95% confidence interval were 0.826 (0.821–0.836), 0.835 (0.821–0.837), 0.755 (0.744–0.766), and 0.603 (0.556–0.596), respectively. CFA confirmed that the three-factor structure had an acceptable fit (goodness of fit index: 0.900, comparative fit index: 0.860, root mean square error of approximation: 0.066). These findings indicated that the three-factor model was better than the 13 existing models.
Conclusion
The findings are discussed in relation to the adequacy of the AQ-J for assessing autistic traits in perinatal women. We recommend the use of this 25-item, three-factor AQ-J model for this population owing to its superiority to all previous models.
... see also Palermo et al., 2018) between facial emotional expression recognition ability and total scores from the Autism-Spectrum Quotient ([AQ] Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2010), based on a relatively small (N = 132) and non-representative sample of university students. Halliday et al. (2014) examined only total AQ scores, a questionable procedure, as the AQ is known to measure three relatively distinct dimensions: Social (pronounced introverted tendencies), Communication/ Mind Reading (difficulties discerning people's thoughts/ feelings in conversation), and Details (preoccupation with details/obscure patterns) (Russell-Smith et al., 2011). ...
... and Communication/ Mind Reading (e.g., "I find it difficult to work out people's intentions.") (English et al., 2020;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). While we administered the full 50-item version, we analysed the 28-item version (see Russell-Smith et al., 2011, for further details). ...
... (English et al., 2020;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). While we administered the full 50-item version, we analysed the 28-item version (see Russell-Smith et al., 2011, for further details). ...
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and the broader autistic phenotype (BAP) have been suggested to be associated with perceptual–cognitive difficulties processing human faces. However, the empirical results are mixed, arguably, in part due to inadequate samples and analyses. Consequently, we administered the Cambridge Face Perception Test (CFPT), the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET), a vocabulary test, and the Autism Quotient (AQ) to a sample of 318 adults in the general community. Based on a disattenuated path analytic modelling strategy, we found that both face perception ability (β = –.21) and facial emotional expression recognition ability (β = –.27) predicted uniquely and significantly the Communication dimension of AQ. Vocabulary failed to yield a significant, direct effect onto the Communication dimension of the AQ. We conclude that difficulties perceiving information from the faces of others may contribute to difficulties in nonverbal communication, as conceptualised and measured within the context of BAP.
... A shorter hierarchical factor model seems equally reliable to the original AQ50 (Hoekstra et al., 2011), and might be a better measure of autistic traits than the AQ50 by excluding dysfunctional items (van Rentergem et al., 2019). Moreover, a direct comparison of AQ factor studies showed that a 28-item 3-factor-model (Russell-Smith et al., 2011) had the best psychometric properties (English et al., 2020). The AQ50-Adult hence has two promising factor models; a 28-item hierarchical factor model (Hoekstra et al., 2011) and a 28-item 3-factor-model (Russell-Smith et al., 2011) which we will refer to as AQ28-Hoekstra and AQ28-Russell-Smith henceforward. ...
... Moreover, a direct comparison of AQ factor studies showed that a 28-item 3-factor-model (Russell-Smith et al., 2011) had the best psychometric properties (English et al., 2020). The AQ50-Adult hence has two promising factor models; a 28-item hierarchical factor model (Hoekstra et al., 2011) and a 28-item 3-factor-model (Russell-Smith et al., 2011) which we will refer to as AQ28-Hoekstra and AQ28-Russell-Smith henceforward. Despite the same number of items in the models, 10 items differ between the models. ...
... Specifically, we examined the factor structure, reliability, informant-and sex differences, and clinical utility of the AQ adolescent in three different samples. (1) The fit of the aforementioned most promising adult-based (Hoekstra et al., 2011;Murray, Allison et al., 2017;Murray, McKenzie et al., 2017;Russell-Smith et al., 2011), and child-based (Gomez et al., 2019; models (see Table 3) and the reliability were tested in a general population sample (GenPop; N = 465; AQ50-Adol parent report). The fit of the AQ28-Hoekstra-Adol parent report was tested in a broad autism sample (NAR N = 284). ...
... It has been argued that the conceptualization of autistic traits in five dimensions in the original AQ is not ideal. Various alternative factor structures have been proposed (Austin, 2005;English et al., 2020;Hoekstra et al., 2008;Kloosterman et al., 2011;Russell-Smith et al., 2011), and every alternative factor structure recommends a shorter version of the AQ (i.e., only including a subset of the 50 items). An abridged hierarchical version of the AQ-50, the AQ-28, appears to be more reliable (Hoekstra et al., 2011). ...
... The originally proposed five-factor structure of the AQ-50 is under debate, as it was not supported across various studies using principal components analysis (PCA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; Austin, 2005;Hoekstra et al., 2008;Hurst et al., 2007;Kloosterman et al., 2011). Numerous alternative factor structures with a reduced number of items have been proposed (Austin, 2005;Hoekstra et al., 2008;Kloosterman et al., 2011;Lau et al., 2013;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). This clearly indicates that some of the original items could be dropped without losing explanatory power and this might even improve the consistency of the scale. ...
... Differences in the AQ score (Freeth et al., 2013) might be a consequence of comparing traits that are incomparable (e.g., comparing an apple to an orange or autistic traits to social traits in general). The original five-factor structure of the AQ (Baron- Cohen et al., 2001) has been debated, and many alternative structures have been proposed (Austin, 2005;Hoekstra et al., 2011;Kloosterman et al., 2011;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). However, evaluation of the AQ factor structure in a non-Western context, especially in Malaysia, is scarce. ...
The overarching goal of this thesis is to examine how musical sophistication and/or specific dimension of musical sophistication are related to autistic traits, EF and quality of life in the general population. Chapters 2 and 3 focus on validating the AQ as the AQ was used throughout the studies of the thesis. Chapter 2 investigated whether language influences the response to the AQ among multilingual Malaysians. Specifically, participants’ responses to the AQ in their native language and English were compared. Chapter 3 examined the psychometric properties of an abridged version of the AQ (i.e., AQ-28) in the Dutch and Malaysian general population, and whether the autistic traits as measured by the AQ-28 are comparable between Dutch and Malaysian participants. Chapter 4 investigated if autistic traits would be associated with certain music preferences after controlling for other factors (e.g., age, gender, personality traits and musical ability) that are known to influence music preferences. Chapter 5 explored if listening to preferred music would improve the performance on EF tasks compared to relaxing music and silence and whether autistic traits and EDA are associated with the performance on EF tasks. The relationship between autistic traits, musical sophistication, EF, and quality of life was examined in Chapter 6. The current thesis demonstrates that greater musical sophistication is associated with better EF, and in turn, better quality of life. Active engagement in the form of music listening, however, does not seem to influence EF. Higher autistic traits are associated with poorer quality of life and a reduced preference for Contemporary music. Arousal seems not elevated in response to self-selected music and not associated with EF and autistic traits. Results concerning psychometric properties of AQ, music preference, personality and music listening on cognitive performance do not fully replicate previous findings from the Western contexts.
... However, there are competing models with regards to the consistency of the subscales of the AQ (e.g. Austin, 2005;Freeth et al., 2013;Hoekstra et al., 2008;Hoekstra et al., 2011;Kloosterman et al., 2011;Lau et al., 2013;Stewart & Austin, 2009;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). Factor analysis in Freeth et al. (2013) found different factor structures in the UK and Malaysian data; a fourfactor model in the UK population (social situation enjoyment, poor social communication, attention to detail, and imagination) and a fourfactor model in the Malaysian population (social situation enjoyment, good attention to detail and poor social communication, social awareness and attention to detail, and imagination); none of these factors (and their items) replicated the model proposed by . ...
... Further research conducted using confirmatory factor analysis on 11 competing AQ models supported the use of the three-factor model described by Russell-Smith et al. (2011) over all other models, including the five-factor model originally described in and the four-factor model described in Freeth et al. (2013) (English et al., 2020). Of the items analysed, the three-factor model ultimately only included about 28 out of the original 50 items. ...
... Of the items analysed, the three-factor model ultimately only included about 28 out of the original 50 items. The factors identified were 1) social skills, which included items specifically related to socialising preferences and social motivation 2) details/patterns, which included items relating to numbers, categories and patterns, and 3) communication/mindreading, which included items referring to ToM and social interactions (Russell-Smith et al., 2011). Furthermore, English et al. (2020) further went on to highlight that the use of total AQ scores was not suitable as there was large variability in the AQ subscales responsible for the total AQ scores, and had low internal reliability (Cronbach's α = .37 in the general population sample and .39 in the undergraduate sample) when using the three-factor model. ...
This thesis aimed to explore cross-cultural differences in autistic traits in the Malaysian and British general populations. Freeth et al. (2013) found that Malaysian members of the general population tend to score higher on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001) compared to British members of the general population, however, it is unclear whether these findings could reflect genuine cognitive differences or whether these findings are the result of a cultural bias in the questionnaires used. For the current research, I looked at each cognitive behaviour described by the subscales of the AQ in isolation to investigate these findings in detail. Chapter 2 focused on attention-switching on both self-reported measures (the AQ, the Social Responsiveness Scale and the Cognitive Flexibility Scale) and cognition through the use of switch tasks (the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task and the Gender-Emotion Switch Task). Chapter 3 investigated social skills and communication through Theory of Mind by looking at the AQ, an additional measure of culture, the Culture Orientation Scale, the Strange Stories Task and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task. Chapter 4 explored imagination, as captured through creativity, through self-reported autism traits (AQ) in conjunction with tasks measuring creativity (the Alternative Uses Task and a metaphor generation task). Chapter 5 examined attention to detail by looking at autism traits (AQ) along with the use of a visual search task and a face composite task. The overall findings of this study suggest that self-reported cultural differences in autism traits are partially reflected in cognition, particularly in the domains of attention-switching and social skills and communication. However, there are also strong indicators that the differences in self-reported autism traits between Malaysian and British members of the general population are partially the product of cultural biases embedded in the questionnaires and measures used.
... That is, different people could show identical AQ scores but have substantially different underlying factor scores. Based on our review, while some factor analytic studies have reported a pattern of mostly positive correlations between the identified AQ factors [e.g., Lau, Kelly, & Peterson, 2013 found significant, positive correlations between all five of their factors], other studies have reported at least one negative and/or non-significant correlation between AQ dimensions [Austin, 2005;Kloosterman et al., 2011;Lau, Gau, et al., 2013;Russell-Smith, Maybery, & Bayliss, 2011;Stewart & Austin, 2009], undermining the interpretability of total scale AQ scores. ...
... Inter-factor correlations were calculated separately for each model and sample. As outlined in Table 3, inter-factor correlations in the best-fitting three-factor Russell-Smith et al. [2011] model were consistent across both samples. However, the strength of the correlations varied, with positive correlations observed involving the Social Skill dimension, and an absence of correlation observed when the Social Skill dimension was not present (see Table 3). ...
... Specifically, whereas the Social Skill and Communication/Mindreading dimensions correlated at r ≈ 0.45, the Social Skill and Details/Patterns dimensions correlated at only r ≈ 0.10, and, importantly, the Communication/Mindreading and Details/Patterns dimensions were essentially uncorrelated. Correspondingly, based on the three-factor model described by Russell-Smith et al. [2011], we estimated the internal consistency of the total scale AQ scores at 0.39 and 0.37 for the undergraduate and general population samples, respectively, on the basis of the respective inter-subscale correlations, as recommended by Gignac [2014] for multidimensional scales. The variability in the associations between these dimensions suggests that the putative construct thought to underlie total scale AQ score is not as homogenous as originally believed, suggesting that substantial differences in the specific autistic trait dimension scores can be observed across people who have otherwise comparable total scale AQ scores. ...
The Autism‐Spectrum Quotient (AQ) is a psychometric scale that is commonly used to assess autistic‐like traits and behaviors expressed by neurotypical individuals. A potential strength of the AQ is that it provides subscale scores that are specific to certain dimensions associated with autism such as social difficulty and restricted interests. However, multiple psychometric evaluations of the AQ have led to substantial disagreement as to how many factors exist in the scale, and how these factors are defined. These challenges have been exacerbated by limitations in study designs, such as insufficient sample sizes as well as a reliance on Pearson, rather than polychoric, correlations. In addition, several proposed models of the AQ suggest that some factors are uncorrelated, or negatively correlated, which has ramifications for whether total‐scale scores are meaningfully interpretable—an issue not raised by previous work. The aims of the current study were to provide: (a) guidance as to which models of the AQ are viable for research purposes, and (b) evidence as to whether total‐scale scores are adequately interpretable for research purposes. We conducted a comprehensive series of confirmatory factor analyses on 11 competing AQ models using two large samples drawn from an undergraduate population ( n = 1,702) and the general population ( n = 1,280). Psychometric evidence largely supported using the three‐factor model described by Russell‐Smith et al. [Personality and Individual Differences 51(2), 128–132 (2011)], but did not support the use of total‐scale scores. We recommend that researchers consider using AQ subscale scores instead of total‐scale scores. Autism Res 2020, 13: 45–60 . © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Lay Summary
We examined 11 different ways of scoring subscales in the popular Autism‐Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire in two large samples of participants (i.e., general population and undergraduate students). We found that a three‐subscale model that used “Social Skill,” “Patterns/Details,” and “Communication/Mindreading” subscales was the best way to examine specific types of autistic traits in the AQ. We also found some weak associations between the three subscales—for example, being high on the “Patterns/Details” subscale was not predictive of scores on the other subscales. This means that meaningful interpretation of overall scores on the AQ is limited.
... Individual differences in autistic traits can be measured both in the typical population and in people with autism. In the broader autism phenotype in the typical population, three domains of autistic traits have been identified from several large factor analyses of the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Austin2005; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001;Hurst et al. 2007;Russell-Smith et al. 2011). The first two domains resemble the diagnostic criterion for Autism Spectrum Disorder of difficulty with social communication and social interaction. ...
... We measured the three domains of the AQ identified by Austin (2005), Hurst et al. (2007), and Russell-Smith et al. (2011). Given that cultural variation may affect item interpretation (Hurst et al. 2007), we used items for the three domains identified in an Australian sample (Russell-Smith et al. 2011). ...
... We measured the three domains of the AQ identified by Austin (2005), Hurst et al. (2007), and Russell-Smith et al. (2011). Given that cultural variation may affect item interpretation (Hurst et al. 2007), we used items for the three domains identified in an Australian sample (Russell-Smith et al. 2011). The domains consist of social skills (social skills; maximum score of 52), communication/mind reading (communication; maximum score of 32) and details/patterns (details and patterns; maximum score of 28). ...
Autistic people often show difficulty with facial expression recognition. However, the degree of difficulty varies widely, which might reflect varying symptom profiles. We examined three domains of autistic traits in the typical population and found that more autistic-like social skills were associated with greater difficulty labelling expressions, and more autistic-like communication was associated with greater difficulty labelling and perceptually discriminating between expressions. There were no associations with autistic-like attention to detail. We also found that labelling, but not perceptual, difficulty was mediated by alexithymia. We found no evidence that labelling or perceptual difficulty was mediated by weakened adaptive coding. Results suggest expression recognition varies between the sub-clinical expressions of autistic symptom domains and reflects both co-occurring alexithymia and perceptual difficulty.
... Blain, Peterman, & Park, 2016;Claridge & McDonald, 2009; Del Giudice, Angeleri, Brizio, & Elena, 2010;Rawlings & Locarnini, 2008;Rawlings, 2008;Russell-Smith, Maybery, & Bayliss, 2011;Sierro et al., 2016; Wainer, Ingersoll, & Hopwood, 2011; Wakabayashi,Baron-Cohen, & Ashwin, 2012) calculated simple correlations between measures of ASC and measures of schizotypal PD traits. All found moderate to large positive correlations between these measures. ...
... Some studies included in this review carried out further investigation into this diametric model beyond what is described above. These studies investigated areas as diverse as socio-sexual behaviour (Del Giudice et al., 2010, 2014), handedness and mental rotation (Dinsdale et al., 2013), or analysed results from questionnaires in more detail thancan be fully described here(Ford & Crewther, 2014;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). Findings were mixed, with some studies finding support for the diametric model(Del Giudice et al., 2010 Dinsdale et al., 2013) and some not(Ford & Crewther, 2014;Russell-Smith et al., 2011) ...
... These studies investigated areas as diverse as socio-sexual behaviour (Del Giudice et al., 2010, 2014), handedness and mental rotation (Dinsdale et al., 2013), or analysed results from questionnaires in more detail thancan be fully described here(Ford & Crewther, 2014;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). Findings were mixed, with some studies finding support for the diametric model(Del Giudice et al., 2010 Dinsdale et al., 2013) and some not(Ford & Crewther, 2014;Russell-Smith et al., 2011) ...
This thesis focuses on the relationship between autism spectrum condition (ASC) and homelessness. Part 1 is a systematic review of whether and how ASC overlaps with the personality disorders (PDs) schizoid PD and schizotypal PD. There was little evidence for the nature of the overlap between schizoid PD and ASC, but some studies did suggest that having ASC may be a risk factor for the development of this PD. There was more evidence for the relationship between schizotypal PD and ASC, with studies showing that overlap was minimal, although differentiating the conditions could be challenging. The findings informed decision making in the empirical study reported in part 2 of the thesis. Part 2 is a study into whether rates of ASC were raised in a homeless population. As there was no previous peer-reviewed research in this area the study aimed to begin to develop an evidence base. It did this by identifying what proportion of the homeless population studied presented with the full range of traits associated with ASC, rather than by seeking to make confirmed diagnoses. It found that a relatively high proportion did show strong evidence of ASC traits, which suggests that rates of this condition may be raised in this population and that further investigation is required. This was part of a joint study (Ryder, 2017) with Morag Ryder, trainee clinical psychologist also at University College London (UCL). Part 3 is a critical appraisal of the systematic review and empirical study. It discusses the dilemmas inherent in carrying out research into homelessness, where data collection is difficult and there are many risks to validity, and argues that despite this it was important to carry out the empirical study. It also details measures taken to increase the impact of the research and reflections on how this was carried out.
... Each participant completed the Autistic Spectrum Quotient (AQ: Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) and Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE: Mason et al., 2005) to measure autistic and schizotypal traits, respectively. Previous research has shown that the AQ and O-LIFE correlate positively in the general population, especially with respect to the social skills and introvertive anhedonia subscales that measure social behavior (Russell-Smith et al., 2011). We were, therefore, specifically interested not only in the overall scores but also in the subscales indicative of social behavior-the social skills subscale of the AQ and the introversion subscale of the O-LIFE-and the extent to which they were associated with individual differences in the magnitude of neural activity and neural synchronization in response to biological motion perception. ...
... Only traits relating to imagination and unusual experiences (homologous to positive schizotypal traits) were negatively correlated. These findings support previous theoretical and empirical work suggesting an intersection of features of autism and schizophrenia and related traits in the neurotypical population (Russell-Smith et al., 2011;Zhou et al., 2019;Isvoranu et al., 2021). The divergent pattern of autism-and schizotypy-dependent neural activity and synchronization in response to biological motion perception suggests that these traits reflect a phenotypic overlap with separate neural bases. ...
Difficulties in social interactions characterize both autism and schizophrenia, and are correlated in the neurotypical population. It is unknown whether this represents a shared etiology or superficial phenotypic overlap. Both conditions exhibit atypical neural activity in response to the perception of social stimuli and decreased neural synchronization between individuals. This study investigated if neural activity and neural synchronization associated with biological motion perception are differentially associated with autistic and schizotypal traits in the neurotypical population. Participants viewed naturalistic social interactions whilst hemodynamic brain activity was measured with fMRI, which was modelled against a continuous measure of the extent of biological motion. General Linear Model analysis revealed that biological motion perception was associated with neural activity across the action-observation network. However, inter-subject phase synchronization analysis revealed neural activity to be synchronized between individuals in occipital and parietal areas, but de-synchronized in temporal and frontal regions. Autistic traits were associated with decreased neural activity (precuneus, middle cingulate gyrus) and schizotypal traits were associated with decreased neural synchronization (middle and inferior frontal gyri). Biological motion perception elicits divergent patterns of neural activity and synchronization, which dissociate autistic and schizotypal traits in the general population, suggesting they originate from different neural mechanisms.
... Furthermore, total-scale scores for the AQ, BAPQ, and SRS-2 are often interpreted to be broad, general representations of autistic trait levels across individuals, but it is questionable how representative a single total-scale score can be when certain known trait dimensions are under-represented within the scales. Compounding this issue is evidence that certain trait dimensions are, at best, relatively weakly correlated [22][23][24][25][26][27][28], mimicking the heterogenous nature of autism. This means that elevated scores on one dimension cannot be used to infer similar levels on other dimensions, and further brings into question the interpretability of total-scale scores based on a subset of known trait dimensions (for a demonstration, Fig. 2 of English et al. [22] shows the subscale variability of 49 individuals with identical total-scale AQ scores). ...
... A description of the AQ can be found in the Study 2 materials. For this present study, items from the AQ that corresponded to the Social Skill and Communication factors identified in Russell-Smith [23] were administered to participants (in the order they appeared in the original AQ), and all other items were excluded. ...
Background
Traits and characteristics qualitatively similar to those seen in diagnosed autism spectrum disorder can be found to varying degrees in the general population. To measure these traits and facilitate their use in autism research, several questionnaires have been developed that provide broad measures of autistic traits [e.g. Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ), Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ)]. However, since their development, our understanding of autism has grown considerably, and it is arguable that existing measures do not provide an ideal representation of the trait dimensions currently associated with autism. Our aim was to create a new measure of autistic traits that reflects our current understanding of autism, the Comprehensive Autism Trait Inventory (CATI).
Methods
In Study 1, 107 pilot items were administered to 1119 individuals in the general population and exploratory factor analysis of responses used to create the 42-item CATI comprising six subscales: Social Interactions , Communication , Social Camouflage , Repetitive Behaviours , Cognitive Rigidity , and Sensory Sensitivity . In Study 2, the CATI was administered to 1068 new individuals and confirmatory factor analysis used to verify the factor structure. The AQ and BAPQ were administered to validate the CATI, and additional autistic participants were recruited to compare the predictive ability of the measures. In Study 3, to validate the CATI subscales, the CATI was administered to 195 new individuals along with existing valid measures qualitatively similar to each CATI subscale.
Results
The CATI showed convergent validity at both the total-scale ( r ≥ .79) and subscale level ( r ≥ .68). The CATI also showed superior internal reliability for total-scale scores ( α = .95) relative to the AQ ( α = .90) and BAPQ ( α = .94), consistently high reliability for subscales ( α > .81), greater predictive ability for classifying autism (Youden’s Index = .62 vs .56–.59), and demonstrated measurement invariance for sex.
Limitations
Analyses of predictive ability for classifying autism depended upon self-reported diagnosis or identification of autism. The autistic sample was not large enough to test measurement invariance of autism diagnosis.
Conclusions
The CATI is a reliable and economical new measure that provides observations across a wide range of trait dimensions associated with autism, potentially precluding the need to administer multiple measures, and to our knowledge, the CATI is also the first broad measure of autistic traits to have dedicated subscales for social camouflage and sensory sensitivity.
... A large, longitudinal study demonstrated that the greater the number of early autistic traits in children, the greater their likelihood of developing psychotic experiences in adolescence (Bevan Jones, Thapar, Lewis, & Zammit, 2012). Further, a large collection of studies conducted in university student populations has shown that self-reported autistic traits are positively associated with schizotypal traits (Dinsdale, Hurd, Wakabayashi, Elliot, & Crespi, 2013;Hurst, Nelson-Gray, Mitchell, & Kwapil, 2007;Mealey, Abbott, Byrne, & McGillivray, 2014;Russell-Smith, Maybery, & Bayliss, 2011;Sierro, Rossier, & Mohr, 2016;Wakabayashi, Baron-Cohen, & Ashwin, 2012). The strongest correlation has consistently been found in areas of social impairments and withdrawal. ...
... This interpretation is consistent with a number of different models of overlap between ASD and SSD, including the associated liabilities model, the increased vulnerability model and the multiple aetiologies model (Chisholm et al., 2015). In agreement with our findings, a number of studies have reported positive associations between autistic traits and positive psychotic traits or experiences, utilising a variety of measures of schizotypy (Bevan Jones et al., 2012;Hurst et al., 2007;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). However, other studies using principal component analyses have demonstrated an opposing relationship between positive psychotic traits and autistic traits (Dinsdale et al., 2013;Sierro et al., 2016). ...
Background
There is increasing interest in the clinical and aetiological overlap between autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia spectrum disorders, reported to co-occur at both diagnostic and trait levels. Individually, sub-clinical autistic and psychotic traits are associated with poor clinical outcomes, including increased depressive symptomatology, self-harming behaviour and suicidality. However, the implications when both traits co-occur remain poorly understood. The study aimed to (1) examine the relationship between autistic and psychotic traits and (2) determine if their co-occurrence increases depressive symptomatology, self-harm and suicidality.
Methods
Cross-sectional data from a self-selecting (online and poster advertising) sample of the adult UK population ( n = 653) were collected using an online survey. Validated self-report measures were used to assess sub-clinical autistic and psychotic traits, depressive symptomatology, self-harming behaviour and suicidality. Correlation and regression analyses were performed.
Results
A positive correlation between sub-clinical autistic and positive psychotic traits was confirmed ( r s = 0.509, p < 0.001). Overall, autistic traits and psychotic traits were, independently, significant predictors of depression, self-harm and suicidality. Intriguingly, however, depression was associated with a negative interaction between the autistic domain attention to detail and psychotic traits.
Conclusions
This study supports previous findings that sub-clinical autistic and psychotic traits are largely independently associated with depression, self-harm and suicidality, and is novel in finding that their combined presence has no additional effect on depression, self-harm or suicidality. These findings highlight the importance of considering both autistic and psychotic traits and their symptom domains in research and when developing population-based depression prevention and intervention strategies.
... Chisholm, Lin, Abu-Akel, & Wood, 2015). Likewise, autistic traits are correlated with various indicators of psychosis proneness in general population (Claridge & McDonald, 2009;Hurst et al., 2007;Russell-Smith, Bayliss, & Maybery, 2013;Russell-Smith, Maybery, & Bayliss, 2011). Given these findings, we expected the BAPQ-SF and the Delta 10 to show low to moderate correlation as an evidence of discriminant validity. ...
... Correlations of the similar size between the BAPQ and the AQ total scores were obtained by other authors Nishiyama et al., 2014). Low to moderate correlations between the BAPQ-SF and its subscales and the Delta 10 obtained in this study are in line with the results of previous studies on the relationship between autistic traits as measured by the AQ and psychosis proneness (Claridge & McDonald, 2009;Hurst et al., 2007;Russell-Smith et al., 2013;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). This provides evidence for discriminant validity of the BAPQ-SF. ...
Broad Autism Phenotype (BAP) represents a group of personality traits expressed in limitations in social relations and pragmatic speech dimension, and rigid behavior. The Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ) measures personality traits which are crucial in defining the BAP. In the present research, three studies were conducted with the general aim to create a short form of the BAPQ. Study 1 was carried out to determine the factor structure of the BAPQ in a sample of 501 students and to select items for the short form. Obtained components: Aloofness, Rigidity, and Pragmatics, corresponding to the structure of the instrument proposed by authors, accounted for 26.61% of variance. Study 2 was conducted to examine factor structure of the BAPQ short form (BAPQ-SF), in a sample of 298 students. This solution explained 45.76% of the total variance. The aim of Study 3 was to determine psychometric characteristics of the BAPQ-SF in a sample of students (N = 294). Three-factor model of the BAPQ-SF was confirmed. Correlations of the BAPQ-SF with the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the Delta 10 suggest convergent and discriminant validity of the BAPQ-SF.
... The widely used Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) was used to assess autistic traits in the general population. To specifically tap social difficulties, we focused on the "Social Skills" factor based on a four-factor solution (Russell-Smith et al., 2011), which includes 12-items such as "I enjoy social occasions" (negatively scored). Higher scores on this scale indicate greater social difficulties; hence, we refer to the social skills factor as autistic trait linked "social difficulties" to prevent confusion. ...
Research on individual differences in face recognition has provided important foundational insights: their broad range, cognitive specificity, strong heritability, and resilience to change. Elusive, however, has been the key issue of practical relevance: do these individual differences correlate with aspects of life that go beyond the recognition of faces, per se? Though often assumed, especially in social realms, such correlates remain largely theoretical, without empirical support. Here, we investigate an array of potential social correlates of face recognition. We establish social relationship quality as a reproducible correlate. This link generalises across face recognition tasks and across independent samples. In contrast, we detect no robust association with the sheer quantity of social connections, whether measured directly via number of social contacts or indirectly via extraversion-related personality indices. These findings document the existence of a key social correlate of face recognition and provide some of the first evidence to support its practical relevance. At the same time, they challenge the naive assumption that face recognition relates equally to all social outcomes. In contrast, they suggest a focused link of face recognition to the quality, not quantity, of one’s social connections.
... A third possible explanation is that specific autistic trait dimensions are linked to Mooney face processing ability and not others. Walker et al. (2023) examined this possibility to some degree in their study, as they looked at the relationship between face detection accuracy on the 3AFC task and social skills, communication, and attention-to-details Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) subscale scores as defined by Russell-Smith et al. (2011). While the authors found no direct associations between the subscales examined and face detection accuracy, an indirect relationship was reported where greater communication difficulties were linked to poorer face identification accuracy via general figure closure performance. ...
Difficulties in global face processing have been associated with autism. However, autism is heterogenous, and it is not known which dimensions of autistic traits are implicated in face-processing difficulties. To address this gap in knowledge, we conducted two experiments to examine how identification of Mooney face stimuli (stylized, black-and-white images of faces without details) related to the six subscales of the Comprehensive Autistic Trait Inventory in young adults. In Experiment 1, regression analyses indicated that participants with poorer communication skills had lower task sensitivity when discriminating between face-present and face-absent images, whilst other autistic traits had no unique predictive value. Experiment 2 replicated these findings and additionally showed that autistic traits were linked to a reduced face inversion effect. Taken together, these results indicate autistic traits, especially communication difficulties, are associated with reduced configural processing of face stimuli. It follows that both reduced sensitivity for identifying upright faces amongst similar-looking distractors and reduced susceptibility to face inversion effects may be linked to relatively decreased reliance on configural processing of faces in autism. This study also reinforces the need to consider the different facets of autism independently.
... As hypothesised, schizotypy were strongly positively related to AQ. The association between the two subclinical samples is consistent with studies identifying a relationship between the total count of schizotypy and AQ traits (Dinsdale et al., 2013;Hurst et al., 2007;Nenadić et al., 2021;Russell-Smith et al., 2011), with recent findings reporting the presence of ASD traits in schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD) (Barlati et al., 2019;Deste et al., 2021), and shared symptoms between diagnosed schizophrenia and ASD patients (Eack et al., 2013a;King & Lord, 2011;Pinkham et al., 2020). We also found positive relationships between specific factors of each subclinical population. ...
... Higher scores indicate more pronounced RRBs. The 13 items measuring social difficulties identified by Russell-Smith et al. (2011) from the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) assessed the participants' social differences. Higher scores indicate more social differences. ...
Individuals exhibiting pronounced autistic traits (e.g., social differences and specialised interests) may struggle with cognitive empathy (i.e., the ability to infer others' emotions), although the relationship with affective empathy (i.e., the ability to share others' emotions) is less clear in that higher levels of autistic traits may be linked with increased affective empathy for negative emotions but reduced affective empathy for positive emotions. The current study investigates this empathy profile and whether alexithymia and emotion dysregulation help to explain it. Results from 322 university students' questionnaire responses suggested that more pronounced autistic traits were linked to reduced cognitive empathy and affective empathy for positive emotions but increased affective empathy for negative emotions. Alexithymia and emotion dysregulation helped to explain the reduced cognitive empathy and the increased affective empathy for negative emotions. However, neither explained the reduced affective empathy for positive emotions. Finally, gender-moderated relationships suggest different empathy presentations across males and females. The results support the valence-specific empathy imbalance hypothesis of autism and highlight the critical roles of co-occurring alexithymia and emotion dysregulation.
... Although the findings from Study 1 might imply that the positive correlation between autistic and BPD traits can be explained by both being strongly associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression, Study 2 suggests a more nuanced approach should be taken. Whereas Study 1 examined autistic traits only in terms of total AQ score, Study 2 additionally examined subscales (Social Skills, Details/Patterns, and Communication/Mindreading) derived from the three-factor model of AQ identified by Russell-Smith et al. (2011). Importantly, this model has accrued more empirical support than the myriad alternatives reported in the literature (English et al., 2020). ...
Co-occurrence of autism and borderline personality disorder (BPD) has been reported and may be more prevalent in women than men. However, the association between these conditions remains poorly understood, as does that between traits found throughout the general population. We present two studies which measured self-reported autistic traits (Autism Spectrum Quotient [AQ]) and BPD traits (McLean Screening Instrument for Borderline Personality Disorder [MSI-BPD]) in UK (N = 695) and US (N = 700) adults. As predicted, autistic and BPD traits correlated positively in both samples. However, there were no significant sex differences in the correlation strength. In the UK sample, the association between autistic traits (AQ total score) and BPD traits was no longer significant once current anxiety and depression symptoms (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [HADS]) were controlled for. However, AQ subscales for Details/Patterns and Communication/Mindreading (but not Social Skills) remained significantly associated with MSI-BPD scores in the US sample. Our findings suggest that an overrepresentation of autistic women in patient populations with BPD may not be explained by traits of these conditions co-occurring to a greater degree in women than men. They also suggest that although both conditions are associated with elevated levels of anxiety and depression, BPD traits remain independently associated with specific domains of autistic traits.
... The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) is a 50-item self-report scale assessing autistic traits in adults. We used the three-factor solution identified by Russell-Smith et al. (2011;as recommended by English et al., 2020): (1) social difficulties, (2) communication difficulties, and (3) attention to details. Participants respond on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from Definitely Agree (1) to Definitely Disagree (4). Higher scores indicate more significant difficulties in social skills or communication or greater attention to detail. ...
The Repetitive Behaviours Questionnaire for Adults (RBQ-2A) measures two factors of restricted and repetitive behaviours (RRBs) associated with autism. However, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) provides four criteria for RRBs: repetitive motor behaviours, insistence on sameness, restricted interests, and interest in sensory aspects of the environment (or atypical sensitivity). The current paper aimed to examine whether the RBQ-2A is a psychometrically sound measure of these four factors. Study 1 had university students (N = 368) complete the RBQ-2A and other related measures online and revealed that the RBQ-2A can assess the factors highlighted in the DSM-5 and that these four factors comprise a general RRB construct. Study 2 had individuals disclosing a diagnosis of autism (N = 283) complete the RBQ-2A and other related measures online and supported that this four-factor structure provided good psychometric properties. While the current paper provides findings for an online autistic population, further research is needed to generalize these findings to autistic individuals less likely to partake in online studies (e.g., those with intellectual or language disabilities). Overall, the results suggest that the RBQ-2A reliably and validly assesses RRBs.
... One of the most common measures of trait-autism is the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; . The 28-item version (Russell-Smith et al., 2011) of the AQ measures three dimensions: (1) communication; (2) social; and (3) attention to detail-aligning with the symptom clusters of clinical diagnosis of autism. Example items from each respective dimension include: "I find it difficult to work out people's intentions", "I would rather go to a library than a party", and ''I notice patterns in things all the time". ...
Little research has examined the association between general figure closure speed, a stratum I ability within the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence, and face-specific closure ability; an important consideration, as some research suggests face processing is independent of other abilities. Additionally, figure closure ability (general and face) may correlate negatively with trait-autism, due to theorised autism-related difficulties in global processing. Therefore, in addition to developing a psychometrically robust short-form Mooney face detection task, we administered the Gestalt Figure Completion Test and the Autism Spectrum Quotient to a sample of 263 general community adults. We found convergent validity between face-specific and general figure closure ability (r = .44, 95%CI:[.30, .58]). Furthermore, based on a latent variable model, general figure closure ability was directly, and face-specific figure closure ability indirectly, negatively associated with trait-autism (i.e., nonverbal communication). We conclude that face detection ability evidences convergent validity with general figure closure ability and can be measured reliably in less than four minutes. Finally, a general, rather than face-specific, figure closure process may tap more directly into autism-like nonverbal communication ability, supporting the notion that global processing abilities of non-face objects may better reflect the requirements to ‘fill in the gaps’ in social contexts.
... Numerous alternative factor structures with a reduced number of items have been proposed (e.g. Austin, 2005;Hoekstra et al., 2008;Kloosterman et al., 2011;Lau et al., 2013;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). This clearly indicates that some of the original items could be dropped without losing explanatory power and this might even improve the consistency of the scale. ...
Despite several psychometric advantages over the 50-item Autism Spectrum Quotient, an instrument used to measure autistic traits, the abridged AQ-28 and its cross-cultural validity have not been examined as extensively. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the factor structure and measurement invariance of the AQ-28 in 818 Dutch (Mage = 37.4, 581 females, 233 males, 4 others) and 437 Malaysian (Mage = 23.0, 328 females, 99 males, 10 others) participants from the general population. The hierarchical structure of the AQ-28 showed fair and good fit in Malaysia and in the Netherlands, respectively. A multi-group invariance analysis supported that the AQ-28 is cross-culturally invariant. Malaysians (M = 68.63, SD = 8.33) scored significantly higher than Dutch participants (M = 51.48, SD = 10.30) on the AQ-28 while gender was controlled for. While the measurement invariance suggests that the AQ-28 functions similarly in Malaysia and the Netherlands in terms of structure, exploratory analyses showed 11 items with differential item functioning. Hence, while the AQ-28 possesses a stable factor structure and appears to measure the same latent traits in Malaysia and the Netherlands, some items potentially display cultural bias which, in turn, might explain the differences in AQ scores.
Lay abstract
The AQ-28 is a questionnaire measuring autistic traits, that is, traits that are related to Autism Spectrum Conditions, but its reliability in other cultures has not been thoroughly evaluated. We, therefore, tested whether the properties of the AQ-28 are comparable between two countries with different cultures, Malaysia and the Netherlands. A total of 437 Malaysian and 818 Dutch participants completed the AQ-28 online. We measured whether the AQ-28 measures autistic traits similarly in Malaysia and the Netherlands. The AQ-28 measures autistic traits similarly, and the reliability was acceptable and good in the general population of Malaysia and the Netherlands, respectively. However, Malaysians scored higher than Dutch participants. Moreover, 11 AQ-28 items showed cultural bias, indicating that these items are answered/interpreted differently in Malaysia and the Netherlands. Cross-cultural differences in interpreting, reporting, and/or expressing autistic traits highlighted in this study could potentially explain why some items are culturally biased and why Malaysians score higher on these items. The findings of this work imply that cutoff scores derived from one culture should not be generalised to another culture. Moreover, the findings are informative for future development of culturally neutral or appropriate screening and diagnostic tools for autism.
... However, the subscales were theoretically derived without statistical confirmation, and subsequent empirical research has indicated that the fit of this factor structure is poor (e.g., Austin, 2005;Kloosterman et al., 2011). To date, 12 measurement models have been proposed by researchers (Austin, 2005;Baron-Cohen et al., 2001;Freeth et al., 2013;Hoekstra et al., 2008Hoekstra et al., , 2011Kloosterman et al., 2011;Lau, Gau, et al., 2013;Lau, Kelly, & Peterson, 2013;Leth-Steensen et al., 2021;Russell-Smith et al., 2011;Stewart & Austin, 2009). As summarized by English et al. (2020), the different factors proposed five broad categories: (a) social; (b) communication; (c) attention, patterns, and details; (d) imagination; and (e) repetitive behavior and routines. ...
The Autism‐Spectrum Quotient (AQ) is a popular instrument used to assess the degree to which individuals exhibit features of autism spectrum conditions (ASC). The current study aimed to develop a theory‐driven factor structure of the AQ that would fit as well across samples as the 12 previously proposed factor structures, all of which, except for the original Baron‐Cohen model, had been developed on the basis of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) or principal component analysis. We first proposed a six‐factor solution: (1) social anhedonia; (2) interest in details/patterns; (3) imagination ability; (4) desire for predictability/routine; (5) social cognition; and (6) social discourse convention. We tested the six‐factor structure and made final item selections (27 items) with EFA using data from college students ( n = 503). Then, we empirically tested alternative factor structure models in three other independent samples ( n s = 503; 1263; 1641) using confirmatory factor analysis. Results indicated that our model fit as well, if not better, than all of the other models across samples, regardless of parameter estimation methods and software packages. Overall, the theory‐driven replicable six‐factor structure that we report holds the potential to be used to measure the six domains of features that we identified in the AQ.
Lay Summary
Questionnaire measures of autism spectrum conditions have typically been used to measure approximately four broad dimensions. Our study suggests that the Autism‐Spectrum Quotient can be used to measure six more narrowly defined dimensions: social anhedonia, interest in details/patterns, imagination ability, desire for predictability/routine, social cognition, and social discourse convention. Additional work is needed to develop measures of a much wider variety of autism spectrum features.
... Since the development of the AQ-50, several studies have empirically tested alternative models with the purpose of enhancing psychometric properties. A recent comprehensive analysis of various proposed factor structures found the most support for the three-factor structure proposed by Russell-Smith et al. (2011) (English et al., 2019). Based on findings from this analysis, the present study utilized this model which consists of a 28-item version of the AQ comprising three domains of ASD-related deficits: social skills, details/patterns, and communication/mindreading (Russel-Smith et al., 2011). ...
The present study explored the relationship between biological motion (BioM) processing, motor skills, and autistic traits within a non-clinical sample of 621 adults (18–73 years, 51.8% female). Results indicated that adults with greater autistic traits also endorsed difficulties associated with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in childhood and adulthood. Traits associated with autism spectrum disorder and DCD were predictive of BioM processing abilities. The results also revealed sex differences in DCD, autistic traits, and BioM processing. Overall, these findings suggest that adults with greater autistic traits experience both deficits in motor activities as well as underlying motor perceptual abilities.
... to previous English language versions (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001;Mason, Linney, & Claridge, 2005). Previous research has shown that the AQ and OLIFE correlate positively in the general population, especially with respect to the social skills and introvertive anhedonia sub-scales that measure social behavior (Russell-Smith, Bayliss, & Maybery, 2011). ...
Difficulties in social interactions are common to both autism and schizophrenia, and contribute to correlated autistic and schizotypal traits in the neurotypical population. It remains unresolved whether this represents a shared etiology or a superficial phenotypic overlap. Both conditions are associated with atypical neural activity in response to the perception of social stimuli, and also decreased neural synchronization between individuals that may prohibit establishing shared experiences. This study sought to establish if neural activity and neural synchronization associated with biological motion perception are differentially associated with autistic and schizotypal traits in the neurotypical population. Participants watched an audiovisual montage of naturalistic social interactions whilst hemodynamic brain activity was measured with fMRI. A separate sample of participants provided a continuous measure of the extent of biological motion, which was used to predict hemodynamic activity. General Linear Model analysis revealed that biological motion perception was associated with neural activity across the action-observation network. However, inter-subject phase synchronization analysis revealed that neural activity synchronized between individuals in occipital and parietal areas, but de-synchronized in temporal and frontal regions. Autistic traits were associated with a decrease in neural activity (precuneus, middle cingulate gyrus) and schizotypal traits were associated with a decrease in neural synchronization (middle and inferior frontal gyri). Biological motion perception elicits convergent and divergent patterns of neural activity and neural synchronization, and are differentially associated with shared traits related with autism and schizophrenia in the general population, suggesting that they originate from different neural mechanisms.
... Growing data are revealing dissociations between social and non-social domains in autism and neurotypical people 8,[30][31][32][33] , strengthening the view that a continuity exists between autism and autistic traits in the general population 7,34,35 . In a study exploring whether social or non-social autistic traits relate to figure disembedding ability, Russell-Smith et al. 11 used the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ 7 ) and applied a two-factor model of the measure to differentiate social traits ("social difficulties") and non-social traits ("details/patterns") 36 . Results showed that superior performance in figure disembedding was related to greater social traits. ...
Recent data has revealed dissociations between social and non-social skills in both autistic and neurotypical populations. In the present study, we investigated whether specific visuospatial abilities, such as figure disembedding and mental rotation, are differently related to social and non-social autistic traits, in neurotypical women and men. University students (N = 426) completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), figure disembedding and mental rotation of two-dimensional figures tasks. AQ social skills (AQ-social) and attention-to-details (AQ-attention) subscales were used as measures of social and non-social autistic traits, respectively. Mental rotation was affected by a significant interaction between sex, social and non-social traits. When non-social traits were above the mean (+ 1 SD), no sex differences in mental rotation were found. Instead, below this value, sex differences depended on the social traits, with men on average outperforming women at middle-to-high social traits, and with a comparable performance, and with women on average outperforming men, at lower social traits. A small positive correlation between figure disembedding and social traits was observed in the overall sample. These results are interpreted in terms of the hyper-systemizing theory of autism and contribute to the evidence of individual differences in the cognitive style of autistic people and neurotypical people with autistic traits.
... While we used the same AQ sub-scores as previous studies on the association between synesthesia and autistic traits, the internal consistency of the Attention to Details domain was relatively low. Using an alternative 3-factor subdivision of the AQ (according to Russell-Smith, Maybery, & Bayliss, 2011), results pointed into the same direction but fell below significance (see Supplementary Table S6). Reasons why the association between Details/Patterns and the degree of synesthesia was not significant could be the reduction in power, induced by testing three instead of two sub-scales and due to fewer AQ items being included in this sub-scale than in the Attention to Details sub-scale suggested by Hoekstra et al. (2008) (for a comparison between this 3-factor solution and the 2-factor sub-division used in the main analysis, please see Supplementary Material, section 4 "Alternative AQ subscales"). ...
Synesthesia occurs more commonly in individuals fulfilling criteria for an autism spectrum diagnosis than in the general population. It is associated with autistic traits and autism-related perceptual processing characteristics, including a more detail-focused attentional style and altered sensory sensitivity. In addition, these characteristics correlate with the degree of grapheme-color synesthesia (consistency of grapheme-color associations) in non-synesthetes.
We investigated a predominantly non-synesthetic twin sample, including individuals fulfilling criteria for an autism spectrum diagnosis or other neurodevelopmental disorders (n=65, 14-34 years, 60% female). We modelled linear relationships between the degree of grapheme-color synesthesia and autistic traits, sensory sensitivity, and visual perception, both within-twin pairs (22 pairs) where all factors shared by twins are implicitly controlled (including 50-100% genetics), and across the entire cohort.
We found that the degree of grapheme-color synesthesia was associated with autistic traits within the domain of detail-focus and with sensory hyper-, but not hypo-sensitivity. These associations were stronger within-twin pairs than across the sample. Further, twins with a higher degree of grapheme-color synesthesia were better than their co-twins at identifying fragmented images (Fragmented Pictures Test).
This is the first twin study on the association between synesthesia and autism-related perceptual features and traits. The results suggest that investigating these associations within-twin pairs, implicitly adjusting for potential confounding factors shared by twins, is more sensitive than doing so in non-related individuals. Consistent with previous findings, the results suggest an association between the degree of grapheme-color synesthesia and autism-related perceptual features, while utilizing a different measure for sensory sensitivity. The novel finding of enhanced fragmented picture integration in twins with a higher degree of grapheme-color synesthesia challenges the view of a generally more detail-focused attentional style in synesthesia and might be related to enhanced memory or mental imagery in more synesthetic individuals.
... However, different AQ factor models have been proposed. Recently, English et al. (2020) performed confirmatory factor analyses across competing factor models of the AQ and results strongly supported Russell-Smith et al.'s (2011) model differentiating three factors: social skill, details/patterns, and communication/mindreading. For these reasons, future studies should assess anxiety and depression symptoms relating to different autistic traits by relying upon AQ structures as the three-factor model (Russell-Smith et al., 2011). ...
Anxiety sensitivity (AS) is implicated in the development and maintenance of several psychopathological conditions. Non-clinical individuals with high autistic traits may develop anxiety disorders and depressive symptoms. Here, we investigated the relationships of autistic traits with AS dimensions and depression, considering sex. We referred to the two-factor model of the autism spectrum quotient to distinguish social and non-social autistic traits and assessed 345 university students on AS and depression scales. Results showed that only social autistic traits predicted general AS and anxiety-related concerns regarding social and cognitive domains. The present results emphasize the need of assessing multiple domains of anxiety in individuals on the autistic spectrum, differentiating social and non-social traits.
... Thus, the AQ-which was originally designed for assessing autism in adults with typicalrange IQs-comprises five content-domains and five factors: Social Skills, Attention Switching, Attention to Detail, Communication, and Imagination ( Baron-Cohen et al., 2001). In spite of contradictory data in the literature, some studies have supported the clustering of the five subscales into a three-factor model: Social skills, Details/patterns, and Communication/mindreading (English et al., 2019;Hurst et al., 2007;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). Similarly, the second adult version of the SRS (SRS-2) measures autism in adults with typical development and includes five subscales: Social Awareness, Social Cognition, Social Communication, Social Motivation, and Restrictive and Repetitive Behaviors (Bruni, 2014;Constantino & Gruber, 2012). ...
Although, the operationalization of the autism spectrum disorder has been updated around two domains, the broad autism phenotype (BAP) one has not. Additionally, the items of the three common BAP measures, the Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ), the Autism Quotient, and the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), remain organized around a non-consensual number of factors. We explored whether the items of these measures matched with the two-domain operationalization through a parallel analysis, which has suggested two main components, and two expert judgments which have assessed item wording, relevance, and construct representativeness. A remaining pool of 48 BAP-relevant items suggested a possible under-representation of two subdomains. Despite the relevance of all the BAPQ items, only the SRS ones tapped in all subdomains.
... : Seven hundred and sixty participants (438 women, mean age=21.08 years, SD=2.78 range [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]) were included in the study. The reliability of the dichotomically scored data were found to be low (α=0.589, ...
Amaç: Otizm spektrum bozuklukları (OSB) toplumsal etkileşimde bozulma ve buna ek olarak yineleyici hareketlerle karakterize nörogelişimsel bozukluklardır. Otistik özellikler, OSB'li bireylerdeki semptomlara benzer, fakat eşik altı düzeyde görülür. OSB'nin spektrum özelliğine benzer şekilde, otistik özellikler genel popülasyonda dağılım gösterir. Otistik özellikleri ölçmek için Türkçeye kazandırılan tek anket Otizm Spektrum Anketidir (OSA). Çalışmalarda üniversite öğrencilerinden oluşan popülasyonlar kullanılmakla beraber OSA'nın bu popülasyonda güvenirlik katsayıları yetersizdir. Çalışmanın amacı üniversite öğrencilerinde OSA'nın güvenirliğinin incelenmesidir. Gereç ve Yöntemler: Çalışmaya 18-30 yaş arası lisans ve yüksek lisans öğrencileri dahil edilmiştir. Anket katılımcılara sınıflarda yüz yüze, kâğıt üzerinde uygulanmıştır. OSA, toplam 50 sorudan oluşmaktadır ve dörtlü Likert tipte yanıtlanmaktadır. Çalışmada anketin güvenirliği klasik yaklaşım olan dikotomik puanlama ve buna alternatif olacak şekilde Likert puanlama ile incelenmiştir. Güvenirliğin değerlendirilmesi için alfa katsayısı, Spearman-Brown katsayısı ve maddelerin anketin tümü ile uyumunun irdelenmesi için madde-bütün korelasyonları incelenmiştir. Bulgular: Yedi yüz altmış katılımcı (438 kadın, ortalama yaş=21,08 yıl, standart sapma [SS]=2,78 aralık [18-30]) çalışmaya dahil olmuştur. Dikotomik olarak puanlanan verilerin güvenirliği düşük bulunmuştur (α=0,589, rsb=0,580). Likert puanlama türünde alfa katsayısı ve Spearman-Brown katsayısı daha yüksek olmakla beraber yeterli değildir (α=0,678, rsb=0,642). Madde-bütün korelasyonu analizinde katsayıları düşük olan 13 maddenin çıkarılması ile güvenirlik katsayılarının kabul edilebilir düzeye ulaşmıştır (α=0,789, rsb=0,746). Sonuç: Çalışmamızda, üniversite öğrencilerinde OSA'nın güvenirliğinin yetersiz olduğu gösterilmiştir. Buna alternatif olarak 13 maddenin dışlanması ile oluşan revize anket (OSA-R) önerilmiştir. Üniversite öğrencilerinin katılımı ile gerçekleştirilen çalışmalarda hedef popülasyona yönelik olarak düzenlenen ve güvenirliği kabul edilebilir düzeyde olan OSA-R kullanılabilir.
... Regarding schizotypal and autistic traits, the disorganized and interpersonal features of schizotypy seem to be most closely related to autistic traits (Spek & Wouters, 2010;Kanai et al., 2011;Barneveld et al., 2011;Wakabayashi et al., 2012). Indeed, there exists evidence of a psychometric similarity between the AQ and SPQ-BR scales, with most overlap existing between the AQ social-communication subscales and the SPQ interpersonal (negative) ones (Hurst et al., 2007;Spek and Wouters, 2010;Wakabayashi et al., 2012;Russell-Smith et al., 2011). Such psychometric overlap can be indicative of phenotypic similarities between these traits. ...
Substantial overlap exists between schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders, with part of that overlap hypothesised to be due to comorbid social anxiety. The current paper investigates the interactions and factor structure of these disorders at a personality trait level, through the lens of a network model. The items of the Autism Quotient (AQ), Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire Brief-Revised (SPQ-BR), and the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (L-SAS) were combined and completed by 345 members of the general adult population. An Exploratory Graph Analysis (EGA) on the AQ-SPQ-BR combined inventory revealed two communities (factors), which reflected the general autism and schizotypal phenotypes. An additional EGA on all inventories validated the AQ-SPQ-BR factor structure and revealed another community, Social Anxiety (L-SAS). A Network Analysis (NA) on all inventories revealed several moderately central subscales, which collectively reflected the social-interpersonal impairments of the three disorders. The current results suggest that a combination of recent network- and traditional factor-analytic techniques may present a fruitful approach to understanding the underlying structure as well as relation of different psychopathologies.
... The AQ has good test-retest reliability and validity (Austin, 2005;Baron-Cohen et al., 2001;Ruzich et al., 2015), with scores ranging from 0 to 50. The cut-offs for low and high scores employed in the current study are comparable to those used in previous studies (Jackson et al., 2013;Russell-Smith, Maybery, & Bayliss, 2011). ...
Reports linking prenatal testosterone exposure to autistic traits and to a masculinized face structure have motivated research investigating whether autism is associated with facial masculinization. This association has been reported with greater consistency for females than for males, in studies comparing groups with high and low levels of autistic traits. In the present study, we conducted two experiments to examine facial masculinity/femininity in 151 neurotypical adults selected for either low, mid-range, or high levels of autistic traits. In the first experiment, their three-dimensional facial photographs were subjectively rated by 41 raters for masculinity/ femininity and were objectively analysed. In the second experiment, we generated 6-face composite images, which were rated by another 36 raters. Across both experiments, findings were consistent for ratings of photographs and composite images. For females, a linear relationship was observed where femininity ratings decreased as a function of higher levels of autistic traits. For males, we found a U-shaped function where males with mid-range levels of traits were rated lowest on masculinity. Objective facial analyses revealed that higher levels of autistic traits were associated with less feminine facial structures in females and less masculine structures in males. These results suggest sex-specific relationships between autistic traits and facial masculinity/femininity.
... That hypothesis emerges from several neuropsychological and psychometric evidences: both spectra are characterized by reduced performances across a range of social-cognitive abilities, including theory of mind and emotion recognition, as well as corresponding impairments in overall social functioning. Psychometric tools as the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) [47] and the Schizotypy Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) [48] showed, in different studies conducted on both clinical and nonclinical populations, a strong positive association between the two tests scores [41,49,50], especially between negative schizotypy and AQ social skills, and between disorganized schizotypy and AQ communication. According to this model, the authors interpreted these trait associations as indicating that autism and schizoidschizotypy conditions may overlap on a single spectrum, rather than existing as two distinct nosologic entities as currently implied by DSM categories. ...
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in adolescence and adulthood is frequently difficult to discriminate from personality disorders (PD), a group of conditions that could present with similar symptomatology. For instance, PD belonging to cluster A (i.e., schizoid or schizotypal) share with high-functioning ASD the presence of odd behaviors and social withdrawal, while cluster B PD may present dysregulation in emotional expressivity, as well as self-injurious behaviors (i.e., borderline) and empathic behaviors (i.e., antisocial); finally, cluster C PD may again share a certain level of social avoidance (i.e., avoidant PD) or sameness (i.e., obsessive-compulsive PD). The assessment of PD in the low-functioning part of the spectrum may be even more difficult and few tools are available for their identification. Literature also reports that PD can be present also in comorbidity with ASD. In conclusion, during ASD assessment in adulthood it is always important to consider PD, both for differential diagnosis and for better treatment planning.
... These hypotheses were not confirmed. Instead, in line with what was found by Russell-Smith, Maybery, and Bayliss (2011), O-LIFE and AQ scores were positively correlated with each other and unrelated to the strength of the illusion. As noted in the introduction, some recent reports have failed to find clear correlations between the strength of illusions and clinical conditions, for instance, schizophrenia and schizotypy ( Grzeczkowski et al., 2017Grzeczkowski et al., , 2018. ...
There are situations in which what is perceived in central vision is different to what is perceived in the periphery, even though the stimulus display is uniform. Here, we studied two cases, known as the Extinction illusion and the Honeycomb illusion, involving small disks and lines, respectively, presented over a large extent of the visual field. Disks and lines are visible in the periphery on their own, but they become invisible when they are presented as part of a pattern (grid). Observers (N = 56) adjusted a circular probe to report the size of the region in which they had seen the lines or the disks. Different images had black or white lines/disks, and we included control stimuli in which these features were spatially separated from the regular grid of squares. We confirmed that the illusion was experienced by the majority of observers and is dependent on the interaction between the elements (i.e., the lines/disks have to be near the squares). We found a dissociation between the two illusions in the dependence on contrast polarity suggesting different mechanisms. We analysed the variability between individuals with respect to schizotypical and autistic-spectrum traits (short version of the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences [O-LIFE] questionnaire and the Autistic Quotient, respectively) but found no significant relationships. We discuss how illusions relative to what observers are aware of in the periphery may offer a unique tool to study visual awareness.
... Self-report measures of negative schizotypy have been used to index anhedonia in many studies concerning those with autism (133)(134)(135)(136)(137)(138). For example, Rawlings and Locarnini (133) showed that scores on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (139) (measuring autistic traits) and the Introvertive Anhedonia subscale of the O-LIFE (140) were positively correlated, indicating a substantial association between autistic traits and social anhedonia in the general community. ...
Humans are highly social beings, yet people with social anhedonia experience reduced interest in or reward from social situations. Social anhedonia is a key facet of schizotypal personality, an important symptom of schizophrenia, and increasingly recognized as an important feature in a range of other psychological disorders. However, to date, there has been little examination of the similarities and differences in social anhedonia across diagnostic borders. Here, our goal was to conduct a selective review of social anhedonia in different psychological and life course contexts, including the psychosis continuum, depressive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, and autism spectrum disorders, along with developmental and neurobiological factors. Current evidence suggests that the nature and expression of social anhedonia vary across psychological disorders with some groups showing deficient learning about, enjoyment from, and anticipation of the pleasurable aspects of social interactions, while for others, some of these components appear to remain intact. However, study designs and methodologies are diverse, the roles of developmental and neurobiological factors are not routinely considered, and direct comparisons between diagnostic groups are rare—which prevents a more nuanced understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved. Future studies, parsing the wanting, liking, and learning components of social reward, will help to fill gaps in the current knowledge base. Consistent across disorders is diminished pleasure from social situations, subsequent withdrawal, and poorer social functioning in those who express social anhedonia. Nonetheless, feelings of loneliness often remain, which suggests the need for social connection is not entirely absent. Adolescence is a particularly important period of social and neural development and may provide a valuable window on the developmental origins of social anhedonia. Adaptive social functioning is key to recovery from mental health disorders; therefore, understanding the intricacies of social anhedonia will help to inform treatment and prevention strategies for a range of diagnostic categories.
... For the full AQ, a confirmatory factor analysis approach showed that a hierarchical structure fits best, with two main dimensions, social interaction, and attention to detail, of which the former is subdivided into four further dimensions (Hoekstra et al., 2008). Exploratory factor analyses showed that three to five dimensions may be necessary to accurately describe the structure of the AQ (Austin, 2005;Freeth, Sheppard, Ramachandran, & Milne, 2013;Kloosterman, Keefer, Kelley, Summerfeldt, & Parker, 2011;, Lau, Kelly, & Peterson, 2013Russell-Smith, Maybery, & Bayliss, 2011;Stewart & Austin, 2009). Because of their exploratory nature, these models may be overfitting the data, and not all items are included in the factor solutions. ...
The Autism Spectrum Quotient is a widely used instrument for the detection of autistic traits. However, the validity of comparisons of Autism Spectrum Quotient scores between groups may be threatened by differential item functioning. Differential item functioning entails a bias in items, where participants with equal values of the latent trait give different answers because of their group membership. In this article, items of the Autism Spectrum Quotient were studied for differential item functioning between different groups within a single sample ( N = 408). Three analyses were conducted. First, using a Rasch mixture model, two latent groups were detected that show differential item functioning. Second, using a Rasch regression tree model, four groups were found that show differential item functioning: men without autism, women without autism, people 50 years and younger with autism, and people older than 50 years with autism. Third, using traditional methods, differential item functioning was detected between groups with and without autism. Therefore, group comparisons with the Autism Spectrum Quotient are at risk of being affected by bias. Eight items emerged that consistently show differences in response tendencies between groups across analyses, and these items were generally negatively phrased. Two often-used short forms of the Autism Spectrum Quotient, the AQ-28 and AQ-10, may be more suitable for group comparisons.
... The widely used Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) was used to assess autistic traits in the general population. To specifically tap social difficulties, we focused on the "Social Skills" factor based on a four-factor solution (Russell-Smith et al., 2011), which includes 12-items such as "I enjoy social occasions" (negatively scored). Higher scores on this scale indicate greater social difficulties; hence, we refer to the social skills factor as autistic trait linked "social difficulties" to prevent confusion. ...
... In another study autistic social impairment in the siblings of children with PPDs has been studied and results demonstrated the genetic predisposition in existence of this trait in relatives of these patients (14). In a study on autistic traits, the results showed that, patients with autism and schizophrenia spectrum disorders have deficiency in terms of interpersonal relationship (15). Some researchers studied autism dimensions in artists and scientists, the results showed there is no strong support for the relationship of scientific creativity to certain components of the autism spectrum disorder (16). ...
Objective: This study aimed to identify autistic like traits in relatives of patients with schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder.
Method: causal-comparative research design was utilized. Fifty individuals among the first degree relatives of patients with autism spectrum disorder and 50 individuals among the first degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorder were selected. Autistic-like traits were evaluated by Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Multivariate analysis of variance was used to compare the autistic like traits in two groups.
Results: First degree relatives of individuals with autism spectrum disorder got higher scores in deficiency of social skill, deficiency of communication, deficiency of attention, and attention to details. As well as they got lower scores in deficiency of imagination, in comparison to relatives of individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorder.
Conclusion: Relatives of individuals with autism spectrum disorder compared to relatives of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorder showed higher rates of autistic like traits. Only the exception was imagination subscale.
Background
The Autism Spectrum Quotient is a popular autism screening tool recommended for identifying potential cases of autism. However, many women with autism demonstrate a different presentation of traits to those currently captured by screening measures and assessment methods, such as the Autism Spectrum Quotient.
Aims
Different models of the Autism Spectrum Quotient have been proposed in the literature, utilising different items from the original 50-item scale. Within good-fitting models, the current study aimed to explore whether these items assess autistic traits similarly across men and women.
Method
Seventeen Autism Spectrum Quotient models were identified from the literature. Using the responses of a large sample of adults from the UK general population (5246 women, 1830 men), confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate the fit of each model. Measurement invariance with respect to gender, adjusting for age, was explored in the 11 model frameworks that were found to have satisfactory fit to our data.
Results
It emerged that only two items were gender invariant (non-biased), whereas for the remaining items, the probability of endorsement was influenced by gender. In particular, women had a higher probability of endorsing items relating to social skills and communication.
Conclusions
If the items of the Autism Spectrum Quotient indeed reflect autism-related traits, those items should be rephrased to ensure they do not present a gender-related bias. This is vital for ensuring more timely diagnoses and support for all people with autism.
It has been proposed that autistic people experience a temporal distortion whereby the temporal binding window of multisensory integration is extended. Research to date has focused on autistic children so whether these differences persist into adulthood remains unknown. Additionally, the possibility that the previous observations have arisen from between group differences in response bias, rather than perceptual differences, has not been addressed.
Participants completed simultaneity judgements of audiovisual speech stimuli at a range of stimulus onset asynchronies. Response times and accuracy data were fitted to a drift diffusion model so that the drift rate (a measure of processing efficiency) and starting point (response bias) could be estimated. In Experiment 1, we tested a sample of non-autistic adults who completed the Autism Quotient questionnaire. Autism Quotient score was not correlated with either drift rate or response bias, nor were there between group differences when splitting based on the 1st and 3rd quantiles of scores. In Experiment 2, we compared the performance of autistic with a group of non-autistic adults. There were no between group differences in either drift rate or starting point.
The results of the present study do not support the previous suggestion that autistic people have an extended temporal binding window for audiovisual speech. Additionally, exploratory analysis revealed that operationalising the temporal binding window in different ways influenced whether a group difference was observed, which is an important consideration for future work .
Objectives
Non - clinical individuals with higher levels of autistic traits and psychotic experiences also have problems in social relationships. Therefore, this study aimed to model complex associations between autistic and psychotic phenotypes and indicators of social relationships in the general population using a network approach.
Methods
The sample consisted of 649 participants with a mean age of M = 40.23 and SD = 13.09 sampled from the general population. The sample was representative for the 18–65 years old general population in the Slovak Republic. The following scales were administered: Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences, The Comprehensive Autistic Trait Inventory, and NIH Toolbox Adult Social Relationship Scales. Associations between variables and the presence of communities were identified using Exploratory Graph Analysis.
Results
Results revealed four highly stable and densely connected communities within the network: social relationships, autistic traits, positive symptoms, and the last one consisting of all negative symptoms, problems in social interactions, and depression. The most important variables in the network were difficulties in social interaction, perceived rejection, bizarre ideas, depression, and social withdrawal.
Conclusions
The psychotic and autistic phenotypes in the general population showed a network of connections with characteristics of social relationships. Community detection revealed that autistic traits and psychotic–like experiences formed relatively independent communities. Further, there was substantial overlap between negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal), and core features of the autistic phenotype, especially social interaction difficulties.
Background:
Autism is characterized by social and non-social alterations observed beyond the clinical diagnosis. Research analyzing the expression of autism traits in the general population helps to unravel the relationship between autism dimensions and other associated variables, such as alexithymia and anxiety. The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) was developed to assess autism traits in the general population; however, inconsistent results regarding its dimensionality have emerged.
Aims:
This study aimed to extend evidence about the AQ measurement model, and explore the multivariate relationship between autism traits, alexithymia, and trait anxiety.
Methods:
292 adults of the general population were recruited. An Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis were performed to assess the factorial structure of AQ. A path analysis was carried out to explore the relationship between autism traits, alexithymia, and trait anxiety.
Results:
The results supported a three-factor model of AQ. The path analysis model showed evidence of a significant role of alexithymia as a mediator of the relationship between autism traits and anxiety.
Conclusions and implications:
The present study provides empirical support for a three-factor model of AQ in the general population. The association between autism traits, alexithymia, and anxiety dimensions highlights the multidimensional nature of these variables and the need to account for their distinct impact on autism-related variables.
Dès la première description du Trouble du Spectre de l'Autisme, Kanner (1943) a souligné la présence momentanée de manifestations dépressives chez un des cas. Aujourd'hui, l'Episode Dépressif Caractérisé (EDC) est considéré comme étant un des troubles psychiatriques les plus fréquemment associés au TSA, ayant des répercussions à court, moyen et long termes sur l'enfant ayant un TSA et sa famille. Pourtant, aujourd'hui, il n'existe pas de consensus concernant la façon d'évaluer la symptomatologie dépressive chez les enfants et les adolescents ayant un TSA. Les objectifs de cette recherche sont de créer et de valider une échelle de repérage des signes de l'EDC, d'identifier les facteurs associés aux signes de l'EDC chez les enfants et les adolescents ayant un TSA et d'étudier les manifestations dépressives dans leur fonctionnement habituel. Quatre études ont été réalisées. La première a permis de créer l'échelle de repérage des signes de l'EDC spécifique aux enfants et aux adolescents ayant un TSA. Elle est composée de 3 parties : une évaluation des douleurs et des médicaments pris par l'enfant, le listing des changements environnementaux et l'évaluation de la symptomatologie dépressive ; en deux étapes : une description du fonctionnement habituel de l'enfant puis une mesure de l'ampleur des changements de comportements. La seconde étude visait à valider cette échelle (N=153). La fidélité inter-juges est très satisfaisante mais devra être évaluée sur un échantillon plus important (ρfiabilité=0,98 ; ρfiabilité=0,02). L'échelle a de bonnes validités apparente, de contenu et de critère et une excellente consistance interne (αéchelleEDC=0,91). Elle est composée de deux facteurs : un de changements comportementaux et l'autre de changements émotionnels et cognitifs. La troisième étude visait à identifier les facteurs associés à l'EDC chez les enfants et les adolescents ayant un TSA (N=58). Des facteurs individuels, notamment liés au parcours de soin concernant le diagnostic de TSA mais aussi la santé somatique ; familiaux, notamment le vécu parental et le désir d'avoir des amis sont liés à la symptomatologie dépressive. La quatrième étude avait pour objectif d'identifier des manifestations dépressives dans le fonctionnement habituel des enfants et des adolescents ayant un TSA (N=133). Plus d'un tiers de l'échantillon exprime de la tristesse quasiment tous les jours et plus d'un quart n'exprime quasiment jamais de joie. Plus de la moitié des enfants et des adolescents de l'échantillon ne prend aucun plaisir au quotidien. Un jeune sur cinq a des comportements auto-agressifs et 28% ont des comportements hétéro-agressifs tous les jours. La moitié de l'échantillon a des difficultés de sommeil et 58% en a d'appétit tous les jours. Enfin, trois quarts des jeunes expriment de la culpabilité ou de la dévalorisation tous les jours.
Face recognition difficulties are common in autism and could be a consequence of perceptual atypicalities that disrupt the ability to integrate current and prior information. We tested this theory by measuring the strength of serial dependence for faces (i.e. how likely is it that current perception of a face is biased towards a previously seen face) across the broader autism phenotype. Though serial dependence was not weaker in individuals with more autistic traits, more autistic traits were associated with greater integration of less similar faces. These results suggest that serial dependence is less specialised, and may not operate optimally, in individuals with more autistic traits and could therefore be a contributing factor to autism-linked face recognition difficulties.
People on the autism spectrum may have difficulty inferring others’ emotions (cognitive empathy), but may share another’s
emotions (affective empathy) and exhibit heightened personal distress. The present study examined independent autistic
trait dimensions (social difficulties and restricted/repetitive behaviours) and the roles alexithymia and trait anxiety have in
explaining this profile of empathy. Results from the general population (n=301) revealed that pronounced social difficulties
and not restricted/repetitive behaviours related to reduced cognitive and affective empathy, and heightened personal distress.
However, both dimensions, through alexithymia and anxiety, indirectly influenced empathy. Surprisingly, while the dimensions indirectly improved affective empathy, pronounced social difficulties directly reduced affective empathy. This study
motivates a nuanced model of empathy by including autistic trait dimensions, anxiety, and alexithymia.
Atypical facial morphology, particularly increased facial asymmetry, has been identified in some individuals with Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC). Many cognitive, behavioural and biological features associated with ASC also occur on a continuum in the general population. The aim of the present study was to examine subthreshold levels of autistic traits and facial morphology in non-autistic individuals. Facial asymmetry was measured using three-dimensional facial photogrammetry, and the Autism-spectrum Quotient was used to measure autistic-like traits in a community-ascertained sample of young adults (n = 289). After accounting for covariates, there were no significant associations observed between autistic-like traits and facial asymmetry, suggesting that any potential facial morphology differences linked to ASC may be limited to the clinical condition.
La schizotypie est un trait de personnalité caractérisé par un niveau subclinique de symptômes de la schizophrénie, avec des caractéristiques dites positives (croyances et perceptions inhabituelles) ou négatives (retrait et anxiété sociale). Cette thèse a pour but de mieux comprendre comment la schizotypie s'articule avec d'autres dimensions psychopathologiques.Dans une première partie nous avons étudié les liens entre schizotypie et traits autistiques dans 2 populations d'étudiants scientifiques au moyen d'analyses par classification. Une première analyse sur la base des traits schizotypiques et autistiques a identifié 4 groupes avec des profils distincts, dont un cluster à haut niveau de traits. Cette combinaison de traits est associée à des signes de dégradation psychopathologique (symptômes anxieux et dépressifs, attachement insécurisé) et à de moindres performances académiques. Une deuxième étude propose une typologie des étudiants en fonction des traits schizotypique, autistique et cyclothymique. Cette typologie fait apparaître un cluster à hauts traits, avec un niveau élevé de symptômes de dépression et d'idéation suicidaire et de moindres résultats universitaires. Ces 2 études suggèrent donc que la combinaison de traits schizotypes et autistiques a une influence négative sur la réussite dans le domaine scientifique, en lien avec une comorbidité dépressive.La deuxième partie établit une typologie du jeune adulte afin de réexaminer le concept de "schizotypie saine", défini comme trait de schizotypie positive sans autre dimensions de la schizotypie. Nos résultats confirment que la shizotypie positive est associée à des bénéfices (e.g., qualité perçue des relations interpersonnelles) mais aussi à des traits de troubles de la personnalité et à des symptômes psychopathologiques, ce qui interpelle le concept de schizotypie saine. Dans une dernière étude nous avons identifié des biais illustrant l’impression que la schizotypie positive est plus saine qu’en réalité.
Autism and schizophrenia spectrum research is typically based on coarse diagnostic classification, which overlooks individual variation within clinical groups. This method limits the identification of underlying cognitive, genetic and neural correlates of specific symptom dimensions. This study, therefore, aimed to identify homogenous subclinical subgroups of specific autistic and schizotypal traits dimensions, that may be utilised to establish more effective diagnostic and treatment practices. Latent profile analysis of subscale scores derived from an autism-schizotypy questionnaire, completed by 1678 subclinical adults aged 18-40 years (1250 females), identified a local optimum of eight population clusters: High, Moderate and Low Psychosocial Difficulties; High, Moderate and Low Autism-Schizotypy; High Psychosis-Proneness; and Moderate Schizotypy. These subgroups represent the convergent and discriminant dimensions of autism and schizotypy in the subclinical population, and highlight the importance of examining subgroups of specific symptom characteristics across these spectra in order to identify the underlying genetic and neural correlates that can be utilised to advance diagnostic and treatment practices.
The heterogeneity of schizotypal traits, suggested in previous research, was further investigated in a sample of subjects (N = 1095) administered a composite questionnaire consisting of a large number of published scales the majority of which were designed to measure psychotic characteristics. Factor analysis confirmed the four components previously indicated in our work with the same instrument; namely, 'aberrant perceptions and beliefs', 'cognitive disorganization', 'introvertive anhedonia ' and ' asocial behaviour '. This structure was maintained regardless of whether or not the analysis included scales from the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, which might otherwise have been held to explain the variance. ' Aberrant perceptions and beliefs '-reminiscent of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia-was the strongest component; but given the multidimensional nature of the data, together with the pattern of factor loadings and intercorrelations
for the sees involved, it was concluded that the broader term 'psychosis proneness' or 'psychoticism' (in a non-Eysenckian sense) might be a better descriptor of the clinical and personality domain sampled.
Abstract The study reported here tests a prediction that autism should occur more often in families of individuals whose occupation requires advanced folk physics but with no requirement of good folk psychology. Physics, engineering, and mathematics are paradigm examples of such occupations. Students in Cambridge University, studying one of these 3 subjects, were screened for cases of autism in their families. Relative to a control group of students studying literature, autism occurred significantly more often in families of students in the fields of physics, engineering, and mathematics. ,3
Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0–50. Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174 randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5), significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80% of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so. Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad winners scoring significantly higher than the male Cambridge humanities students. 6% of the student sample scored 327plus; on the AQ. On interview, 11 out of 11 of these met three or more DSM-IV criteria for AS/HFA, and all were studying sciences/mathematics, and 7 of the 11 met threshold on these criteria. Test—retest and interrater reliability of the AQ was good. The AQ is thus a valuable instrument for rapidly quantifying where any given individual is situated on the continuum from autism to normality. Its potential for screening for autism spectrum conditions in adults of normal intelligence remains to be fully explored.
Data on 14 males with autism and 14 with schizophrenia were collected to examine symptom overlap. The Structured Clinical Interview (SCID), the schedule for positive symptoms (SAPS) and the schedule for negative symptoms (SANS) of schizophrenia, the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), and the DSM-III-R were administered. On the SCID, none of the men with paranoid schizophrenia met criteria for autism while 7 of those with autism met criteria for schizophrenia, disorganized type, showing negative symptoms. In addition, 5 showed positive symptoms on the SAPS and 6 negative symptoms on the SANS. As the difference in measured nonverbal intelligence was not significant, the effects could not be attributed to it. Although the findings continue to support the differentiation of autism and schizophrenia, they are also consistent with a comorbidity of the two disorders, mainly in those diagnosed with autism.
This study reports short scales for measuring several dimensions of schizotypy in the normal population based on a large twin sample.
The four short scales use items drawn from a longer instrument, the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences. Using concordance estimates from MZ and DZ pairs, the items were selected both to have a high heritability and to offer broad coverage of each trait domain.
Preliminary descriptive statistics are reported for the short scales and suggest adequate reliability.
New scales offer a time efficient and reliable method of studying proneness to psychosis in large N designs.
The factor structure of the Dutch translation of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; a continuous, quantitative measure of autistic traits) was evaluated with confirmatory factor analyses in a large general population and student sample. The criterion validity of the AQ was examined in three matched patient groups (autism spectrum conditions (ASC), social anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder). A two factor model, consisting of a "Social interaction" factor and "Attention to detail" factor could be identified. The internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the AQ were satisfactory. High total AQ and factor scores were specific to ASC patients. Men scored higher than women and science students higher than non-science students. The Dutch translation of the AQ is a reliable instrument to assess autism spectrum conditions.
Autistic-spectrum conditions and psychotic-spectrum conditions (mainly schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression) represent two major suites of disorders of human cognition, affect, and behavior that involve altered development and function of the social brain. We describe evidence that a large set of phenotypic traits exhibit diametrically opposite phenotypes in autistic-spectrum versus psychotic-spectrum conditions, with a focus on schizophrenia. This suite of traits is inter-correlated, in that autism involves a general pattern of constrained overgrowth, whereas schizophrenia involves undergrowth. These disorders also exhibit diametric patterns for traits related to social brain development, including aspects of gaze, agency, social cognition, local versus global processing, language, and behavior. Social cognition is thus underdeveloped in autistic-spectrum conditions and hyper-developed on the psychotic spectrum.;>We propose and evaluate a novel hypothesis that may help to explain these diametric phenotypes: that the development of these two sets of conditions is mediated in part by alterations of genomic imprinting. Evidence regarding the genetic, physiological, neurological, and psychological underpinnings of psychotic-spectrum conditions supports the hypothesis that the etiologies of these conditions involve biases towards increased relative effects from imprinted genes with maternal expression, which engender a general pattern of undergrowth. By contrast, autistic-spectrum conditions appear to involve increased relative bias towards effects of paternally expressed genes, which mediate overgrowth. This hypothesis provides a simple yet comprehensive theory, grounded in evolutionary biology and genetics, for understanding the causes and phenotypes of autistic-spectrum and psychotic-spectrum conditions.
The study reported here tests a prediction that autism hould occur more often in families of individuals whose occupation requires advanced folk physics but with no requirement of good folk psychology. Physics, engineering, and mathematics are paradigm examples of such occupations. Students in Cambridge University, studying one of these three subjects, were screened anonymously for cases of autism in their families. Relative to a control group of students studying literature, autism was reported to occur significantly more often in families of students in the fields of physics, engineering, and mathematics. Such results are consistent with the prediction. This study necessarily involved anonymous self-report methods, so the reliability and validity of diagnoses are unknown. Future replications should attempt a non-anonymous study so as to establish if this association is robust.
A self-report screening measure for high functioning autism spectrum disorders is needed for diagnostic screening and research purposes. The Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) has been developed for these rea-sons, although a comprehensive assessment of the psychometric properties of the AQ has not been com-pleted. The purpose of the current study was to assess the distribution, internal consistency, and factor structure of the AQ in a non-clinical sample (n = 1005). The current findings demonstrate the normal dis-tribution of autistic traits and support a three-factor structure of the AQ. Additionally, a three-factor ver-sion of the AQ yielded somewhat improved internal consistency. Implications of these findings and suggestions for further development of the AQ as a measure of the autism spectrum are offered.
Recent research into schizotypal traits has been concerned with the number and nature of these personality dimensions. Earlier exploratory factor analytic work using a wide variety of scales (the CSTQ) has generated a four-factor solution but other solutions have been provided by other investigators. This study uses confirmatory factor analysis on a large sample to compare several plausible models of the relationships between scales. These models include a two-factor model separating ‘positive’ from ‘negative’ schizotypal features, a three-factor model including features of cognitive disorganization, and the four-factor model generated previously by exploratory factor analysis. Results offer support for the four-factor solution as the only structure meeting multiple criteria for goodness of fit. The relevance of Eysenck's dimensions, and the P scale in particular, to the results is discussed. Attention is drawn to the possibility that the factors describe predispositions of risk of psychotic disorders beyond that of schizophrenia.
Several recent studies have demonstrated a genetical overlap between autism and schizophrenia. However, at a behavioral level it remains unclear which features can validly distinguish adults with autism from an adult schizophrenia group. To this end, the present study compared 21 individuals with the autistic disorder and 21 individuals with schizophrenia in self-reported features of autism and schizophrenia, as measured by the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ).The schizophrenia group was more likely to report positive symptoms and the adults with autism were more likely to report impairments in social skill. Overlap was found between the two groups in negative symptoms, disorganization, attention to detail and imagination.Thus, when discriminating between the two disorders, especially social skill and the presence of positive symptoms are relevant, whereas the presence of negative symptoms is not indicative.
Several factor analytic studies reveal the existence of three distinct dimensions of schizotypy that appear to reflect the disposition to distinct schizophrenic syndromes (e.g. Bentall, Claridge & Slade, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 363–375, 1989; Claridge, McCreery, Mason, Bentall, Boyle, Slade & Popplewell, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35, 103–115, 1996; Muntaner, Garcia-Sevilla, Fernandez & Torrubia, Personality and Individual Differences, 9, 257–268, 1988). Claridge et al. referred to the dimensions as ‘Aberrant Perceptions and Beliefs’, ‘Cognitive Disorganisation’ and ‘Introvertive Anhedonia’. The present study sought to establish the ecological validity of the three dimensions by cluster analysing individual responses on the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (OLIFE; Mason, Claridge & Jackson, Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 7–13, 1995). An agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis of OLIFE subscale scores for 69 undergraduate psychology students revealed four separate clusters. Based on the defining feature(s) in each cluster, they were referred to as the Unusual Experiences, Cognitive Disorganisation, Introvertive Anhedonia, and Low Schizotypy subgroups. As indicated by these descriptive labels, three of the subgroups aligned broadly with previously denned dimensions of schizotypy, while the fourth subgroup reflected the overall absence of schizotypal traits. Thus, the results indicate that the three-dimensional structure of schizotypy suggested by Claridge et al. (1996) is reflected in naturally occurring subgroups of non-psychotic individuals.
The main objective of this study was to characterise the five-factor personality model profile of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Comparison data were also obtained for a brief Asperger syndrome screening measure. The psychometric properties and factor structure of the AQ were also assessed and group differences in AQ scores examined. The AQ and personality scale were completed by 201 undergraduates. A second group of 136 adults completed the personality scale and the Asperger screening measure. Examination of correlations showed that high scores on both `autism' measures were associated with high neuroticism and low extraversion and agreeableness. Three of the five proposed sub-scales of the AQ emerged from the factor analysis. The AQ and sub-scales had satisfactory or near-satisfactory reliabilities. Group differences were generally as expected: Males had higher AQ scores than females, `hard' science students had higher scores than other students and students with parent(s) in a scientific occupation had higher scores.
The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001) has been recently developed to assess how individuals of normal intelligence vary on autistic traits. The main objective of this study was to assess the factor structure of the AQ in a large Scottish University sample (n = 536). Group differences in the AQ were also assessed. The current study found four factors of ‘Socialness’, ‘Pattern’, ‘Understanding Others/Communication’ and ‘Imagination’. Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, and Plumb (2001) suggest five subscales, previous factor analytic studies find two- or three-factor models. However, all agree on a ‘Socialness’, and a ‘Patterns/Attention to Detail’ factor. In addition, a ‘Communication’ factor is largely agreed upon. Group differences were as expected, students enrolled in a mathematical science degree type scored higher than other students, and males scored higher than females. The AQ, in a UK population, appears to be reasonably reliable, however, it does require some revision.
This study reports the development of new scales for assessing schizotypal traits. The four scales measure unusual experiences, cognitive disorganisation, introvertive anhedonia and impulsive non-conformity. The scales were incorporated into a new questionnaire, the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings & Experiences (O-LIFE), in a form designed for use in the normal population and including filler items as well as the STA scale (as a known referent). Norms for the scales on a fresh sample of normal subjects (N = 508) are reported, including sex and age differences. All the scales were found to have adequate internal consistency (coeff. alpha s> 0.77). The items from the four new scales were submitted to factor analysis and a highly similar structure resulted. Their present and future use in psychosis-proneness research is discussed.
Many researchers have found evidence of an association between creativity and the predisposition to mental illness. However, a number of questions remain unanswered. First, it is not clear whether healthy creatives have a milder loading on schizotypal traits than people who suffer serious psychopathology, or whether they have an equal loading, but other mediating characteristics. Second, most of the existing research has concentrated on artistic creativity, and the position of other creative domains is not yet clear. The present study compares schizotypy profiles using the O-LIFE inventory in a large sample of poets, artists, mathematicians, the general population, and psychiatric patients. Poets and artists have levels of unusual experiences that are higher than controls, and as high as schizophrenia patients. However, they are relatively low on the dimension of introvertive anhedonia. Mathematicians are lower than controls on unusual experiences. The results suggest that artistic creatives and psychiatric patients share a tendency to unusual ideas and experiences, but creative groups are distinguished by the absence of anhedonia and avolition. Moreover, different domains of creativity require different cognitive profiles, with poetry and art associated with divergent thinking, schizophrenia and affective disorder, and mathematics associated with convergent thinking and autism.
Studies from a range of perspectives provide evidence for a relationship between creativity and the tendency to mental illness. The present study further examined this issue by administering questionnaires measuring the minor features of psychosis and autism to 31 professional “artists” (visual artists and musicians) and 28 professional “scientists” (biological scientists and physical scientists/mathematicians). The Oxford–Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O–LIFE), the Hypomanic Personality Scale, and the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ), were administered, in addition to a shortened form of the Kent–Rosanoff Word Association Scale. The results provided strong support for the connection of artistic creativity to positive schizotypy and hypomania and the tendency to make unusual word associations, and somewhat weaker support for the connection of scientific creativity to certain components of the autism spectrum.
Crespi and Badcock (2008) proposed that autism and psychosis represent two extremes on a cognitive spectrum with normality at its center. Their specific claim that autistic and positive schizophrenia traits contrastingly affect preference for local versus global processing was investigated by examining Embedded Figures Test performance in two groups of students separated on autistic-like traits but matched on positive schizotypy traits, and two groups separated on positive schizotypy traits but matched on autistic-like traits (n = 20 per group). Consistent with their theory, higher levels of autistic-like traits were associated with faster identification of hidden figures, whereas higher levels of positive schizotypy traits were associated with slower identification.
Factor structure and relationship between core features of autism (social impairments, communication difficulties, and restricted, repetitive behaviours or interests (RRBIs)) were explored in 189 children from the Twins Early Development Study, diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) using the Development and Wellbeing Assessment (DAWBA; Goodman et al. in J Child Psychol Psyc 41:645-655, 2000). A bottom-up approach (analysis 1) used principal component factor analysis of DAWBA items indicating five factors, the first three mapping on the triad. In analysis 2, applying top-down DSM-IV criteria, correlations between domains were modest, strongest between social and communication difficulties. Cross-twin cross-trait correlations suggested small shared genetic effects between RRBIs and other symptoms. These findings from a clinical sample of twins indicate a fractionation of social/communicative and RRBI symptoms in ASD.
We present an overview of self-report scales for measuring schizotypy and a review of factor-analytical studies of these scales. These studies show that schizotypy is a multidimensional construct consisting of three or four factors. Positive Schizotypy, Negative Schizotypy, Nonconformity, and possibly Social Anxiety/Cognitive Disorganization. Clinical and external validation studies provide support for the construct validity of the Positive Schizotypy and Negative Schizotypy factors, but as yet fail to support the Nonconformity and Social Anxiety/Cognitive Disorganization factors. In accordance with this multidimensional structure, the scales for measuring schizotypy can be classified as factor-specific scales. We consider the striking similarities between the multidimensionality of schizotypal traits and the multidimensionality of schizophrenic symptoms. We also look at the similarities and differences between schizotypy and normal personality traits. Some practical and theoretical implications of these relationships are discussed.
Recent research has indicated that autism is not a discrete disorder and that family members of autistic probands have an increased likelihood of exhibiting autistic symptoms with a wide range of severity, often below the threshold for a diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder.
To examine the distribution and genetic structure of autistic traits in the general population using a newly established quantitative measure of autistic traits, the Social Responsiveness Scale (formerly known as the Social Reciprocity Scale).
The sample consisted of 788 pairs of twins aged 7 to 15 years, randomly selected from the pool of participants in a large epidemiologic study (the Missouri Twin Study). One parent of each pair of twins completed the Social Responsiveness Scale on each child. The data were subjected to structural equation modeling.
Autistic traits as measured by the Social Responsiveness Scale were continuously distributed and moderately to highly heritable. Levels of severity of autistic traits at or above the previously published mean for patients with pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified were found in 1.4% of boys and 0.3% of girls. Structural equation modeling revealed no evidence for the existence of sex-specific genetic influences, and suggested specific mechanisms by which females may be relatively protected from vulnerability to autistic traits.
These data indicate that the social deficits characteristic of autism spectrum disorders are common. Given the continuous distribution of these traits, it may be arbitrary where cutoffs are made between research designations of being "affected" vs "unaffected" with a pervasive developmental disorder. The genes influencing autistic traits appear to be the same for boys and girls. Lower prevalence (and severity) of autistic traits in girls may be the result of increased sensitivity to early environmental influences that operate to promote social competency.
The study examines the relationship between Asperger's Disorder (AD) and Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD), mutually exclusive but similar diagnoses [DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: Author]. The literature and comparison of diagnostic criteria suggest that the two disorders may overlap: AD social impairment with SPD interpersonal problems and AD communication deficits with SPD disorganized features. Questionnaire measures of AD and SPD were administered to a large non-clinical adult sample. Consistent with expectations, the Asperger's and Schizotypal questionnaires were positively correlated. Further, the social-interpersonal and communication-disorganized areas were positively correlated, though the relationship between social-interpersonal areas is particularly strong. Future research should continue to explore the relationship between AD and schizotypy to confirm current findings and improve understanding of distinctions between the disorders.
Autism and early-onset schizophrenia share common dimensions of social communication deficits. The possible role of common genetic factors has to be seriously considered, such as the serotonin transporter gene that influences the severity of social communication impairments (negative symptoms) and hallucinations (positive symptoms). Autism and the negative syndrome of schizophrenia might be at one extreme of a continuum, and paranoid schizophrenia (positive symptoms) at the other extreme.