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Generation management using batteries in wind farms: Economical and technical analysis for Spain
Abstract
This paper presents an hourly management method for energy generated in grid-connected wind farms using battery storage (Wind-Batteries systems). The method proposed is analysed technically and economically. Electricity generation in wind farms does not usually coincide with the electrical demand curve. If the wind-power penetration becomes high in the Spanish electrical grid, energy management will become necessary for some wind farms. A method is proposed in this paper to adjust the generation curve to the demand curve by storing electrical energy in batteries during off-peak hours (low demand) and selling stored energy to the grid during peak hours (high demand). With the results obtained and reported in this paper, for a Wind-Batteries system to be economically as profitable as a Wind-Only system, the selling price of the energy provided by the batteries during peak hours should be between 22 and 66Â c[euro]/kWh, depending on the technology and cost of the batteries. Comparison with flexible thermal generation has been performed. Additionally, the results are compared with those obtained if using hydrogen (Wind-Hydrogen system, which uses an electrolyser, hydrogen tank, and fuel cell instead of batteries), concluding that the Wind-Batteries system is both economically and energetically far more suitable.
... However, the part of clean and renewable energies generated by the solar, wind, hydro is still insignificant compared with the total consumption. Knowing that the exploitable clean solar and wind energy on earth is a magnitude above the global GDP [17][18][19] , the room for the progress is immense. Due to the intermittent characters of these energy resources, the daily peaks of energy demand and production are not superposed. ...
... Due to the intermittent characters of these energy resources, the daily peaks of energy demand and production are not superposed. The excess energy generated should be converted into electrochemical (e.g., battery) or chemical (e.g., hydrogen) storage systems to allow to redistribute during the absence of sun and wind 19 . The only way to reverse CO2 emission is to accelerate this economic transition of fossil fuel energy to the renewable one. ...
... We will provide an overview of the issues in LOB in the following section. 19 There are still a lot of challenges not solved in each part of LOB. Starting from the anode, the oxygen can cross over the electrolyte and react chemically with the lithium foil. ...
To meet the challenge of energy demand for the total decarbonization of the society, greener and higher energy density technology must be developed. The Li-O2 battery (LOB), considered as one of the most promising post Li-ion technologies, has been investigated. More specifically, 3D imaging technique using X-ray tomography has been developed to study the electrochemical reaction and transport phenomena in the cathode of this battery. To overcome the transparency of the light elements in the cathode of LOB under X-ray, we deployed the in-line Zernike Phase Contrast during the acquisition. With this technique, the pore networks in the cathode at different state of discharge have been extracted. The nondissolution of discharged products can also be observed in 3D. A simple synthesis of a binder-free self-standing was developed. This material is selfstanding and easily upscalable. A study of recyclability of this material was conducted. We showed that this material can be fully recovered by inexpensive solvent after the cycling. We pushed forward our 3D investigation into 4D with time steps to understand the dynamics within the Li-O2 battery. An in-house coin-cell like in situ cell was designed. The timeresolved volumes of the new material have been analyzed by a particle tracking algorithm. Massive data has been collected during this work. The segmentation has become the most time-consuming in our data processing workflow. We have employed the deep learning to tackle this problem. The hyperparameters optimization problem has been discussed and some reflections on the ground truth have been brought out. We attempted to further generalize our neural network to a broader range of material. For this, the technique transfer learning has been employed
... In some works, degradation is calculated post-optimization. As a result, the operation strategy is shortsighted and does not consider the battery as a time-limited and costly resource [17][18][19][20]. ...
... This method introduces n 1 binaries and n 2 constraints where n is the number of segments of the piecewise linear function. The absolute value in (12) is determined by adding inequalities (19) and (20) to the model. ...
... (5) and (6) are constraints that limit the maximum power input and output and also ensure that battery is either charged or discharged in any time interval. (7) and (8) ), continuous variables (v), binary variables (z), identity (18) and inequalities (19) and (20). Eqs. ...
Given their technological and market maturity, lithium-ion batteries are increasingly being considered and used in grid applications to provide a host of services such as frequency regulation, peak shaving, etc. Charging and discharging these batteries causes degradation in their performance. Lack of data on degradation processes combined with requirement of fast computation have led to over-simplified models of battery degradation. In this work, the recent experimental evidence that demonstrates that degradation in lithium-ion batteries is non-linearly dependent on the operating conditions is incorporated. Experimental aging data of a commercial battery have been used to develop a scheduling model applicable to the time constraints of a market model. A decomposition technique that enables the developed model to give near-optimal results for longer time horizons is also proposed.
... The roundtrip efficiency indicates the percentage of the energy going into the battery that can be drawn back out. We assume that the efficiency in both directions is the same (see [34,35]). ...
... Mode 03 is implemented through constraints (34)(35)(36)(37). Constraints (34,35) impose that, if M t p , 3 is equal to 1 (meaning mode 03 is active), then at least one generator has to be activated in each section. ...
... Mode 03 is implemented through constraints (34)(35)(36)(37). Constraints (34,35) impose that, if M t p , 3 is equal to 1 (meaning mode 03 is active), then at least one generator has to be activated in each section. ...
Choosing the optimal type and size of energy storage for a given hybrid maritime vessels is challenging. Investment cost, fuel saving and energy storage expected life time will be affected by the choices. Furthermore, the optimum choices depend on the operation profile of the vessel as well as safety related constraints in different vessel mode of operations. In addition, the optimum power management strategy will be mode dependent as well as dependent on the type and size of onboard energy storage. Finally, the total system has to fulfill certain safety related rules and regulations that typically both favour the use of storage and set some constraints to the size and the utilization of the storage. In this paper we propose a mathematical optimisation model called OBLIVION that stands for “Optimised Battery Lifetime In Vessels Internal Operations and Networks”. OBLIVION is created to support battery investment decisions. Beyond including battery degradation and desired battery lifetime in the choice, the model facilitates analysis of how the investment decisions change for different combinations of vessel operation modes. The key contribution of this paper is the proposed methodology to formulate technical and safety constraints, represent different vessel modes of operation and battery storage degradation in a way suitable for inclusion within mathematical optimisation models. Moreover, analyses that demonstrate how these features affect the storage investment decisions are presented. Mathematical formulations of constraints such as closed and open bus-tie breaker operation, true spinning reserve requirements as well as spinning reserve provided by batteries are included as well.
... En la Figura 6 se muestra la curva de envejecimiento para un modelo real de batería de plomo-ácido [22]. Es importante tener en cuenta que el estado de carga de una batería de plomo-ácido no debe ser inferior al 40% [17]. Para descargas más profundas (sobredescarga) la batería sufre sulfatación, lo que deteriora de manera irreversible su capacidad. ...
... La sobrecarga y la sobredescarga, que suele evitarse limitando el rango de operación entre el 10% y el 90% de estado de carga [17], [25]. Estado de carga, como se puede observar en la Figura 10 [24]. ...
... Como consecuencia, varios trabajos buscan introducir este método en la optimización mediante simplificaciones del algoritmo cascada[15] [14]. Una reciente solución que ha demostrado ser efectiva para una batería de ion-litio es[16] aunque dicha metodología requiere ser extendida para diferentes tecnologías de baterías.Por otro lado, el modelo genérico de sistemas de almacenamiento también asume que éste tiene un rendimiento constante e independiente de las condiciones de operación[10],[11],[17]. La relación entre el rendimiento y otros parámetros de operación es diferente para cada tecnología de almacenamiento, por lo que este modelo debe ser específico para cada una. ...
El objetivo de este proyecto es desarrollar nuevo modelos de determinadas tecnologías de almacenamiento que sean más detallados que los modelos existentes y que se puedan incorporar en las herramientas de operación óptima de redes de distribución, todo ello con el fin de evaluar la operación de una forma más precisa. Para conseguir este objetivo se ha desarrollado una herramienta capaz de simular la operación óptima de redes de distribución con generación renovable y sistemas de almacenamiento a lo largo de un intervalo temporal (por ejemplo, un día). La herramienta incorpora diferentes modelos de almacenamiento de energía: desde un modelo genérico típicamente empleado en estos estudios hasta nuevos modelos de baterías de plomo-ácido, ion-litio y flujo de vanadio que consideran con mayor detalle el rendimiento y el coste asociado a la pérdida de su vida útil.
Finalmente, con el fin de validar los modelos de almacenamiento propuestos y analizar su impacto, la herramienta propuesta fue empleada para operar dos redes reales de distribución de forma óptima a lo largo de un día. Los resultados obtenidos demostraron el gran impacto de las baterías sobre la operación cuando se tienen en cuenta sus particularidades de rendimiento y coste de degradación. El rendimiento varió significativamente (hasta un 10%) cuando se consideraron las condiciones de operación en lugar de asumir un valor constante. El coste de degradación asociado a la carga-descarga condicionó totalmente la operación óptima de la red. Para los valores actuales de precio de electricidad y coste de las baterías, se observó que sólo la tecnología de flujo de vanadio permitía reducir los costes de operación. Asumiendo un escenario futuro de reducción de costes de las baterías de un 60% (estimación de IRENA para el año 2030), se comprobó que las tres tecnologías permitían reducir el coste de operación, aunque la de flujo de vanadio sigue siendo la más beneficiosa en reducción de costes de operación y en renovable integrada.
... Valuable economic assessments of storage in specific systems can be found within literature such as Monte Carlo simulation is [19], economy of storage in Finland [20], potential arbitrage revenue of storage in PJM electricity market [21] or price arbitrage of storage in Alberta's electricity market [22], to mention a few. Concerning the Spanish case, in [23] an economical and technical analysis is performed for BESS integrated in a 2.5 MW wind turbine located in the Ebro valley for price arbitrage. Only price arbitrage is considered and degradation is not modeled. ...
... A recent study [23] has analyzed profitability of Li-ion BESS for price arbitrage in the Iberian (Spanish and Portuguese market) considering daily, intraday and tertiary energy markets for a real wind farm of 15 MW. Compared to the present paper, balancing market is not considered, and deviations are managed by tertiary energy markets (in this paper BESS may be used for real-time schedule tracking for managing wind deviations). ...
This paper proposes an economic assessment tool that determines the viability of a battery energy storage system (BESS) integrated within renewable power plants for different market applications such as day-ahead price arbitrage, participation in the balancing market and schedule tracking by reducing wind deviations. In particular, maximum BESS investment prices are derived to make BESS potentially viable for each functionality. A case study of an actual 30 MW wind farm participating in the Spanish electricity market is used to test the economic viability of different sizes of Li-ion and vanadium-redox BESS. Results show that with the actual structure and level prices in Spain, the participation in the balancing market could achieve positive internal rates of return, and the combination of additional market functionalities does not improve substantially BESS viability.
... By using energy storage systems (ESSs) [14,15], the power system can shift part of the peak load to low power consumption period, thus utilizing surplus power during low power consumption period, improving the load rate of the power grid, in order to achieve the purpose of energy saving [9,16,17]. Since adding ESSs in power grid will increase the cost, economic assessment for batteries in ESSs is the key to the promotion of ESSs in the power industry [17][18][19][20][21][22]. Therefore, according to the need of peak load regulation of power grid [23], we need to select the most suitable technology for large-scale energy storage from various energy storage technologies, and then help to form a suitable technology line for enterprises and national development strategy, which is a hot topic in front of people at present. ...
... Economic evaluation is an evaluation of the economic aspects of the resulting ESSs programs [17,18,32]. Economic evaluation is aiming to determine the cost and benefit of the scheme in the life cycle according to various economic parameters, the life of energy storage equipment and the electricity sales of ESSs. ...
Batteries are considered as an attractive candidate for grid-scale energy storage systems (ESSs) application due to their scalability and versatility of frequency integration, and peak/capacity adjustment. Since adding ESSs in power grid will increase the cost, the issue of economy, that whether the benefits from peak cutting and valley filling can compensate for the cost input of adding energy storage system or not, is particularly concerned. Here we show how the cost of battery deployment can potentially be minimized by carrying out an economic assessment for the cases of different batteries applied in ESSs. To make this analysis, we develop a techno-economic model and apply it to the cases of ESSs with batteries in applications. Our results show that batteries could be attractive for investors even now if appropriate batteries are selected for ESSs applications. Valve regulated lead acid batteries has a lower cost of initial investment, which is suitable for the situations that are sensitive to the initial investment cost. Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4, LFP) battery can be applied in the situations with a high requirement for service life. While zinc-air batteries still have great application prospects to cope with resource depletion due to excellent performance, low cost and low pollution. The current policy debate should therefore be refocused so as to promote technological development and to encompass the removal of such barriers.
... The roundtrip efficiency B j eff indicates the percentage of the energy going into the battery that can be extracted later. We assume that the efficiency in both directions is the same (see [38,39]). The minimum state of charge B j ch defines a limit below which a battery must not be discharged to avoid permanent damage. ...
... Equation (37) defines the battery state of charge in every time step. Flows in and out the battery are mutually exclusive as imposed by constraints (38) and (39). ...
The increasing demand of electric vehicles creates challenges for the electric grid both on the transmission level and distribution level. Charging sites in particular will have to face strong challenges especially in those countries where a massive penetration of electric vehicles happened in the last years and even more is expected in the forthcoming future. Such an increased forecast demand will lead to a capacity lack within the existing charging sites, therefore new investments in design and expansion have to be planned. We propose the so called SMACS MODEL that stands for Stochastic Multihorizon Approach for Charging Sites Management, Operations, Design and Expansion under Limited capacity conditions. The model is built to analyse critical decisions in terms of transformer expansion, grid reinforcements, renewable installation and storage integration, over a time horizon of 10 years, with a particular focus on the long term uncertainty in the price variations of the available resources. Long term investment decisions and short term operational decisions are addressed simultaneously in a holistic approach that includes also battery degradation issues and is able to tackle the optimal trade off between battery replacements, grid reinforcements and renewable installations throughout the chosen time horizon. Compared to traditional decision approaches the model is able to take more precise decisions due to its higher insight on the long term costs projections, the inclusion of battery degradation issues and the inclusion of grid rules and regulations limits that affect the final decisions.
... Was selected the total generating capacities so that penetration indicators of 100% and 150% are achieved, respectively. The modeling gives this test conducted a quantitative evaluation of the effect of the assumed distributed generation on the bus voltage and losses [26,27]. Figure 8 shows a graphical representation of the modeling results with respect to the bus voltage. ...
This research aims to quantitatively correct the effects of (RDG) in terms of voltage and electrical energy losses in the host networks. , since efficient distribution systems contain generators of a special nature and often contain bidirectional flux energy, it was necessary to construct a mathematical model of the distribution system hosting RDG units, which is fundamentally different from the traditional model of defining the reference electrical distribution bus bar. In order to achieve the systematic analysis, evaluation criteria and indicators were determined and mathematical formulas for them were completed. Based on the accomplished mathematical basis, an algorithm designed in such a way that it can be applied to any multi-voltage distribution system and to different distributed regenerative generation techniques is proposed. To demonstrate the algorithm's capabilities, it was tested on typical distribution networks using Factory Power DigSilent software, which is somewhat similar to MATLAB but more suitable for large capacity systems.
... There are many factors that affect the lifetime of a storage system, mainly the depth of discharge and the discharging rate [38], [39]. To increase the battery lifetime and avoid the rapid degradation of its performances, the lower limit of charge is typically higher than zero (the usable energy is between 80% and 95% of the total energy). ...
This article proposes a fully distributed energy management algorithm for dc microgrids, resilient to different faults. Specifically, we employ distributed model-predictive control to deal with the uncertainty that characterizes the microgrid operation. The optimization problem is solved at each time step through a distributed optimization algorithm, which has three main advantages: 1) agents of the network require a small computational power; 2) local information is not shared among the network nodes, hence preserving a certain level of privacy; and 3) it is suitable for implementation in large-scale systems. The resilience property of the algorithm stems from additional constraints that are enforced in order to store in the system enough energy to sustain the microgrid in the case of utility grid or line fault. Simulation results show that the algorithm is suitable to schedule the operation of agents that are always connected to the microgrid (e.g., loads) as well as agents that may be connected and disconnected (e.g., electric vehicles).
... Integrating energy storage into wind power generation has been proposed in various formats. The simplest form of this is the co-location of a conventional energy store with wind turbines, used to smooth the intermittency of renewable generation [15][16][17]. If sufficiently inexpensive, this has some economic advantages for the operator, as electricity can be supplied to the grid during periods of higher value. ...
The increasing push for renewable penetration into electricity grids will inevitably lead to an increased requirement for grid-scale energy storage at multiple time scales. It will, necessarily, lead to a higher proportion of the total energy consumed having been passed through storage. Offshore wind is a key technology for renewable penetration, and the co-location of energy storage with this wind power provides significant benefits. A novel generation-integrated energy storage system is described here in the form of a wind-driven air compressor feeding underwater compressed air energy storage. A direct drive compressor would require very high intake swept volumes. To overcome this difficulty, some prior compression is introduced. This paper discusses the constituent technologies for this concept, as well as the various configurations that it might take and the logic behind operating it. Special consideration has been given to the differences resulting from utilising a near-isothermal wind-driven compressor versus a near-adiabatic one. Multiple iterations of the system have been simulated. This has been done using a price-matching algorithm to optimise the system operation and using volumetric air flow rates to calculate exergy flow. Simulated operation has been performed for a year of real wind and electricity price data. This work has been performed in order to clarify the relationships between several key parameters in the system, including pressure and work ratios, volumetric flowrates, storage costs and profit rates. An additional objective of this paper was to determine whether the system has the potential for economic viability in some future energy grid, especially when compared with alternative wind and energy storage solutions. The results of the simulation indicated that, with proper sizing, the system might perform competitively with these alternatives. Maximum one-year return on investment values of 9.8% for the isothermal case and 13% for the adiabatic case were found. These maxima were reached with ~15–20 h of output storage. In all cases, it was found that maximising the power of the wind-driven compressor compared with the initial compressor was favourable.
... Similar to the European Battery Alliance, we perceive the necessity to implement the sustainable battery value chain in Europe, which includes the competitive recycling of batteries and accumulators [11]. Despite some studies on the energy management of batteries and accumulators [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20], there is a research gap regarding how the EU Member States implement Directive 2006/66/EC provisions. We also point out, similar to Thomann and Sager [21], that although the compliance of Member States' activities with the EU policies and laws is the subject of many studies, the research is often characterised by a strong focus on the legal conformance with the EU, e.g., [22,23]. ...
Energy issues are multifaceted and are not limited to power plants, biogas plants or transmission lines. They also include the production, usage and utilisation of batteries and accumulators, which are increasingly valuable due to, among other things, the decision to develop the production of electric cars. This article creates new ground by analysing the European Union management system of batteries and accumulators in the cause-effect context. This paper's insights have emerged iteratively based on the theory reviewed and the empirical case-a deep analysis of the Polish management system of batteries and accumulators. The findings show that the public institutions in the analysed European Union Member State-Poland-were not ready to create a fully coherent and effective oversight system on managing batteries and accumulators. It may limit the reliability of the European Union's reporting on battery and accumulator management, which is a part of the European energy policy. The findings make two main contributions: first, they contribute to developing a theory of energy resource management; second, this article contributes to a further contextual diagnosis of the comprehensive management system of waste batteries and accumulators, which is an important part of the European Battery Alliance. Moreover, the avenues for further research emerged from the present study.
... Even though the lithium-ion battery seems to have many advantages over the lead-acid battery in terms of storage efficiency, the life span of cycles, operating temperature, and energy density, it causes high CAPEX, and the unfavorable effect of deep discharging follows [14]. The sodium-sulfur (NaS) battery is considered to be the most promising one as its capital cost is expected to be reduced to 120 $/kWh while its number of cycles can be increased to 5000-6000 cycles [30]. ...
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Renewable energy (RE)-powered base stations (BSs) have been considered as an attractive solution to address the exponential increasing energy demand in cellular networks while decreasing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. For the regions where reliable power grids are insufficient and infeasible to deploy, such as aerial platforms and harsh environments, RE has been an alternative power source for BSs. In this survey paper, we provide an overview of RE-enabled cellular networks, detailing their analysis, classification, and related works. First, we introduce the key components of RE-powered BSs along with their frequently adopted models. Second, we analyze the proposed strategies and design issues for RE-powered BSs that can be incorporated into cellular networks and categorize them into several groups to provide a good grasp. Third, we introduce feasibility studies on RE-powered BSs based on the recent literature. Fourth, we investigate RE-powered network components other than terrestrial BSs to address potential issues regarding RE-enabled networks. Finally, we suggest future research directions and conclusions.
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... Even though the lithium-ion battery seems to have many advantages over the lead-acid battery in terms of storage efficiency, the life span of cycles, operating temperature, and energy density, it causes high CAPEX, and the unfavorable effect of deep discharging follows [14]. The sodium-sulfur (NaS) battery is considered to be the most promising one as its capital cost is expected to be reduced to 120 $/kWh while its number of cycles can be increased to 5000-6000 cycles [30]. ...
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Renewable energy (RE)-powered base stations (BSs) have been considered as an attractive solution to address the exponential increasing energy demand in cellular networks while decreasing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. For the regions where reliable power grids are insufficient and infeasible to deploy, such as aerial platforms and harsh environments, RE has been an alternative power source for BSs. In this survey paper, we provide an overview of RE-enabled cellular networks, detailing their analysis, classification, and related works. First, we introduce the key components of RE-powered BSs along with their frequently adopted models. Second, we analyze the proposed strategies and design issues for RE-powered BSs that can be incorporated into cellular networks and categorize them into several groups to provide a good grasp. Third, we introduce feasibility studies on RE-powered BSs based on the recent literature. Fourth, we investigate RE-powered network components other than terrestrial BSs to address potential issues regarding RE-enabled networks. Finally, we suggest future research directions and conclusions.
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... It was assumed that batteries operate at nominal temperatures, and self-discharge which amounts to 2-3% of the nominal capacity per month is negligible. To determine the BES life cycle duration, we considered the manufacturer's information on the maximum service life, as well as the number of cycles, which were determined in accordance with the method of equivalent full cycles (EFC) [30]. ...
The article proposes a method of multipurpose optimization of the size of an autonomous hybrid energy system consisting of photovoltaic, wind, diesel, and battery energy storage systems, and including a load-shifting system. The classical iterative Gauss–Seidel method was applied to optimize the size of a hybrid energy system in a remote settlement on Sakhalin Island. As a result of the optimization according to the minimum net present value criterion, several optimal configurations corresponding to different component combinations were obtained. Several optimal configurations were also found, subject to a payback period constraint of 5, 6, and 7 years. Optimizing the size of the hybrid power system with electric load shifting showed that the share of the load not covered by renewable energy sources decreases by 1.25% and 2.1%, depending on the parameters of the load shifting model. Net present cost and payback period also decreased, other technical and economic indicators improved; however, CO2 emissions increased due to the reduction in the energy storage system.
... Another key issue ignored by the literature is the battery cycling degradation in VPP operation in FCAS markets. Alt-hough some papers derive formulations on the relation between battery cycle life and depth of discharge (DoD) using different fitting techniques [9][10][11], few studies have efficiently incorporated battery cycle life with varying DoD profiles into the bidding optimization model. Moreover, it is difficult to embed the nonlinear battery aging model into a programming model and solve it by a commercial solver. ...
Distributed energy resources (DERs) such as rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems, battery energy storage systems (BESSs), and controllable loads can be aggregated as virtual power plants (VPPs) to provide frequency regulation services for managing power system stability. Optimizing the profits of PV-BESS VPPs in frequency control markets can demonstrate their profitability and encourage more PV-BESS consumers to join VPPs to support the grid. This paper proposes an optimal bidding strategy of a PV-BESS VPP in frequency control ancillary services (FCAS) markets, and a joint bidding strategy of the VPP in cooperation with a wind farm, which aims to maximize their cooperation profits. Moreover, the battery cycle life is systematically considered and incorporated in the proposed bidding models. In addition, a payoff allocation approach based on Nash-Harsanyi Bargaining Solution is innovatively developed to allocate the extra profit of the cooperation. The proposed approach is expected to allocate the VPP with a reasonable share and reflect its real contribution in cooperation. The simulation results verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed bidding models and the payoff allocation approach.
... Although electro-chemical ESSs can be used for various stationary applications, early studies focussed on their use in bulk energy storage applications (electric time-shift and supply capacity) [35][36][37]. A few studies considered the cost performance of other stationary applications. ...
The decision to use a certain type of energy storage system for a stationary application depends largely on its economic performance. The electro-chemical energy storage systems are well known for transportation and portable applications. The evaluation of techno-economic feasibility of different electro-chemical energy storage systems for utility-scale stationary applications has received less attention. In this study, bottom-up techno- economic models were developed for five electro-chemical battery storage technologies: sodium-sulfur, lithium-ion, valve-regulated lead-acid, nickel–cadmium, and vanadium redox flow. Four stationary application scenarios – bulk energy storage, transmission and distribution investment deferral, frequency regulation, and support of voltage regulation – were assessed to evaluate the techno-economic feasibility. Life cycle costs were estimated for capacities of 5–100 MW for bulk energy storage, 5–25 MW for transmission and distribution investment deferral, 5–100 MW for frequency regulation, and 5–30 MW for support of voltage regulation. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses were carried out to examine the extent to which the levelized cost of storage is affected by changes in input parameters. The base case results show that the levelized cost of storage are in the range of $199–$941/ MWh for the sodium-sulfur, $180–$1032/MWh for the lithium-ion, $410–$1184/MWh for the valve-regulated lead-acid, $802–$1991/MWh for the nickel–cadmium, and $267–$3794/MWh for the vanadium redox flow, depending on the application scenario. The results also show that when the discharge duration increases, the levelized cost of storage decreases because of economies of scale. A vanadium redox flow battery is not economically suitable for frequency regulation and support of voltage regulation given its short discharge duration.
... If cheap energy is stored at off-peak demand periods at night, and injected into the network during periods of maximum electricity demand during the day, economics of a power generation plant improves greatly [62] [94]. This service, also known as peak-shaving, must be operable in the time frame of 1 -10h, in order to meet daily peak demand and hence, to be able to de-activate expensive peak generation plants [95][96] [97][98]. ...
... Various scholars have begun to explore the potential opportunities of integrating battery storage and renewable energy, such as Jones et al. [18], who investigated the financial viability and life-cycle assessment (LCA) of solar PV systems, including battery storage within nondomestic buildings. The financial feasibility of integrating battery storage and wind farms has also been evaluated by Ref. [20]. Other scholars have focused on the use of electricity storage at distribution level, evaluating its role in reducing demand during the peak times of a distribution network [21]. ...
This chapter discusses the transition to a low-carbon energy system and how this will involve all of us rather than just the traditional energy “Supply Side.” We will look at this from a Built Environment perspective. In this context, “we” are typically referred to as the “Demand Side.” The future energy system will see us, the occupants of the Built Environment at the heart of the system engaging interactively with both supply and demand.
Because in the United Kingdom we have a relatively old building stock and heavy reliance on natural gas for heating, one of the biggest challenges we face is decarbonizing heat. Action to reduce demand and improve energy efficiency significantly requires making intrusive change in nearly all buildings. Until recently, energy efficiency in the Built Environment has been considered at policy level to be the “low-hanging fruit.” But to pick it is in our view quite another matter and not so easy. We in the United Kingdom face a true infrastructural challenge to transform our buildings to be fit for the 21st Century and the time for implementation of the necessary changes to hit the UK carbon reduction targets is now imminent.
... NAS has been in existing since early 80s and has been used in various renewable energy project around the world [44,63] and can generate up to 1.2 MW for up to 7 h. The battery is attractive because it has good efficiency (up to 90%) [43], high power density (150-240 W/kg) [64] with low cost materials that makes it suitable for high volume mass production [44]. It has 2500 plus cycle upon reasonable depth of discharge and has 600% rated pulse power capability that can last 30 s. ...
In recent time, the concern for grid integration of wind power has been a subject of discussion in the academic community. At present, the penetration level is still moderate for most grids to accommodate. As the penetration level increases, wind power may cause additional problems to the grid due to its intermittent nature. One of the intending solutions to this problem is the adoption of energy storage. This paper examines the state of the art energy storage technology options that are capable of mitigating wind power intermittency on the grid and their challenges. It also highlighted the existing policies that aided the development of wind power and discusses the limitations of its integration into the grid. It was found that, the ability of storage technology to be effectively utilised in mitigating the wind power intermittency depends on the ramp rate of the technology, response delay time, duration of storage, maturity of technology, installation cost, efficiency of the technology, its environmental impact and the suitability of the site topology. Therefore, no single storage technology is capable of providing total solution at mitigating the effect of wind power intermittency on the grid. The effectiveness of the storage technology lies in the hybridization of the storage technologies depending on the level of cost and technical requirements.
... Dufo-López et al. [16] present an hourly management method for energy generated in grid-connected wind farms using battery storage (wind-battery systems) and hydrogen (wind-hydrogen system); these are analyzed technically and economically. They calculate the investment cost and discounted present values for large systems (2.5 MW for WT and 2 MWh for batteries). ...
Smart homes have the potential to achieve efficient energy consumption: households can profit from appropriately scheduled consumption. By 2020, 35% of all households in North America and 20% in Europe are expected to become smart homes. Developing a smart home requires considerable investment, and the householders expect a positive return. In this context, this work addresses the following question: what and/or when equipment should be bought for a specific site to gain a positive return on the investment? This work proposes a framework to guide the smart-home transition considering customized electricity usage. The framework is based on linear models and gives a simple payback analysis of each combination of equipment acquisition for any specific user taking into account geographical location and local conditions. It also possible to use the framework for equipment sizing. The results quantify the dependence of the simple payback on the site and the application.
... Thus, Cai et al. (2015) suggest that with gradually decreasing costs of battery storage systems, they can be more helpful to the short-term balancing of electricity supply and demand, and therefore reduce the costs of wind and solar prediction uncertainties. Also, Anderson and Leach (2004) and Dufo-López et al. (2009), argue that substantial sources of renewable energy such as solar and wind make storage systems crucial and, furthermore, Bitaraf et al. (2015) explicitly suggest how energy storage systems can decrease the impact of wind power forecast error. Nevertheless, many storage operators need daily forecasts of price spreads and imbalance requirements to optimize their operations, and so the emergence of storage is unlikely to dilute the value of daily forecasts. ...
This paper contributes to the general consideration of whether a policy of incentivising system operators to
improve the quality and market availability of forecasts for renewable energy outputs would be beneficial. Using
data from the German electricity market, we investigate the effect of wind and solar energy forecasts errors on
imbalance volumes and subsequent spot electricity prices. We use ordinary least squares regression, quantile
regression and autoregressive moving averages to identify these relationships using variables that have a
quarter-hourly data granularity. The results show that higher wind and solar forecast errors increase the absolute
values of imbalance volumes and that these can pass through into higher spot prices. We find that wind forecast
errors in Germany impact spot prices more than solar forecasting errors. Policy incentives to improve the accuracy
and availability of renewable energy forecasts by the system operators should therefore be encouraged.
... Various scholars have begun to explore the potential opportunities of integrating battery storage and RE, such as Jones et al (2017), who investigated the financial viability and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of solar PV systems, including battery storage within non-domestic buildings. The financial feasibility of integrating electricity storage and wind farms has also been evaluated by Dufo-López et al. (2009). Other scholars have focused on the use of electricity storage at distribution level, evaluating its role in reducing demand during the peak times of a distribution network (Walawalkar and Apt, 2008). ...
The UK’s energy system is predominantly centralised with a significant reliance on fossil fuels. The trilemma of successfully delivering energy security, equity, and environmental sustainability while dealing with an ageing energy infrastructure demands evolutionary changes within the entire energy system. In recent years the future of the UK’s energy system has attracted growing involvement by local and community-based projects for energy generation, these involvements have begun to play an increasing role in the evolution of the UK’s energy system. However, the development of these projects faces huge financial challenge due to a lack of consistent income stream and a viable business model.
The primary aim of this research is to evaluate ways to accelerate the formation and growth of Community Renewable Energy (CRE) initiatives in the UK by optimising existing community renewable energy model and developing an innovative business model that community-owned solar PV projects can take to progress under the post-subsidy conditions.
This project employed the mixed method approach including primary data collection (survey, semi-structured interviews), and the secondary data collection (desk-based literature review and reviewing Government and official reports) also, it uses the System Advisory Model as a simulation tool and business model Canvas as an analytical framework to address its aim and objectives.
This research has shown that UK’s community-based energy sector has evolved rapidly since 2008 and has seen considerable growth in 2014. The business models used by community energy projects mostly depend on grants and public subsidies. Therefore, these projects have faced substantial financial challenges since January 2016 with the reduction in public subsidies for renewable energy (e.g. Feed-In-Tariff). This study has shown these reductions caused the failure of many community-based renewable energy projects particularly solar PV projects.
This study critically investigated how the new CRE projects can be structured and developed to be financially viable when the FIT scheme is no longer available. Also, it further to explore how the integration of solar PV and electricity storage can be structured to provide demand-side response services as well as, be a feasible and financially viable model for distributed energy system and community-owned solar PV projects in the post-subsidy condition.
The outcome of this research is a developed, validated and robust innovative business model to support the development of community-owned solar projects in the UK. Under the innovative model, these projects become financially viable without the FIT, which the model can be extended to all community-owned solar projects in all localities.
... Dufo-López et al. [15] present an hourly management method for energy generated in grid-connected wind farms using battery storage (wind-battery systems) and hydrogen (wind-hydrogen system); these are analyzed technically and economically. They calculate the investment cost and discounted present values for large systems (2.5 MW for WT and 2 MWh for batteries). ...
Smart homes have the potential to achieve efficient energy consumption: households can profit from appropriately
scheduled consumption. By 2020, 35% of all households in North America and 20% in Europe are expected to become
smart homes. Developing a smart home requires considerable investment, and the householders expect a positive
return. In this context, we address the following question: what and/or when equipment should be bought for a specific
site to gain a positive return on the investment? We propose a framework to guide the smart-home transition considering
customized electricity usage. The framework is based on linear models and gives a discounted payback analysis of each
combination of equipment acquisition for a specific user. The results quantify the dependence of the discounted payback
on the site and the application.
... Second, we account for fast-responding batteries' capacity to react rapidly by calibrating our model at a 5-min granularity, which is higher than any of existing valuation models of batteries (Dufo-López, Bernal-Agustín, and Domínguez-Navarro, 2009;Yu and Foggo, 2017). In this paper, we consider both our proposed model of 5-min Real-Time optimization and a benchmark model of hourly Day-Ahead optimization. ...
Challenged by weather-dependent and intermittent outputs of renewables, modern electricity markets experience frequent price spikes and the occurrence of negative prices. Electric storage can smooth the imbalance between power supply and demand, and thus helps fully utilize renewables. To encourage the use of electric storage in the grids, an accurate valuation of storage technology is of great importance. In this paper, we focus on the use of fast-responding electric storage for Real-Time power trading and propose a novel valuation model considering the presence of price spikes and negative prices within a simulation-and-regression framework. By calibrating our model against California Independent System Operator data, we assess the economic feasibility of four real-market battery technologies: Na-S Molten Salt, Zinc Bromide Flow, Lithium Iron Phosphate, and Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum batteries. Although none of these batteries reaches breakeven of its merchant value, Na-S Molten Salt and Zinc Bromide Flow require relatively less cost reductions. Furthermore, we find that the Real-Time storage optimization is more valuable than Day-Ahead optimization by a factor of 3.12 to 16.64, suggesting that fast-responding electric storage technologies are potentially valuable if their capital costs become sufficiently low in the future.
... If cheap energy is stored at off-peak demand periods at night, and injected into the network during periods of maximum electricity demand during the day, the economics of a power generation plant improve greatly [112,143]. This service, also known as peak-shaving, must be operable in the time frame of 1 âȂŞ 10h, in order to meet daily peak demand and hence, to be able to de-activate expensive peak generation plants [144][145][146][147][148][149][150]. ...
The accelerated growth of the energy economy is still highly dependent on finite fossil fuel reserves. Modern power systems could not exist without the many forms of electricity storage that can be integrated at different levels of the power chain. This work contains a review of the most important applications in which storage provides electricity-market opportunities along with other benefits such as arbitrage, balancing and reserve power sources, voltage and frequency control, investment deferral, cost management and load shaping and levelling. Using a 5 function normalization technique a comparative assessment of 19 electrical energy storage (EES) technologies, based on their technical and operational characteristics, is carried out and the technology-application pairs identified across the power chain are presented. In terms of safety and simplicity, Pb-acid and Li-ion systems are viable options for small-scale residential applications, while advanced Pb-acid and molten-salt batteries are suited to medium-to-large scale applications including commercial and industrial consumers. In addition to their expected use in the transportation sector in the coming years, regenerative fuel cells and flow batteries have intriguing potential to offer in stationary applications once they are mature for commercialization. For large-scale/energy-management applications, pumped hydro is the most reliable energy storage option (over compressed-air alternatives) whereas flywheels, supercapacitors and superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) are still focused on power-based applications. As different parts in the power system involve different stakeholders and services, each technology with its own benefits and weaknesses requires research and development in order to emerge over others and contribute to more effective energy production in the future.
... These properties make NaS batteries suited for large scale energy storage or load leveling of the electrical grid. 26 Furthermore, the low-cost and high abundance of sodium, compared to lithium, makes sodium batteries a promising technology in the long term. It is essential to discover new solid-state sodium electrolytes that may provide higher ion conductivity and mechanical strength, as well as chemical and thermal stability. ...
Sodium compounds containing large weakly coordinating anions are explored as ion conductors. The halogenated sodium-closo-dodecaboranes (Na2B12Cl12, Na2B12Br12, and Na2B12I12) are all isostructural (Pa3̅) at room temperature. These compounds undergo an order–disorder polymorphic transition to Fm3̅m where Na+ partially occupies two crystallographic sites and [B12X12]2– anions undergo reorientational motion. These dynamic structural properties promote extreme Na+ ion conductivity up to 0.162 S/cm at elevated temperature (500 °C). The polymorphic transition temperatures increase down the halogen group (Cl < Br < I). These temperatures are much higher (475, 525, and 570 °C) than for Na2B12H12 (266 °C), which could be related to increasing anion size, mass, and the anisotropic electron density in the covalently bound halogens (B–X). The halogens may form Na–X interactions with increasing strength and directionality, which restrict dynamic motion until high temperature. The halogenated sodium-closo-dodecaboranes demonstrate excellent thermal stabilities (up to 500 °C) and may facilitate the development of new high temperature ion conductors.
... We assume the battery efficiency in both direction is the same and therefore can be derived as the square root of the roundtrip efficiency. This same approach has been carried out by other works that involve batteries, such as [34] or [35]. ...
Storage technologies and storage integration are currently key topics of research in energy systems, due to the resulting possibilities for reducing the costs of renewables integration. Off-grid power systems in particular have received wide attention around the world, as they allow electricity access in remote rural areas at lower costs than grid extension. They are usually integrated with storage units, especially batteries. A key issue in cost effectiveness of such systems is battery degradation as the battery is charged and discharged.
We present linear programming models for the optimal management of off-grid systems. The main contribution of this study is developing a methodology to include battery degradation processes inside the optimization models, through the definition of battery degradation costs. As there are very limited data that can be used to relate the battery usage with degradation issues, we propose sensitivity analyses to investigate how degradation costs and different operational patterns relate each others. The objective is to show the combinations of battery costs and performance that makes the system more economic.
... Whereas, some simplified battery lifetime models which only consider the key influences have been proved accurately enough in some applications. The lifetime model based on the rain-flow cycle counting algorithm have been successfully used in many studies and have been proved very suitable for battery lifetime analysis in a hybrid energy storage system [50][51][52]. ...
The energy balancing problem is the main challenge for the effective application of micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) in a residential context. Due to its high energy density and relative robustness, the lead-acid battery is widely used for power demand management to compensate the mismatch between the m-CHP electrical output and domestic demand. However, batteries are not suited to respond effectively to high frequency power fluctuations, but when coupled to the m-CHP, they experience frequent short-term charge/discharge cycles and abrupt power changes, which significantly decreases their lifetime. This paper addresses this problem by hybridising the lead-acid battery storage with superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) to form a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) that is coordinated by a novel sizing based droop control method. The control method for the first time considers both the capacity sizing of the HESS technologies and the droop control method of the battery and the SMES. A hardware in the loop test circuit is developed coupling with the real time digital simulator (RTDS) to verify the performance of the HESS with the new control algorithm. The experimental results show that control method is able to exploit the different characteristics of the SMES and the battery to meet the mismatch of m-CHP power generation and domestic demand. In addition, the lifetime analysis is implemented in this paper to quantify the battery lifetime extension in the HESS, which further proves the validity of the proposed control strategy.
... Batteries as storage units are new active components in modern distribution networks. Literature review shows that battery energy storage units can be used for several purposes such as frequency control [1], voltage sag mitigation [2,3], voltage regulation [4,5,6], load following [7,8], peak cutting [9][10][11], spinning reserve [12,13] and dispatching of renewable sources [14][15][16]. ...
This paper proposes an optimal scheduling for charge/discharge of centralized storage units within a distribution network. The storage units are used not only for peak cutting but also for decreasing energy not supplied due to failure events. The impact of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) charging on the optimal scheduling is taken into account as well. PEVs load demand is modeled using a stochastic approach based on the Monte Carlo simulation. Then, a Tabu search algorithm is utilized in order to fulfill the optimal scheduling of battery energy storages considering the extracted load demand of PEVs. Numerical studies on a typical distribution network show the impacts of various penetration levels of PEVs on the optimal scheduling issue. It should be mentioned that characteristics of the distribution network as well as the location of the stationary batteries affect the optimal scheduling.
... Finally, the battery life time in years is calculated from number of cycles and number of cycles to failure at each DoD, as follows ? [30] ...
Due to its intermittent nature, high wind penetration requires more flexibility in the electric power grid to provide the balance. Large scale energy storage is one such option that allows the intermittency to be absorbed in real time. Two types of large scale energy storage technologies including Sodium Sulpher (NaS) battery and compressed air energy storage (CAES) are studied in this paper. In this paper CAES is modeled and evaluated as a large-scale mechanical energy storage unit highlighting its various operational characteristics. This paper focuses on how to maximize the wind energy penetration level while satisfying all the system constraints including wind spill energy constraint and power balance equations. This problem is solved considering different combinations of CAES and NaS battery scenarios. The problem is formulated as a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) solved by CPLEX. To showcase the applicability of the proposed approach, a simulation case study based on a real-world 15-minute interval wind data from Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) in 2013 is presented.
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are a potential solution to the rising issues of electricity price volatility and curtailment of British wind energy. This study performs an extensive and knowledge graph...
High energy consumption and exhaust emissions in the ocean have gradually come into view, and in the 21st century, most countries bordering the sea are gradually strengthening the construction of the ocean. Therefore, it is urgent to reform the energy structure of the ocean engineering platform, so as to increase the use of renewable energy in the ocean engineering platform. This paper reviewed the application of hybrid renewable energy systems (HRESs) consisting of photovoltaic systems (PV), wind turbines (WT), diesel generators (DG) and battery energy storage systems (BESS) in remote areas, ships and islands. Furthermore, the article made an economic analysis of a HRES based on the actual situation of an island in Qingdao, China. The results show that PV (110 kW)/DG (210 kW)/BESS (355 kWh) hybrid system is introduced as a suitable HRES can reduce 0.153 $/kWh cost of energy (COE) and 235,945 kg/year emission of CO2 for the island. In addition, HRESs that include BESS have significant advantages in terms of fuel usage and greenhouse gas emissions compared to HRESs without BESS. Compared with a single DG, the diesel consumption of PV/DG/BESS system is reduced by 90,137 L/year and CO2 emissions are reduced by 235,945 kg/year Therefore, the HRES composed of PV, WT, DG and BESS has good economic benefits and application prospects.
In the present scenario, the development of the wind energy conversion system has increasingly gained attention worldwide to fulfill the global energy demand. The most challenging factor for power system planners and utility operators is the integration of the wind energy to the existing grid due to its intermittency, partial unpredictability, and variability nature in power output. This nature of wind can create problems such as uncertainty in generation, power quality issues, and voltage stability. To overcome all these challenges electrical storage technologies are considered as one of the acceptable and reliable solutions by controlling wind power plant output and providing ancillary services to the power system and therefore enabling increased penetration of wind power in the system. A sole storage unit is not suitable for wind farms due to its restricted capacity. Therefore, the hybrid energy storage system (HESS) technology is more suitable to obtain the expected performance by integrating two or more storage units in various topologies. This chapter focuses on the different power converter topologies used in HESS; interfacing units, power management, and control methods are briefly reviewed here. Finally, the potential of the HESS application in the wind energy system is listed out.
The increasing integration of renewable energy sources makes balancing an electricity grid challenging due to their intermittency. Renewable energy can be curtailed especially when production exceeds demand or when there are transmission and/or distribution network congestions within a grid. However, curtailment would become unnecessary with battery storage, provided the battery storage has enough available storage capacity, which can store energy during the time of excess generation and in turn discharge it to the grid once the demand is high during peak times. Hence, stored energy from batteries can potentially offset supply from expensive and environmentally harmful peak plants e.g. open/combined cycle gas turbine. We investigated the techno-economic prospects of the utilisation of curtailed energy from the wind with bulk battery storage to replace open and combined cycle gas turbine power plants, by taking the UK as a case study. A techno-economic model to size and optimise a Li-ion type battery was developed. The optimisation aimed to determine at what cost and size the storage can be commercially viable for grid-level energy applications. Results show that under base case assumptions of a 15% day to day curtailment from wind and £200/kWh battery cost, an optimised battery size of 1.25 GWh could supply 285 GWh peak demand per annum and its corresponding net present value of £22.4m, internal rate of return of 1.7% and a payback period of 14 years could be achieved. However, to achieve the internal rate of return of 8%, a minimum hurdle rate for investment, the cost of battery would need to be below £150/kWh. Sensitivity analysis with parameters such as curtailed wind, depth of discharge, battery efficiency, and cost and income of battery shows that all techno-economic parameters considered in this research have a significant impact on the commercial viability of battery storage for grid applications.
Incorporation of wind power with the current power grids and electricity related markets is an arduous task because of its volatile essence. As a result, there is a need for extra capacity as backup as wind power and battery are integral to one another. This research delves into the utilization of a lithium-ion battery storage system to reduce day ahead bid changes and market integration issues that exist due to sporadic disposition of wind power in Turkey. This research uses data from a 30 MW wind farm and considers added Lithium-ion batteries. Financial analyses have been carried out with lithium-ion investment, variable costs, and current market prices considered. Net present value of both systems was discovered as positive. This research advocates the use of storage systems for the developing countries such as Turkey. It demonstrates that with the drop of battery prices, storage systems have the potential to serve as more applicable options. Furthermore, the importance of energy storage regulation for storage system to enter the market is demonstrated.
Among the different Power to Gas hybridizations proposed to improve the efficiency of PtG energy storage technology, the integration with amine scrubbing process as carbon source is the most mature option. The concept, main operation parameters and points of integration are described in the first section of this chapter. Two application cases are also presented to illustrate the real operation and efficiencies of the concept. First, an integration with electrochemical industry is presented. This configuration, which appears to be economically feasible under current scenario, avoids the typical water electrolysis stage of PtG since hydrogen is available. A second case study describes a new concept to control nuclear power production through the joint operation of a nuclear power plant, a coal power plant with amine scrubbing capture and a PtG plant. The cost effectiveness of this technology and its capability to reduce the CO2 emissions are assessed through the design and economic and environmental analysis of a hybrid facility.
This chapter aims to demonstrate that Power to Gas can be effectively integrated with carbon capture processes to increase the global efficiency of the energy storage and provide a carbon source for fuel conversion. In particular there are two capture technologies analysed and applied to industrial boilers: amine scrubbing and oxyfuel technologies. In the last option, optimum integration could be achieved by using the oxygen from Power to Gas into the oxyfuel combustion process. Moreover, in both options, the suggested energy integration uses methanation heat to supply thermal energy to the CO2 capture or for industrial process.
This book presents a detailed analysis of Power-to-Gas, a promising energy storage technology. It discusses the main mechanisms involved, and presents two Power-to-Gas and carbon capture hybridizations.
The book begins by providing an introduction to energy storage technologies. It then reviews a number of Power-to-Gas projects now in progress, highlighting the current barriers to commercializing the technology. Moreover, the book presents two novel Power-to-Gas hybridizations, which improve the technology’s applicability in terms of efficiency, utilization of resources and profitability.
Given its scope, the book will be of interest to graduate students, researchers and practitioners in the fields of engineering and energy.
Carbon capture and energy storage technologies will play an important role in the future energy system under high share of renewable electricity generation. This chapter reviews the energy storage technologies, with special attention to the potential use in electricity grid services, and the current status of CO2 capture technologies. The Power to Fuel concept emerges as the natural bridge between energy and CO2 storage and integrates in a smart energy system to all the involved sectors: power, transport, building and industry.
WO3 electrodes coated with co-binary Cu2-xTe and Bi2Te3 thin films were fabricated for sodium-sulfur (Na–S) batteries. Film fabrication was controlled by adjusting the pH of the solution and the indium doping concentration. The phases of orthorhombic CuTe and hexagonal Cu2Te with rhombohedral Bi2Te3 were formed on the WO3 electrode. After In³⁺ doping, In³⁺ ions act as Frenkel defects in the Cu2-xTe structure. This indicated that In³⁺ ions are located at interstitial sites in the Cu2-xTe structure with higher defect creation energy. Furthermore, more interconnected-like nanoparticles and reduced porosity were observed, thereby indicating that indium segregation with grain boundaries presented and contributed to an enhancement of the surface mobility, nucleation density, and a smoother surface. For electrochemical characteristics, a polysulfide solution was used as a redox electrolyte for ion transport. Optimization of the pH and indium concentration attributed to improve the exchange current density (J0) and time responses for the colored and bleached states because of faster movement of Na⁺ and S²⁻ ions during inter/de-intercalation. Furthermore, optimization of the electrode by adjusting the pH and doping with indium is advantageous for both Na–S and rechargeable batteries because of long life cycle, reasonably high power and energy density of 306 W/kg and 9.35 Wh/kg, respectively. The highest specific capacity (Cs) values of the charge and discharge cycles for In³⁺-doped electrodes are ∼ 21 and 19 mAh/g, respectively with the coulombic efficiency approximates 100% (average value of ∼96%). This approach may provide a general path for the fabrication of undoped and In³⁺-doped co-binary Cu2-xTe and Bi2Te3 films on WO3 electrodes and may increase our knowledge regarding Na–S batteries for further performance improvement.
This paper proposes a restorability improvement strategy to accelerate system restoration through the implementation of a wind farm-battery energy storage system (WF-BESS) system. The concept of restorability is introduced and a restorability improvement model (RIM) is proposed and formulated as a mixed integer linear programming problem. To simulate the cylinder temperature drop during outages, the cranking time of a unit is modeled as a stepwise function of its startup time in the RIM. The WF might fail to meet its scheduled generation outputs optimized by the RIM due to the intermittency of wind. To tackle this problem, a linearized control strategy for the BESS (CSBESS) is proposed to minimize the difference between the scheduled wind power outputs and the combined power of the WF-BESS system. An iterative method is employed to efficiently solve the RIM and CSBESS by introducing optimality cuts. An actual power system case is employed to illustrate the effective performance of the proposed approach.
Electric energy storage systems (EESS) have received an increased attention in recent years due to their important role in an active management of energy supply systems. Fueled by the increasing shares of intermitting Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in today's energy supply, balancing energy demand and energy supply over time becomes more and more challenging. EESS are recognized as a key technology to overcome this challenge by storing energy and converting it back when needed. Even though some EESS solutions are already available on the market, EESS suffer from technical limitations and entail high investment costs. Energy management is responsible for managing the operations of EESS and the interactions with the surrounding systems. An optimal energy management is an important precondition to ensure economic viability of EESS.
Implementing battery energy storage system (BESS) in wind power plant provide an opportunity to the plant operator to make a balance between energy supply and demand in a profitable way. The aim of this paper is to design a controller based on model predictive control (MPC) theory along with a nonlinear battery energy storage model to manage the amount of energy which is generated and sold to the electricity market with respect to plant and battery constraints. The proposed control scheme follows a decision policy of selling more energy at high price regime and storing it when price is low in compliance with the electricity market pattern of Australia. The goal of the control is to maximize profit of selling energy dispatched to the grid while using BESS, given forecasted dispatch price and wind power. The efficiency of this control strategy has been evaluated in simulation enshrinement by applying to actual data taken from an Australian wind farm and NSW electricity market.
Sodium sulfur battery is one of the most promising candidates for energy storage applications. This paper describes the basic features of sodium sulfur battery and summarizes the recent development of sodium sulfur battery and its applications in stationary energy storage. The research work in the Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (SICCAS) on beta-Al2O3 ceramics and the sodium sulfur battery is also introduced.
In 1993, the National Renewable Laboratory (NREL) made an assessment of the available tools from the United States and Europe for predicting the long-term performance of hybrid power systems. By hybrid power the authors mean combinations of two or more power sources wind turbines, photovoltaics (PV), diesel gensets, or other generators into integrated systems for electric power generation in remote locations. Their conclusion was that there was no single, user-friendly tool capable of modeling the full range of hybrid power technologies being considered for the 1990s and beyond. The existing tools were, in particular, lacking flexibility in system configuration and in dispatch of components. As a result, NREL developed a specification for a model, called HYBRID2, for making comparisons of competing technology options on a level playing field. This specification was prepared with a range of potential users in mind including not only the US Department of Energy (DOE) renewable energy programs, but also the US wind industry, technical consultants, international development institutions/banks, and rural electrification programs in developing countries. During 1994, NREL and subcontractor, the University of Massachusetts (UMass), began development of HYBRID2 with funding from the DOE Wind Energy Program. It builds on the wind/diesel model, HYBRID1, developed previously by UMass, and expands that model to accommodate the wider array of technologies used in hybrid power systems. This paper will provide an overview of the model's features, functions, and status.
Abstract This article discusses briefly the status of energy storage technologies and explores opportunities for their application in the rapidly changing US energy marketplace. Traditionally, electric utility energy storage has been used to store low-priced purchased or generated electric energy for later sale or use when energy cost would otherwise be much higher. But deregulation and restructuring in the electric industry, coupled with an expanding portfolio of storage alternatives, may lead to many new opportunities for energy storage, especially within the energy distribution infrastructure, and for maintaining or providing power quality at large customer sites. Small, modular, robust energy storage technologies could be used to solve a range of energy supply and infrastructure-related needs. This article provides quantitative evidence of utility-related energy storage status, benefits, and opportunities.
This investigation examines the economics of producing electricity from proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell systems under various conditions, including the possibility of using fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) to produce power when they are parked at office buildings and residences. The analysis shows that the economics of both stationary fuel cell and FCV-based power vary significantly with variations in key input variables such as the price of natural gas, electricity prices, fuel cell and reformer system costs, and fuel cell system durability levels. The “central case” results show that stationary PEM fuel cell systems can supply electricity for offices and homes in California at a net savings when fuel cell system costs reach about $6000 for a 5 kW home system ($1200/kW) and $175,000 for a 250 kW commercial system ($700/kW) and assuming somewhat favorable natural gas costs of $6/GJ at residences and $4/GJ at commercial buildings. Grid-connected FCVs in commercial settings can also potentially supply electricity at competitive rates, in some cases producing significant annual benefits. Particularly attractive is the combination of net metering along with time-of-use electricity rates that allow power to be supplied to the utility grid at the avoided cost of central power plant generation. FCV-based power at individual residences does not appear to be as attractive, at least where FCV power can only be used directly or banked with the utility for net metering and not sold in greater quantity, due to the low load levels at these locations that provide a poor match to automotive fuel cell operation, higher natural gas prices than are available at commercial settings, and other factors.
Unlike markets for storable commodities, electricity markets depend on the real-time balance of supply and demand. Although much of the present-day grid operates effectively without storage, cost-effective ways of storing electrical energy can help make the grid more efficient and reliable. We investigate the economics of two emerging electric energy storage (EES) technologies: sodium sulfur batteries and flywheel energy storage systems in New York state's electricity market. The analysis indicates that there is a strong economic case for EES installations in the New York City region for applications such as energy arbitrage, and that significant opportunities exist throughout New York state for regulation services. Benefits from deferral of system upgrades may be important in the decision to deploy EES. Market barriers currently make it difficult for energy-limited EES such as flywheels to receive revenue for voltage regulation. Charging efficiency is more important to the economics of EES in a competitive electricity market than has generally been recognized.
The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) installed a distributed battery energy storage system in 1994 at a substation near San Juan, Puerto Rico. It was patterned after two other large energy storage systems operated by electric utilities in California and Germany. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Energy Storage Systems Program at Sandia National Laboratories has followed the progress of all stages of the project since its inception. It directly supported the critical battery room cooling system design by conducting laboratory thermal testing of a scale model of the battery under simulated operating conditions. The Puerto Rico facility is at present the largest operating battery storage system in the world and is successfully providing frequency control, voltage regulation, and spinning reserve to the Caribbean island. The system further proved its usefulness to the PREPA network in the fall of 1998 in the aftermath of Hurricane Georges. The owner-operator, PREPA, and the architect/engineer, vendors, and contractors learned many valuable lessons during all phases of project development and operation. In documenting these lessons, this report will help PREPA and other utilities in planning to build large energy storage systems.
A multifunctional energy storage system is presented which is used to improve the utilization of renewable energy supplies. This system includes three different functions: (i) uninterruptible power supply (UPS); (ii) improvement of power quality; (iii) peak-load shaving. The UPS application has a long tradition and is used whenever a reliable power supply is needed. Additionally, nowadays, there is a growing demand for high quality power arising from an increase of system perturbation of electric grids. Peak-load shaving means in this case the use of renewable energy stored in a battery for high peak-load periods. For such a multifunctional application large lead–acid batteries with high power and good charge acceptance, as well as good cycle life are needed. OCSM batteries as with positive tubular plates and negative copper grids have been used successfully for a multitude of utility applications. This paper gives two examples where multifunctional energy storage systems have started operation recently in Germany. One system was installed in combination with a 1 MW solar plant in Herne and another one was installed in combination with a 2 MW wind farm in Bocholt. At each place, a 1.2 MW h (1 h-rate) lead–acid battery has been installed. The batteries consist of OCSM cells with the standard design but modified according to the special demand of a multifunctional application.
In this work, a parametric cost-benefit analysis concerning the use of integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) technology (with and without carbon capture and storage) is carried out. For the analysis, the IPP optimization software is used in which the electricity unit cost from various power generation technologies is calculated. For comparison purposes, the Rankine cycle (with heavy fuel oil or coal as fuel) and the combined cycle (with natural gas or gasoil as fuel) technologies are also examined. The parametric study carried out, using a range of load factors from 50% to 90% and a range of efficiencies for IGCC technology between 40% and 55%, yields encouraging results for the viability of this emerging technology.
DC back-up power is vital to most refinery and oil production processes. The environment associated with many of these back-up supplies is usually aggressive. If the battery were to fail, the results would be costly. This type of problem is avoidable through the application of an alternative class of battery. This is but one aspect for consideration when selecting batteries. The authors will review real life scenarios of wrong choices and offer alternative solutions. The intent of the Paper is to offer suggestion when selecting batteries so as to avoid dramatic repercussions
Electricity generated from renewable sources, which has shown remarkable growth worldwide, can rarely provide immediate response to demand as these sources do not deliver a regular supply easily adjustable to consumption needs. Thus, the growth of this decentralized production means greater network load stability problems and requires energy storage, generally using lead batteries, as a potential solution. However, lead batteries cannot withstand high cycling rates, nor can they store large amounts of energy in a small volume. That is why other types of storage technologies are being developed and implemented. This has led to the emergence of storage as a crucial element in the management of energy from renewable sources, allowing energy to be released into the grid during peak hours when it is more valuable.The work described in this paper highlights the need to store energy in order to strengthen power networks and maintain load levels. There are various types of storage methods, some of which are already in use, while others are still in development. We have taken a look at the main characteristics of the different electricity storage techniques and their field of application (permanent or portable, long- or short-term storage, maximum power required, etc.). These characteristics will serve to make comparisons in order to determine the most appropriate technique for each type of application.
The non-combustion based renewable electricity generation technologies were assessed against a range of sustainability indicators and using data obtained from the literature. The indicators used to assess each technology were price of generated electricity, greenhouse gas emissions during full life cycle of the technology, availability of renewable sources, efficiency of energy conversion, land requirements, water consumption and social impacts. The cost of electricity, greenhouse gas emissions and the efficiency of electricity generation were found to have a very wide range for each technology, mainly due to variations in technological options as well as geographical dependence of each renewable energy source. The social impacts were assessed qualitatively based on the major individual impacts discussed in literature. Renewable energy technologies were then ranked against each indicator assuming that indicators have equal importance for sustainable development. It was found that wind power is the most sustainable, followed by hydropower, photovoltaic and then geothermal. Wind power was identified with the lowest relative greenhouse gas emissions, the least water consumption demands and with the most favourable social impacts comparing to other technologies, but requires larger land and has high relative capital costs.
If intermittent renewable energy technologies such as those based on solar, wind, wave and tidal resources are eventually to supply significant shares of total energy supplies, it is crucial that the energy storage problem is solved. There are several (long-recognised) possibilities ahead including compressed air, pumped storage, further developments in batteries, regenerable fuel cells, ‘super-capacitors’ and so forth. But one that is being revisited extensively by industry and research establishments is the production and storage of hydrogen from electricity at off-peak times, and in times when there would be a surplus of renewable energy, for reuse in the electricity, gas and transport markets; short-term and even seasonal and longer-term storage is technically feasible with this option. This paper looks at the costs of the option both in the near-term and the long-term relative to the current costs of electricity and natural gas supplies. While the costs of hydrogen would necessarily be greater than those of natural gas (though not disruptively so), when used in conjunction with emerging technologies for decentralised generation and combined heat and power there is scope for appreciable economies in electricity supply. A lot will depend on innovation at the systems level, and on how we operate our electricity and gas grids and regulate our electricity and gas industries. We have also suggested that we now need to experiment more, at the commercial level, and in the laboratories, with the hydrogen option.
Electricity grids with a high penetration of fluctuating energy production from wind and solar energy sources bear a risk of electricity over-production. A surplus of renewable energy can arise at times of high production when the energy volume cannot be absorbed by the electricity grid. Furthermore, the control of the stochastic power fluctuations has to be addressed since these will result in changes to grid stability.Producing hydrogen from excess electricity is one approach to solve these problems. This hydrogen can either be sold outside the electricity market, for instance as vehicle fuel, or re-converted into electricity, for instance as a means of controlling wind power output.This paper describes two different wind-hydrogen systems and analyses the ensuing costs of hydrogen per unit of energy service (i.e. kWh and Nm3). If hydrogen is to represent a practical fuel alternative, it has to compete with conventional energy carriers. If this is not possible on strictly (micro-) economic terms, at least a macro-economic calculation, in this case including all external costs of energy services, needs to show competitiveness.
A method for assessment of wind–hydrogen (H2) energy systems is presented. The method includes chronological simulations and economic calculations, enabling optimised component sizing and calculation of H2 cost. System components include a wind turbine, electrolyser, compressor, storage tank and power converter. A case study on a Norwegian island is presented. The commuting ferry is modelled as a H2 ferry, representing the H2 demand. The evaluation includes a grid-connected system and an isolated system with a backup power generator. Simulation results show that much larger components are needed for the isolated system. H2 cost amounted to and for the grid-connected and isolated system, respectively. Sensitivity analyses show that a marginal decrease in wind turbine and electrolyser cost will reduce the H2 cost substantially. Rate of return is also important due to high investment costs. The grid-connected system is by far the most economical, but the system involves frequent grid interaction.
Benjamin K. Sovacool is currently a Research Fellow in the Energy Governance Program at the Centre on Asia and Globalization, part of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at the National University of Singapore. He is also an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, where he has taught for the Government and International Affairs Program and the Department of History. He has worked closely with the U.S. National Science Foundation's Electric Power Networks Efficiency and Security Program, Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research, New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and U.S. Department of Energy's Climate Change Technology Program. Portions of this article are based on a forthcoming book entitled The Dirty Energy Dilemma: What's Blocking Clean Power in the United States (to be published by Praeger). He can be reached at bsovacool@nus.edu.sg.
Two simple algorithms for performing rainflow counting are presented in this paper. The second algorithm is suitable for microcomputer devices that are placed in vehicles to record field data.
Integration of distributed energy resources (DER) into distribution systems is a new concept for improving system capacity and stability, feeder voltage, and supply quality and reliability. This paper has addressed voltage support in distribution systems by energy injection from a battery storage distributed energy system. An operation strategy for an inverter interface battery energy storage DER has been developed for maximum improvement in feeder voltage with minimum energy injection from the DER. A control strategy has been proposed for inverter based battery storage DER to regulate network voltage effectively, through operating the DER to generate real (P) and reactive (Q) power with Q priority. The implementation of the inverter interface DER with battery energy storage will save fuel cost of DER but be of much higher capital cost than using a rotary generator. The proposed technique has been evaluated by simulation on a three-phase distribution system with time varying loads. Test results indicate that DER operating with Q priority offers the best solution for maximum voltage improvement. The results also confirm that DER injecting P and Q at the ratio of maximum voltage sensitivity of line presents better solution for power loss reduction than the solution offered by the DER operating with Q priority.
This paper presents a novel strategy, optimized by genetic algorithms, to control stand-alone hybrid renewable electrical systems with hydrogen storage. The strategy optimizes the control of the hybrid system minimizing the total cost throughout its lifetime. The optimized hybrid system can be composed of renewable sources (wind, PV and hydro), batteries, fuel cell, AC generator and electrolyzer. If the renewable sources produce more energy than the one required by the loads, the spare energy can be used either to charge the batteries or to produce H2 in the electrolyzer. The control strategy optimizes how the spare energy is used. If the amount of energy demanded by the loads is higher than the one produced by the renewable sources, the control strategy determines the most economical way to meet the energy deficit. The optimization of the various system control parameters is done using genetic algorithms. This paper explains the strategy developed and shows its application to a PV–diesel–battery–hydrogen system.
The deployment of wind energy is constrained by wind uncontrollability, which poses operational problems on the electricity supply system at high penetration levels, lessening the value of wind-generated electricity to a significant extent. This paper studies the viability of hydrogen production via electrolysis using wind power that cannot be easily accommodated on the system. The potential benefits of hydrogen and its role in enabling a large penetration of wind energy are assessed, within the context of the enormous wind energy resource in Ireland. The exploitation of this wind resource may in the future give rise to significant amounts of surplus wind electricity, which could be used to produce hydrogen, the zero-emissions fuel that many experts believe will eventually replace fossil fuels in the transport sector. In this paper the operation of a wind powered hydrogen production system is simulated and optimised. The results reveal that, even allowing for significant cost-reductions in electrolyser and associated balance-of-plant equipment, low average surplus wind electricity cost and a high hydrogen market price are also necessary to achieve the economic viability of the technology. These conditions would facilitate the installation of electrolysis units of sufficient capacity to allow an appreciable increase in installed wind power in Ireland. The simulation model was also used to determine the CO2 abatement potential associated with the wind energy/hydrogen production.
Redox-flow battery systems have been investigated for sixteen years. Initially developed in the U.S.A., such batteries have since interested many researchers worldwide. It seems that development is not yet exhausted and, in recent years, many industries (practically all in Japan) have made great efforts to produce practical cells.In this paper, following an initial brief summary of the redox principle, the main reports and the activity they describe have been listed, with one or two minor exceptions, historically.
Energy storage is required to match wind generation to consumption. This time shifting can be accomplished with several hours of storage, but studies have shown that the economic value of such storage systems is unlikely to support their widespread use. This does not mean that the outlook is uniformly bleak for storage with wind power. This paper discusses storage systems ranging from a few seconds of run time to several hours, and provides a rationale for the use of systems with several minutes of run time to support a high penetration of wind power into weak electricity grids.
The sodium-sulfur battery has been under development by Tokyo
Electric Power Company and NGK Insulators, Ltd., since 1983. Its long
term reliability and high performance have been confirmed in more than
twenty demonstration projects dating from 1992. This report summarizes
the latest advancements in Na-S battery development and deployment,
including early investigations of power quality and hybrid wind energy
applications
EPRI-DOE Handbook Supplement of Energy Storage for Grid Connected Wind Generation Applications
- Palo Epri
- C A Alto
- Department
- Energy
An Assessment of Battery and Hydrogen Energy Storage Systems Integrated with Wind Energy Resources in California
- T E Lipman
- R Ramos
- D M Kammen
Order ITC/3860/2007 of the 28th of December, by which the electricity prices are revised as from the 1st of
- Itc Order
NaS Battery Installations in Japan
- T Oshima
- S Atsumi
- T Takayama
- A Okuno
Dimensionado y control óptimos de sistemas híbridos aplicando algoritmos evolutivos (Design and control of hybrid systems using evolutionary algorithms)
- R Dufo-López
GRHYSO (Grid-connected Renewable HYbrid Systems Optimization)
- R Dufo-López
- J L Bernal-Agustín