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Tracking the Sun: The Installed Cost of Photovoltaics in the U.S. from 1998-2007
Abstract
As installations of grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have grown, so too has the desire to track the installed cost of these systems over time, by system characteristics, by system location, and by component. This report helps to fill this need by summarizing trends in the installed cost of grid-connected PV systems in the United States from 1998 through 2007. The report is based on an analysis of installed cost data from nearly 37,000 residential and non-residential PV systems, totaling 363 MW of capacity, and representing 76percent of all grid-connected PV capacity installed in the U.S. through 2007.
... In addition, c-Si and CdTe panels in Europe have a current cost of around W 0.62 €/ p , whereas a-Si is around W 0.44 €/ p [74][75][76]. For most PV power plants, the cost of PV panels and inverters account for over half the upfront costs [77][78][79][80], while the other components of the initial investment costs are associated with the installation labour costs, other material costs (components required for mounting and racking the PV system, electrical components…), overhead costs and regulatory compliance costs. Due to economies of scale, the size of the PV power plant has a notable effect on the cost of the installation. ...
... Due to economies of scale, the size of the PV power plant has a notable effect on the cost of the installation. Smaller systems -several kW-exhibit higher installation costs than larger systems -MW-range-, accounting for a 25% reduction in some cases [78,33]. In [81] is analysed the evolution of the PV power plant installation cost in Spain, from 1998 to 2013, depending on the PV plant capacity. ...
... Upfront costs also vary by country [82,83,62,66,84,14,85]. For example, the installation cost for small PV systems in 2007 was larger in the U.S. than in Germany [78], which may be partly due to the greater cumulative grid-connected PV capacity in Germany. ...
Solar technology development in recent years has facilitated access to solar PV systems at increasingly competitive costs. This paper analyses the influence of solar technology on the economic performance of different topologies of PV power plants. An economic model is proposed and used to identify the most suitable type of installation for a wide range of input parameters. One of the main input parameters of the model developed is the location of the power plant in one of the seven EU countries with the largest PV growth. Location affects not only the solar irradiation received by the solar modules but also the costs associated with both the installation and the operation of the power plants. A detailed review of the costs related to PV power plants is presented. The size of the power plant as well as the PV technology and tracking system implemented are additional inputs of the economic model. This paper reviews the technological evolution of the PV sector, focusing not only on improvements in solar cell efficiency but also on the types of installed technology around the world. The three most widespread specific PV technologies are further analysed to find the type of installation most suited to a given country. In addition to the traditional financial indices commonly used to evaluate the economic performance of a project, the minimum feed-in tariff remuneration indicator is proposed and estimated in this work. Results are thus of great interest to investors, policy makers, and other stakeholders interested in the development of PV power plants.
... For most solar PV installations, the cost of PV panels and inverters can account for over half the costs (Ventre et al., 2001;Wiser et al., 2009;IRENA, 2012;Ossenbrink et al., 2013;Wirth, 2016). In 1996, the average price for c-Si modules was around 3.50 €/W p (Kumar, 2015). ...
... Due to economies of scale, the size of the PV power plant has a notable effect on the cost of the installation. Smaller systemsseveral kWexhibit higher installation costs per kW than larger systems -MW-range -, accounting for a 25% reduction in some cases (Wiser et al., 2009;Tyagi et al., 2013). ...
... Upfront costs are also highly dependent on the country (Novãk et al., 2011;Neubourg, 2014;IEA, 2015c;Tselepis, 2015;Huijben et al., 2016;Papadelis et al., 2016). According to the study conducted by Wiser et al. (2009), the installation cost for small PV systems in 2007 was larger in the U.S. than in Germany, which may be partly motivated by the greater cumulative grid-connected PV capacity in Germany compared to the U.S. This is in line with the information from the report of IRENA (2012), which shows that from 2009 PV panels are around 15% more expensive in EU than in the U.S. ...
In the last fifteen years, Europe has been involved in the major development of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy. The Kyoto Protocol requirements and the European Union (EU) directives to promote the use of renewable energy sources (RES) together with environmental policies introduced for the development and use of alternative energies have generated a large number of market opportunities for this sector. Differences in the application of energy policies have caused significant imbalances in electricity systems and distortion of electricity prices. The main concern of governments is to define the support schemes to be used and how to combine them in the most profitable manner. The aim of this paper is to provide a comparative cost-effectiveness assessment using feed-in tariffs (FiT) and net-metering (NM) schemes in some representative EU countries. The authors have developed an economic model to evaluate the profitability of PV projects combining these support schemes. Results show not only the circumstances under which solar energy is economically profitable, but also the kind of PV systems, locations, minimum levels of tariff prices and specific combination of support schemes that should be promoted.
... The market for PV systems is global and driven by public policy initiatives (Jennings et al., 2008;Wiser et al., 2009). Feed-in tariffs, renewable energy portfolio standards, tax credits, and rebates create a demand-side pull that accelerate the accumulation of PV installations. ...
... The approach to quantifying benefits was conceptually the same. 35 Wiser et al. (2009) reviewed the installed cost of 363 MW of grid-connected residential and nonresidential PV systems from 1998 to 2007. The authors reviewed installed cost reductions from gains in nonmodule PV system components and reviewed how wide-ranging and intermittent federal, state, and local rebates and incentives influenced the installed cost over time. ...
... In their introduction, the authors highlight the more than 20-year role of public-sector financing in supporting the industry and improving the risk profile to the point where professional investment groups were willing to invest. Both Wiser et al. (2009) andJennings et al. (2008) underscore the historical importance of demand-side incentives for building the market for and demand for PV systems. ...
... System cost reductions are also correlated with PV market expansion [98,99,101]; a more developed PV market will tend to be characterized by: Greater competition among system developers and installers, which reduces margins ...
... The former are on average cheaper than the latter, as system price does not scale linearly with system size. 7 Similar trends have been found in US PV system prices [98,99,101]. ...
... PV module prices have been 90% and 180% of global average module price in countries with PV markets above 100 MW/y and below 5 MW/y, respectively.5 Similar patterns are reported in the USA, as highlighted in[98,99,101] ...
An effective energy technology strategy has to balance between setting a stable long term framework for innovation, while also responding to more immediate changes in technology cost and performance. Over the last decade, rather than a steady progression along an established learning curve, PV costs and prices have been volatile, with increases or plateaus followed by rapid reductions. The paper describes, and considers the causes of, recent changes in PV costs and prices at module and system level, both international trends and more place-specific contexts. It finds that both module and system costs and price trends have reflected multiple overlapping forces. Established forecasting methods – experience curves and engineering assessments – have limited ability to capture key learning effects behind recent PV cost and price trends: production scale effects, industrial re-organization and shakeouts, international trade practices and national market dynamics. These forces are likely to remain prominent aspect of technology learning effects in the foreseeable future – and so are in need of improved, more explicit representation in energy technology forecasting.
... However, the overall lifetime of the current inverter products are difficult to predict, as these products have not been available long enough to obtain their lifetime results (Deline et al., 2011). According to the literature (Barbose et al., 2010; Branker et al., 2011; Zweibel, 2010) the replacement cost is assumed to be 9% of the initial investment of the system. The inverters selected for this work are the SMA – Sunny boy 1300TL and 5000TL since they present the best efficiency values (SMA, 2012) with efficiency values of 94.6% and 97.5% respectively. ...
... However, the overall lifetime of the current inverter products are difficult to predict, as these products have not been available long enough to obtain their lifetime results(Deline et al., 2011). According to(Barbose et al., 2010; Branker et al., 2011; Zweibel, 2010) the replacement cost is assumed to be 9% of the initial investment of the system. The inverters selected for this work are the SMA - Sunny boy 1300TL and 5000TL since they present the best efficiency values(SMA, 2012) with efficiency values of 94.6% and 97.5% respectively. ...
Over the last few years, feed-in tariff for PV Systems in many countries have been significantly reduced and new regulations are being placed to promote the development of renewable energy and support self-consumption by paying lower grid-injected electricity tariffs compared to regular electricity price. The purpose of this paper is to analyze a representative set of countries, including Australia, Brazil, China, Germany, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, United Kingdom, and the United States of America, to identify the ones with the best investment opportunities considering the new regulations. Two case studies are included in this paper with different sizes of solar photovoltaic systems (1 kW and 5 kW). Each case study includes four different consumption scenarios ranging from 100% self-consumption to 30%. Overall, the results show that the most profit can be made in Australia, Germany, and Italy. In these countries, it is possible to quadruple the investment during the 25-year period with a 5 kW PV system which is roughly 13% higher than most European countries. Furthermore, this study explores the current policies and conditions of small-scale solar PV industry in the selected countries, providing enormous benefit to various entities namely policy makers, investors, and researchers who are working under the solar energy domain.
... Similarly, production of lower purity, and thus cheaper solar-grade silicon is now profitable because plants can be built at large scales. Economies of scale in unit size are also now observable: large installations show much lower costs per watt than do small residential systems (Wiser, Barbose, and Peterman, 2009 ). Increasing installation size is likely to become more important as economies of scale reduce module manufacturing costs, leaving installation costs as an increasingly large share of system costs (with total costs comprising module costs and "balance of system" costs including hardware, mounting, and installation). ...
... More recently, work at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has documented the cost of U.S. installed systems from 1998 to 2010 (Barbose et al., 2011 ;Wiser et al., 2009 ). System costs have fallen from more than $10,000/kW in 1998 to $6,200/kW in 2010, with an unusually large decline during 2010. ...
Author’s Summary. A variety of factors, including government activities, have enabled the two orders of magnitude reduction in the cost of solar photovoltaics (PV) over the past five decades. Despite this achievement, the technology remains too expensive compared to existing electricity sources, such that widespread deployment depends on substantial future improvements. No single determinant predominantly explains the improvement to date. Research and development (R’D), economies of scale, learning by doing, and knowledge spillovers from other technologies have all played a role in reducing system costs. Improvements in electrical conversion efficiency have accounted for about one-third of the decline in cost over time. R&D, especially public sector R&D, has been central to this change. Deployment of PV has also benefited from a sequence of niche markets in which users of the technology were less price sensitive and had strong preferences for characteristics such as reliability and performance, which allowed product differentiation.
... To provide some perspective, the 2007 installed cost for large scale PV was reported to average $6.80/W [15]. As PV costs per Watt are fairly independent of efficiency [15,16] this is roughly $680/m 2 for a 10% efficient module, which we can estimate from the discussion above as giving a 5% system efficiency. ...
... To provide some perspective, the 2007 installed cost for large scale PV was reported to average $6.80/W [15]. As PV costs per Watt are fairly independent of efficiency [15,16] this is roughly $680/m 2 for a 10% efficient module, which we can estimate from the discussion above as giving a 5% system efficiency. This contributes over $11/gal to the price of fuel production, and is an optimistic assumption as it is based on peak numbers. ...
Converting carbon dioxide and water to hydrocarbons is an attractive option for storing solar energy and, coupled with appropriate CO2 capture technology, for recycling carbon and impacting atmospheric CO2 concentrations. For any process, high solar-to-fuel efficiency is necessary for large scale viability and favorable economics. Thermochemical approaches for solar-to-fuel conversion are potentially highly efficient as they avoid the inherent limitations of photosynthesis and also sidestep the solar-to-electric conversion necessary to drive electrolytic reactions. Solar-driven two-step metal-oxide-based thermochemical cycles for producing the components of syngas, CO and H2 from CO2 and H2 0 are the basis of the "Sunshine to Petrol" project. Multi-cycle production of both H2 and CO has been demonstrated over several iron- and cerium-based compositions fabricated into monolithic pieces both in the laboratory and at the National Solar Thermal Test Facility. These compositions are being developed for deployment in a unique and continuous solar-driven reactor prototype, the counter-rotating-ring receiver reactor recuperator or CR5.
... The Green-X database on potentials and cost for RES technologies in Europe The process included besides a survey of related studies (e.g. Krewitt et al. (2009), Wiser (2009) and Ernst & Young (2009)) also data gathering with respect to recent RES projects in different countries. ...
... This reduction in investment cost marks an important departure from the trend of the years 2005 to 2007, during which costs remained flat, as rapidly expanding global PV markets and a shortage of silicon feedstock put upward pressure on both module prices and non-module costs (see e.g. Wiser et al 2009). Before this period of stagnation PV systems had experienced a continuous decline in cost since the start of commercial manufacture in the mid 1970's following a typical learning curve. ...
... The electricity generation cost of fully installed systems is what matters most because, ultimately, technology adoption decisions are based on the cost of electricity produced. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has documented the cost of installed systems in the 2000s (Wiser et al., 2009). They found that costs have fallen from over $10 W À 1 in 1998 to under $8 W À 1 in 2007. ...
... Similarly, production of lower purity, thus cheaper, solar-grade silicon is now profitable because plants can be built at large scale. We also have begun to observe some economies of scale in unit size, where large installations show much lower per watt costs (Wiser et al., 2009). Increasing installation size is likely to become more important as economies of scale reduce module-manufacturing costs, leaving installation costs as an increasingly large share of system costs. ...
The cost of photovoltaics (PV) has declined by a factor of 100 over the past four decades, more than any other energy technology. This cost trajectory appears to very closely fit a learning curve, in which a power law is used to related costs to cumulative experience in production. However, the cost-reducing mechanism behind the learning curve, learning by doing, does not account for all of the observed cost reductions. Efficiency improvements, economies of scale, market structure, and spillovers from other industries have also affected the costs of PV. Analysis of patents for PV shows that the most important ones do not only emerge from experience in production. Important policy implications emerge from the finding that factors other than increasing demand affect costs. Analytical models are being developed that aim to inform policy decisions related to PV by taking into account this broader set of factors, eliciting expert judgments, and addressing uncertainty in outcomes.
... Ultimately, because technology adoption decisions are based on the cost of electricity produced, the cost of fully installed systems is what matters most. Recent work at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has documented the cost of installed systems in the 2000s [4]. Costs have fallen from over $10 W −1 in 1998 to under $8 W −1 in 2007. ...
... Similarly, production of lower purity, thus cheaper, solar-grade silicon is now profitable because plants can be built at large scale. We also have begun to observe some economies of scale in unit size, where large installations show much lower per-watt costs [4]. Increasing installation size is likely to become more important as economies of scale reduce module-manufacturing costs, leaving installation costs as an increasingly large share of system costs. ...
A variety of factors, including government activities, have enabled a factor of 700 reduction in the cost of photovoltaics (PV) over the past six decades. No single determinant predominantly explains the improvement to date; R&D, economies of scale, learning by doing, and knowledge spillovers from other technologies have all played a role in reducing system costs. The observed cost reductions in PV are due to both incremental and nonincremental technical improvements. Although policy models have typically emphasized incremental changes, this chapter describes the prevalence of nonincremental changes. Informing the important policy decisions related to PV depends on the development of models that reliably characterize both types of change.
... First, we estimate a production of energy during the 20 years of panel lifetime that is, on average, the same as the one produced in the previous years since the installation at The Dalton School. Second, the investment cost is based on the results by Wiser et al. that investigated the cost of PV panels in the USA [27]. The value that emerges from their analysis, considering the cost for PV panels, inverters, and installation once the incentives applied by the U.S. government are subtracted, is $5.10 per installed watt. ...
... Another component that might be associated to operation and maintenance costs is the replacement of inverters, which, as suggested by Croxford and Scott, should be considered every ten years [29]. According to the findings of Wiser et al., inverter replacement amounts to about 7% of the initial investment in a PV project for residential and small commercial purposes [27]. ...
The smart grid promises to change the way people manage their energy needs, to facilitate the inclusion of small-scale renewable sources, and to open the energy market to all. One of the enabling instruments is the real-time pricing of energy at the retail level: dynamic and flexible tariffs will vary through the day to reflect the actual availability of energy and the congestion conditions of the power grid, in turn, helping the power grid to stay in balance. Current pilots and research efforts consider how such dynamic tariffs can be formed and how these will affect energy distribution and usage, although currently there are no instances of them deployed. To experiment with dynamic pricing, we present a vision and related implementation of the services needed by the end user to enable the smart grid in a smart home. Our system realistically simulates the dynamic prices and services of the smart grid, using data coming from wholesale energy markets and renewable installations. In addition, we perform an economic analysis to assess the cost of energy produced by small renewable-based installations. The aim is to offer a testing tool to easily realize large simulations, testbeds, and pilot projects for future energy distribution scenarios. We have tested the proposed services and dynamic pricing solution in an existing living laboratory, showing the feasibility of the approach and effectiveness of the tool.
... Installed Cost and Incentives for Residential PV Systems, Installation Cost and Incentives for Commercial PV, 2007Source:Wiser et al, 2009. ...
... After-Tax State/Utility Cash Incentives plus State & Federal Investment Tax Credits (Estimated) Pre-Tax State/Utility Cash Incentive Levels over TimeSource: Reproduced fromWiser et al (2009) ...
... The Green-X database on potentials and cost for RES technologies in Europe The process included besides a survey of related studies (e.g. Krewitt et al. (2009), Wiser (2009) and Ernst & Young (2009)) also data gathering with respect to recent RES projects in different countries. ...
... This reduction in investment cost marks an important departure from the trend of the years 2005 to 2007, during which costs remained flat, as rapidly expanding global PV markets and a shortage of silicon feedstock put upward pressure on both module prices and non-module costs (see e.g. Wiser et al 2009). Before this period of stagnation PV systems had experienced a continuous decline in cost since the start of commercial manufacture in the mid 1970's following a typical learning curve. ...
This report provides an up to date and thorough assessment of the costs of renewable energy and the support and financing instruments available for renewable energy R&D, demonstration projects and large-scale deployment. This includes details of each Member State's expenditure (via grants, support schemes, loans etc.) and use of Community funds, including loans of EIB and EBRD. It also explores the possible instruments for use in the future and constraints in the capital market, which hinder the development of renewable energy. Finally, it develops recommendations for improving financing and support instruments, improving the sector's access to capital, and closing the financing gap for reaching the 2020 targets.
... Similarly, production of lower purity, thus cheaper, solar-grade silicon is now profitable because plants can be built at large scale. About a decade ago, some economies of scale in unit size were observed, where large installations show much lower per-watt costs (Wiser et al., 2009). Increasing installation size will become more important as economies of scale reduce module-manufacturing costs, leaving installation costs as an increasingly large share of system costs. ...
A variety of factors, including government activities, have enabled over three orders of magnitude reduction in the cost of photovoltaics (PV) over the past six decades. No single determinant predominantly explains the improvement to date; R&D, economies of scale, learning by doing, and knowledge spillovers from other technologies have all played a role in reducing system costs. The observed cost reductions in PV are due to both incremental and nonincremental technical improvements. Although policy models have typically emphasized incremental changes, this chapter describes the prevalence of nonincremental changes. Informing the important policy decisions related to PV depends on the development of models that reliably characterize both types of change.
... Sourcing costs (B2) refers to the costs of raw materials and commodities purchased in the country or in foreign countries. These are significant costs in the PV installations because the cost of panels and inverters constitute more than half of the total plant cost in most countries( IRENA, 2012;Ossenbrink, Huld, Jager-Waldau, & Taylor, 2013;Ventre, Farhi, Szaro, & Dunlop, 2001;Wirth, 2016;Wiser, Barbose, & Peterman, 2009 ). During the last years, the research and development effort s made in the field of materials science have motivated the materials cost reduction for solar cells manufacturing, improving the total upfront costs and allowing for the adoption of PV energy( Ramírez et al., 2017 ). ...
The aim of this paper is to provide a multi-criteria decision making framework based on the Triple Bottom Line principles and Analytic Hierarchy Process methodology for sustainable supply chain development in the renewable energy sector. The proposed framework encompasses the whole energy production supply chain, from raw materials’ suppliers to disposal. In particular, the photovoltaic energy sector has been used as case study and represents the focus of this work. The framework is based on the three Triple Bottom Line dimensions such as social, economic and environmental. Furthermore, literature review and expert opinions are used to identify and assess the sub-criteria for each dimension, followed by pair-wise comparison. Finally, the proposed framework is used to evaluate the seven European countries that conjointly represent the 86.8% of the total photovoltaic installed capacity in Europe, using both logical and quantitative information. Results are in agreement with the photovoltaic development in the period 2000-2017 in these countries. The proposed framework provides the decision makers with a powerful tool for making sustainable investment decisions in the photovoltaic energy sector.
... This study focused on these two emblematic cases: solar power and ethanol. The solar case is justified by the fact that Brazil's global solar irradiation is impressive (Martins et al., 2007(Martins et al., , 2012Martins and Pereira, 2011;Viana et al., 2011), but this energy source is, in most cases, still not cost competitive (Wiser et al., 2009). Hence, this is an interesting case for using petroleum resources rent diverted towards promoting still not mature, but promising, renewables. ...
... The Net-Metering program of the United States provides financial incentives in the form of tax credits and rebates provided by the federal, state and electric utilities, and are considered to be the driving force for the deployment of solar photovoltaics. Increasing electricity rate, inflation and property value are other financial or economic reasons why many are engaged in solar PV [9]. The Federal investment tax credit (ITC) program for commercial and residential photovoltaic systems alone provides a 30% tax credit of the project costs for solar PV deployments. ...
The Philippines is increasing its Renewable Energy deployments, especially on grid-connected residential solar photovoltaic (PV) installations. However, the implementation of Net-Metering is still at its early stage. Electric distribution utilities in the country, including the Agusan del Norte Electric Cooperative (ANECO) in Butuan City are apprehensive about the potential impact of Net-Metering on their operations, especially on the load management. It was also not clear to these distribution utilities whether there was a potential demand for solar PV installations from their subscribers and how feasible it was to invest in solar PV systems.
... 32 In this study, we chose a conservative panel cost of $8.00 per watt ($102.62 per ft 2 ), based on a study by the Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory that examined 37 000 grid-connected PV systems in the United States. 33 The panel cost includes materials and labor to install a complete grid-connected solar electric system. ...
Adopting a green building rating system (GBRSs) that strongly considers use of renewable energy can have important environmental consequences, particularly in developing countries. In this paper, we studied on-site renewable energy and GBRSs at the system level to explore potential benefits and challenges. While we have focused on GBRSs, the findings can offer additional insight for renewable incentives across sectors. An energy model was built for 25 sites to compute the potential solar and wind power production on-site and available within the building footprint and regional climate. A life-cycle approach and cost analysis were then completed to analyze the environmental and economic impacts. Environmental impacts of renewable energy varied dramatically between sites, in some cases, the environmental benefits were limited despite the significant economic burden of those renewable systems on-site and vice versa. Our recommendation for GBRSs, and broader policies and regulations, is to require buildings with higher environmental impacts to achieve higher levels of energy performance and on-site renewable energy utilization, instead of fixed percentages.
... An early study reports O&M costs of $12/kW/yr, or at 0.17% of capital cost without tracking and 0.35% of initial cost with tracking (Mortensen 2001). Another estimate approximates O&M of PV systems at $40/kW/year (approximately 0.5% of initial cost per year for these early systems), about half of which amortizes inverter replacements (Wiser et al. 2009). ...
This PV O&M Best Practices Guide is designed to improve solar asset transparency for investors and rating agencies, provide an industry framework for quality management, and reduce transaction costs in the solar asset securitization process. The PV O&M Best Practices Guide is intended to outline the minimum requirements for third-party ownership providers (“Providers”).
... This section will present a number of sources that aggregate past and current cost data on solar PV systems [36]- [39]. The difficulty of an aggregation of past data is that it usually entails total system installation costs but it does not necessarily reflect present costs, as the average installed cost of residential and small commercial solar PV systems has dropped from about $1 1/W in 1998 to about $8/W in 2007 [36]. On the other hand, aggregation of current cost data usually does not include installation or balance of system (BOS) costs, as they use mainly module and inverter cost data available from retail manufacturers. ...
Plug-in electric vehicles and distributed generation are expected to appear in growing numbers over the next few decades. Large scale unregulated penetration of plug-in electric vehicles and distributed generation can each have detrimental impact on the existing electric grid infrastructure. However, appropriate pairing of the two technologies along with some storage could mitigate their individual negative impacts. This thesis develops a methodology and an optimization tool for the design of grid connected electric vehicle chargers that integrate distributed generation and storage into a single system. The optimization tool is based on a linear programming approach that identifies designs with the minimum system lifecycle cost. The thesis also develops the component and system cost models needed for this optimization. The tool can handle single and multiple charger systems with centralized or distributed generation and storage. To verify the tool's accuracy, a search-based optimization technique that works for single chargers with centralized generation and storage is also developed and used to validate the tool. To demonstrate the usefulness of the optimization tool, it is used to design optimal architectures for a single-charger residential charging case and a multi-charger public charging case. It is shown that designs that draw the maximum available power from the grid have the lowest 20-year system lifecycle cost. When storage is needed because the grid cannot provide full charging power, optimal designs may or may not include solar PV based distributed generation depending on the location. For example, in locations with solar irradiation profiles like Los Angeles, CA, electric vehicle charger designs that include solar PV generation are optimal, while in locations like Eugene, OR, optimal designs do not include solar PV. It is also shown that with the available technology, wind turbines are not cost effective for use in residential chargers in locations with wind speeds similar to Los Angeles, CA and Boulder, CO. For the multicharger public charging case, designs with centralized storage and generation are optimal.
... The component efficiencies used in this analysis are shown in Table 2. The PV-battery system was simulated using MATLAB built-in Nelder-Mead simplex optimization, using solar data for five years obtained from the HelioClim model, which estimates local data using satellite measurements [27]. Again, the Nelder-Mead simplex algorithm was chosen since it can easily accommodate the continuous nature of the design variables and the discontinuous nature of the constraints. ...
Electrification of remote areas in the developing world can greatly improve the health and economic standing of the population. Unfortunately, providing power to these remote areas can be expensive and determining the most economical solution is not trivial. This paper presents a method to compare the economics of different small-scale power systems for developing world. In this method, models are developed to describe the performance of power systems composed of diesel generators, batteries with photovoltaics or wind turbines, and hybrid systems. These models are coupled to an optimizer to determine the lowest cost solution that meets the desired system reliability. The reliability is expressed as Loss of Load Probability, and is computed using hourly solar and wind data. In this paper, this method is used to design a power system for a small hospital in the developing world. The results are presented for three sample locations in Honduras, Pakistan, and Uganda. Results show that the economic attractiveness of different technologies varies greatly due to local climatic conditions. The variety and soundness of the solutions found using this method show that it can aid in the design of a small-scale power system for any location in the developing world.
... At present, tax incentives have worked well, reducing the cost of wind by 25 % 267 and of solar by up to 50%. 268 RPS have been adopted by 29 US states and the District of Columbia (as of May 2009), 269 and in March of 2011 the California legislature passed a bill mandating 33% renewable electric power by 2020. 270 However, a carbon tax or a cap-and-trade system has not been passed by Congress, and, given the contentious nature of any proposed climate legislation, their enactment seems unlikely for now. ...
... decreased signifi cantly over the past couple of decades and is projected to continue decreasing rapidly as PV technology and markets mature. However, the system price decrease 11 varies signifi cantly from region to region and depends strongly on the implemented support schemes and maturity of markets (Wiser et al., 2009). Figure 3.18 shows the system price developments in Europe, Japan, and the USA. ...
This Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report (IPCC-SRREN) assesses the potential role of renewable energy in the mitigation of climate change. It covers the six most important renewable energy sources – bioenergy, solar, geothermal, hydropower, ocean and wind energy – as well as their integration into present and future energy systems. It considers the environmental and social consequences associated with the deployment of these technologies and presents strategies to overcome technical as well as non-technical obstacles to their application and diffusion. SRREN brings a broad spectrum of technology-specific experts together with scientists studying energy systems as a whole. Prepared following strict IPCC procedures, it presents an impartial assessment of the current state of knowledge: it is policy relevant but not policy prescriptive. SRREN is an invaluable assessment of the potential role of renewable energy for the mitigation of climate change for policymakers, the private sector and academic researchers.
... As of 2011, solar photovoltaic (PV) accounts for 1.4% of the global installed electricity capacity and has been growing at a rate of 43% annually from 2000 to 2011 (Gelman, 2012). The cost of installed solar (PV) systems in the United States (U.S.) has dropped from USD 11.8/W in 1998USD 8.3/W in 2007(Wiser et al., 2009 and is falling rapidlyas of 2012 it was as low as USD 2.2/W in Germany, although it could be higher in other less efficient countries (IEA-ETSAP and IRENA, 2013). The cost is expected to fall to USD 1.7-2.4/W ...
The major present hindrance in using desalination to help alleviate global water scarcity is the cost of this technology, which, in turn is due to energy cost involved. This study examines historical trends in desalination and breaks up the cost of desalination into energy based and nonenergy based. It then develops the learning curves (relationship between cumulative production and market price) for desalination. Assuming that the photovoltaic (PV) technology will be the dominant form of energy used in the desalination process, the existing PV learning curve and desalination learning curve are combined to explore the viability of large-scale adoption of desalination in the future. The world has been divided into seven regions and it is assumed that water demand from desalinated water will be met only within the 100-km coastal belt. It is shown that, in most of the regions, other than sub-Saharan Africa, Central America, and South Asia (where water tariffs are low), the desalination (without considering energy) becomes viable by 2040. For PV technology, less than 1 million MW per annum growth is required till 2050 to make it affordable. Globally, desalination with renewable energy can become a viable option to replace domestic and industrial water demand in the 100-km coastal belt by 2050.
... Secondly, we estimate a production of energy during the 40 years that is on average the same as the one produced in the previous years since the installation. Thirdly, the investment cost is based on the results of Wise et al. [24], who investigated the cost of PV panels in the U.S.A. The cost that emerges from their analysis, considering the cost for PV panels, inverters, and installation once the incentives applied by the U.S. government are subtracted, is $5.1 for each installed watt of power. ...
In addition to providing for a more reliable distribution infrastructure, the smart grid promises to give the end users better pricing and usage information. It is thus interesting for them to be ready to take advantage of features such as dynamic energy pricing and real-time choice of operators. In this work, we propose a system to monitor and control an office environment and to couple it with the smart grid. The idea is to schedule the operation of devices according to policies defined by the users, in order to minimize the cost of operation while leaving unaffected user comfort and productivity. The implementation of the system and its testing in a living lab environment show interesting economic savings of an average of about 35% and in some cases even overall energy savings in the order of 10% for a building equipped with renewable generation plants, and economic and energy savings of 20% and 10%, respectively, for a building without local renewable installations.
... In term of prospects PV market development, how the PV should grow home markets and spear to the investment in the solar photovoltaic price able to go with grid parity and support to the grid connected system. -2007), the PV cost increase because U.S. and global PV markets expanded significantly, creating shortages in the supply of silicon for PV module production and putting upward pressure on PV module prices [4]. ...
This paper stated with the problem of cost of photovoltaic (PV) system for residential sector in Thailand and competitiveness. It is assumed that the electricity of PV can be competitive with grid-connected in Thailand scenarios. The objective is to express the potential for the PV cost reduction in last ten years and estimate for the near future. The learning curve model presents that PV cost range term of installation in residential building sector in Thailand. Using this model is estimated cumulative capacity and PV price can be competitive term. Electrical consumption of Thailand scenarios can show grid parity point take place in fifteen year. Additionally, potential of PV energy is up to plan the efficiency policy and improve PV market options. In beneficial view, the PV situation can appropriate for competitiveness and one purpose of this study is to provide reliable information about the costs of installed systems over time by the policy and development of government programs.
... This study focused on these two emblematic cases: solar power and ethanol. The solar case is justified by the fact that Brazil's global solar irradiation is impressive (Martins et al., 2007(Martins et al., , 2012Martins and Pereira, 2011;Viana et al., 2011), but this energy source is, in most cases, still not cost competitive (Wiser et al., 2009). Hence, this is an interesting case for using petroleum resources rent diverted towards promoting still not mature, but promising, renewables. ...
A large share of Brazil's current investments is concentrated in the development of petroleum resources in new frontiers. Perspectives for large offshore pre-salt fields are particularly good. However, challenges are also huge. On one hand, pre-salt resources development will draw vast amounts of economic and human resources and pose significant macroeconomic risks. On the other hand, the petroleum industry can generate multiplicative effects into the country's economy and, even more importantly, generate rents that can be diverted towards the promotion of renewable energy sources. This paper simulates the rent generation of Brazil's petroleum development up to 2030 according to: the country's current fiscal regime, projections of petroleum supply and a probability analysis of Brent price evolution, and assesses how these economic resources, if properly allocated, can pave the way for an increased use of renewables in Brazil. Findings show that an ambitious energy innovation program based on a target-oriented agency plus a program for solar development would cost less than half the minimum average annual petroleum rent free for investing in renewables between 2013 and 2030. The remaining budget could improve the security of ethanol fuel supply, by avoiding the negative impacts of sugar prices spikes on Brazil's ethanol production.
Energy is the prerequisite and most universal measure of all kinds of work by human beings. Everything in this world is the expression of flow of energy in one of its forms. Sustainable resources of energies are those that do not deplete the Earth’s natural resources and are as environmentally benign as possible. These sources are sustainable in that they can be managed to ensure they can be used indefinitely without degrading the environment (Renewable Energy Association, 2009). The energy resources available can be divided into three types. These are primary energy sources (coal, oil, natural gas, uranium) which provide a net supply of energy, secondary energy sources (solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy etc.) which provide no net energy, and supplementary energy sources (geothermal and tidal) whose net energy yield is zero. Energy is an important input in all sectors of any country’s economy. The standard of living of any given country can be directly related to per capita energy consumption. Energy crisis is due to the rapid growth of world population and the improved standard of living of human beings. The per capita energy consumption is a measure of the per capita income or it is a measure of the prosperity of the nation. As the world population is growing at a faster rate, so the conventional sources of energy are depleting on the one hand and its uses are adversely affecting the environment on the other hand. If it will be continued with the same pace, it may be exhausted by the beginning of the next century. Nuclear energy requires skilled technicians and poses the safety as regards to radioactive waste disposal. Therefore, solar energy and other non-conventional energy sources are the sources; those which are to be utilized in the future. In this paper an attempt has been made to investigate the Potentials of sustainable energy resources in Eritrea with special reference to solar energy. The present study will also explore the intensity of global solar radiation reaching on a horizontal surface over Eritrea. This will be purely done by assessing the degree of solar energy penetration on Eritrea. The paper aims at discussing the cheaper and cleaner use of which is vital to the Eritrean economy and the environment as well.
This paper outlined a recommended pathway toward a dramatic increase in clean energy in the Midwest.
Energy technology innovation - improving how we produce and use energy - is critical for a transition towards sustainability. This book presents a rich set of twenty case studies of energy technology innovation embedded within a unifying conceptual framework. It provides insights into why some innovation efforts have been more successful than others, and draws important policy conclusions. The case studies cover a wide range of energy technologies, ranging from energy supply to energy end use, from successes to failures and from industrialized, emerging and developing economies. The case studies are presented by an international group of eminent scholars under the auspices of the Global Energy Assessment (GEA), whose main volume was published in 2012 by Cambridge University Press. Energy Technology Innovation presents new data, new concepts and novel analytical and policy perspectives. It will prove to be invaluable for researchers, policy makers, economists, industrial innovators and entrepreneurs in the field of energy technology.
The forecasting results of regional photovoltaic (PV) installed capacity can provide important references for electric utilities, photovoltaic agents, and energy authorities. This paper proposes a three-step forecasting methodology of regional PV installed capacity considering generation costs and time lag of influential factors. As the generation costs play a key role in PV installation, in the first step, cost indicators of PV projects are analyzed and a modified formula of levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is proposed, for the aim of PV generation costs assessment and forecasting. Subsidy coefficient, which is mainly dependent on local government's energy policies and load curves, is introduced into the formula of LCOE. Apart from generation costs, the second step is to study the relationship between regional PV installed capacity and a series of outside- and inside-region factors using co-integration analysis and Granger causality test, attempting to comb through that data for other influential factors of PV installed capacity. Time lags of influential factors are determined during this step. In the last step, cross-correlation analysis and principal components regression are carried out to eliminate collinearity of independent variables, quantify the influence of different factors, and construct the forecast model of regional PV installed capacity. In this paper, the example of Shanghai is given to illustrate the proposed methodology. The LCOE of PV systems and PV installed capacity of Shanghai from 2015 to 2030 were forecasted under several scenarios distinguished by subsidy coefficient. The results of Granger test and cross-correlation analysis show that factors such as generation costs, environmental protection investment by local government and technical progress are closely related to regional PV installed capacity, nevertheless, sunshine duration and average temperature are not the Granger reasons for it.
Bangladesh, a subtropical country located not very far from the equator, has certain geographical advantages in solar energy generation. But, as the solar energy generation is not as robust as other forms of energy, the solar systems must be optimally installed to reap every physical benefits possible. One very important factor in this matter is the tilt angle of the solar panel. This paper focuses on finding the optimum tilt angle for a solar panel in a particular region. The paper finds the optimum tilt angles for various divisions of Bangladesh using two methods: one optimum tilt angle for a whole year, and two tilt angles for two halves of a year. The paper demonstrates the benefit of using two seasonal tilt angles instead of using just one tilt angle throughout the year. The paper additionally checks the extent of benefit that might occur from using more complex systems involving more tilt angles.
Author’s Summary. Increasing fuel efficiency standards have affected innovation in automobiles by accelerating the adoption of new fuel, engine, and drive train technologies, and by shifting the use of improved efficiency between fuel consumption and performance. In 1975, the U.S. government passed the Federal Automotive Fuel Efficiency Standards, which specified mandatory levels of miles per gallon of gasoline consumed for new vehicles averaged across each manufacturer’s vehicle fleet (Greene, 1998). The required Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standard steadily increased from 18 miles per gallon in 1978 to 27.5 miles per gallon in 1985. The standard was effective in meeting its goals - actual fuel efficiency has only ever fallen below the government requirement by small amounts for short periods. In fact, actual fuel efficiency has almost always exceeded the mandatory level. This overcompliance, combined with the simultaneous rise in the price of gasoline during the period of escalating standards, suggests that fuel prices have played a role in motivating efforts to improve fuel efficiency; change is not attributable to the CAFE standard alone (Davis, Diegel, and Boundy, 2008). The standard for passenger cars in the United States remained the same from 1985 to 2010, while actual efficiency has improved slightly in that period. Standards also exist in Europe, China, Japan, Australia, and Canada. All of these standards are more stringent than the U.S. efficiency requirements, by nearly 100 percent in the cases of Japan and the EU.
Relatively little research exists estimating the marginal impacts of photovoltaic (PV) energy systems on home sale prices. Using a large data set of California homes that sold from 2000 through mid-2009, we find strong evidence, despite a variety of robustness checks, that existing homes with PV systems sold for a premium over comparable homes without PV systems, implying a near full return on investment. Premiums for new homes are found to be considerably lower than those for existing homes, implying, potentially, a trade-off between price and sales velocity. The results have significant implications for homeowners, builders, appraisers, lenders, and policymakers.
Author’s Summary. A variety of quantitative methods have been used to analyse energy technology innovation. These range from efforts to identify and isolate the effects of particular policies or innovation processes such as research and development, to studies of the broader social benefits of energy technology innovation. Innovation metrics can thus describe innovation inputs, outputs, or outcomes. This case study presents the commonly used metrics in each of these categories, together with the main issues associated with their application. The discussion then identifies broader issues with the use of quantitative metrics to analyse energy technology innovation, including the lack of integrated metrics, problems with quality control, and difficulties with cross-country and cross-technology comparisons. Relationship of Case Study to Energy Technology Innovation System Framework Many of the elements of the innovation system are observable by proxy through particular quantitative metrics. Metrics of innovation inputs predominantly describe the financial resource mobilisation that underpins the accumulation of knowledge, the strengthening of actors and institutions, and the improving performance of technologies (i.e., the other three dimensions of the innovation system). Financial resource input metrics - whether investments or expenditures - can be biased towards early innovation stages (particularly R&D) as data are more readily available and the processes and consequences of knowledge generation become clearer. Labour resources are another important input, and offer a proxy for tacit knowledge that is embodied in skilled workers.
Author’s Summary. Solar water heaters provide an example of three decades of innovation in an end-use technology. In this case, the diffusion of the technology underwent an extremely rapid boom and bust that was centered in California in the early 1980s. The technology was largely abandoned in the United States for two decades, although diffusion has been much more rapid and consistent in China and to a lesser extent in Europe. Solar water heaters use a working fluid to absorb sunlight and provide heating and hot water in residential and commercial settings. The biggest technical improvement was the advent in the 1970s of selective coatings, which could absorb more sunlight. Since then, the technology has been rather stable, with some improvements in lifetime and reliability. The technology is currently cost-effective, especially in large installations with high demand for hot water. China is currently by far the world’s largest market for solar water heaters. The key period of R&D investment was in the 1970s at national laboratories and universities in the United States. Market subsidies in the 1980s were not monitored and were rampantly abused, with many installations that leaked and caused extensive damage to structures far in excess of the cost of the solar water heater itself. In response, the technology was largely abandoned in the United States for two decades; the industry went from sales of US$1billion/year in 1982 to US$30million/year in the late 2000s, and hundreds of firms went out of business. As a result, much of the learning gained in the period of rapid deployment was lost. And perceptions of poor reliability persist and have proven difficult to overcome - bad news lasts. An exception to this general policy failure has been a program in Hawaii that makes consumer rebates contingent on an inspection that occurs one year after installation.
Solar power has merit as a renewable source of energy; it is the largest asset available for consumption on Earth and is limitless. There have been many ideas proposed to beam solar power to Earth; all have been dependent upon the provision of a backing frame to support solar panels, photovoltaic cells, and transmission. This paper suggests one type of rigid deployable skeletal structure and its material of manufacture to form the backing frame of solar panel systems; the structure takes the form of a skeletal double-layer tetrahedral system. The composite material is polyethersulphone thermoplastic polymer reinforced with carbon fiber (CF). This paper also discusses the hostile environment of space in relation to the fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite material, with special reference to the thermal response. Finally, it suggests the alternate possibility of using a rigidized inflatable flexible skeletal structure and, as far as is possible, compares (a) the relative cost of transferring the two structures to low Earth orbit from Earth, and (b) the cost of solar energy relative to other forms of energy.
Objective: To investigate the energy performance of net-zero energy homes (NZEHs) and near net-zero energy homes (NNZEHs) in New England. NZEHs produce at least as much energy as they consume on site in a year, while NNZEHs are designed to come close to net-zero. Methods: We gathered construction and occupational statistics on 20 homes; measured 12 months of energy consumption, cost and production data; developed custom models to predict consumption and production; and compared measured performance to modeled predictions. Results: Six out of ten NZEHs achieved net-zero energy or better, while all the NNZEHs achieved an energy density (kW h/m(2)/person) at least half as low as a control house; measured energy consumption averaged 14% below predictions for the NZEHs and 38% above predictions for the NNZEHs; and generated energy was within +/- 10% of predicted for 17 out of 18 on-site PV systems. Conclusion: Even in cold New England, these types of homes, using very diverse systems and designs, can meet or exceed their designed-for energy performance, though actual performance varies widely. Practical implications: Architects, engineers, and policymakers now have quantifiable evidence in support of increasing energy conservation requirements and renewable energy incentives in residential building codes in New England.
Research has separately existed for life-cycle costs and environmental assessment of photovoltaic systems. This study provides a framework for the identification of the optimal set of residential photovoltaic system options in terms of costs and selected air emissions by assessing the life cycle of the product from manufacturing to disposal. Analyzed air emissions include carbon, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter. The study focuses on general residential installations within the San Francisco Bay Area of California. Pareto frontiers are determined for costs and emissions, and the best options for suppliers are identified in each case, including sensitivity analysis of the installation planning horizon. Choosing multicrystalline silicon modules over thin film modules has the greatest impact on cost reduction. The electricity mix with which the modules are produced has the greatest impact on the emissions. (C) 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Solar combined heat and power (CHP) systems can compete or exceed solar photovoltaics (PV) — which is often used as the benchmark in terms of efficiency, performance, and cost — in a range of distributed generation applications, and across a range of specific technology platforms. A common metric to evaluate the cost of photovoltaics is a cost per peak power output or “dollars per watt” metric. For the purpose of comparison, we develop a new analytic methodology to evaluate the cost of the electricity generated from a solar CHP system. The electricity generation and thermal subsystems of a solar CHP system are energetically intertwined, yet by comparing thermal and electrical outputs a sensible cost division can be determined. This method is then used to compare the cost of stationary PV and solar Rankine CHP systems with tracking and stationary collectors. The capacity factors of electricity generation for each system is found in simulation using NREL TMY3 climatic data for 1020 sites in the United States. The solar Rankine system with stationary collectors outperforms the PV system in warmer and sunnier climates relative to its rated “dollar per watt” output, while PV outperforms solar Rankine in cooler climates. With tracking concentrating collectors, the solar Rankine system outperforms PV systems in the vast majority of US sites at an estimated cost of $4/W and a collector high temperature of 250°C. In conclusion, a PV system and solar Rankine CHP system, sized equally in terms of peak power output, will produce comparable amounts of electricity (+/− 10% on average), however the solar Rankine CHP system will additionally provide 4 to 6 units of useful heat energy for every one unit of electricity generated.
Solid-state lighting (SSL) is now the most efficient source of high color quality white light ever created. Nevertheless, the blue InGaN light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that are the light engine of SSL still have significant performance limitations. Foremost among these is the decrease in efficiency at high input current densities widely known as “efficiency droop.” Efficiency droop limits input power densities, contrary to the desire to produce more photons per unit LED chip area and to make SSL more affordable. Pending a solution to efficiency droop, an alternative device could be a blue laser diode (LD). LDs, operated in stimulated emission, can have high efficiencies at much higher input power densities than LEDs can. In this article, LEDs and LDs for future SSL are explored by comparing: their current state-of-the-art input-power-density-dependent power-conversion efficiencies; potential improvements both in their peak power-conversion efficiencies and in the input power densities at which those efficiencies peak; and their economics for practical SSL.
Drawing from research interviews and the academic literature, this article conceptualizes the conditions that promote investor confidence and the social acceptance of wind and solar sources of electricity. It explores the factors influencing the acceptance of commercial wind turbines in Denmark and India and residential solar panels in Germany and the United States. The article begins by justifying its selection of case studies and explaining the methodology behind its research interviews and field visits. It then summarizes some of the key findings in recent surveys of public attitudes and market acceptance concerning renewable energy, with a focus on why some investors and communities reject wind and solar systems whereas others rapidly approve and adopt them. The article proposes that acceptance has multiple dimensions – socio-political, community, and market – that must be met holistically in order for investors and users to embrace renewable energy. The article argues that acceptance hinges upon the prevalence of nine factors; the lack of such factors creates environments where they are rejected. The theory is tested against four case studies that explore the forces driving renewable energy in Denmark, Germany, India, and the United States.
This study reveals the interrelationships among a variety of policies supporting solar energy adoption in the U.S. and then calculates the amount of financial subsidies required to support mandatory policies such as Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS). To illuminate interrelationships among these policies, this study proposes three tiers of descriptive model: the top tier includes mandatory policies such as the Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS); the middle tier is composed of financial support mechanisms, such as tax credit and rebates; and the bottom tier comprises policies that provide funding sources, such as Public Benefit funds. Based on our proposed model, this study further builds a model which calculates the amount of financial subsidies required to support RPS targets of distributed photovoltaics (PV) adoption. The model is applied to the case study of residential PV adoption in the state of Arizona by 2025. The financial requirements are calculated considering of the uncertainty of federal tax credits (extension or termination after 2016) and compared with planned funds that support PV adoption. This study points out that if states would pursue a sustainable PV adoption targets, they should make more efforts on financial support programs.
Depending on what one reads, the cost of solar photovoltaic energy systems (solar PV systems) has already reached parity with grid produced electricity or, at the other extreme is far from parity. This leaves potential end users who are considering the installation of solar PV systems confused as to whether such an investment makes economic sense. These contrasting views are not surprising for several reasons. First, many analyses of the costs and financial returns of solar PV systems ignore important factors impacting the potential costs of such systems. Second, the factors impacting costs and financial returns such as levels of solar insolation, government and utility incentives, and the cost of grid produced electricity vary dramatically based on location. Finally, the cost of solar PV systems is declining rapidly over time. This study compares the costs and financial returns of solar PV systems installed by businesses, to grid produced electricity, in four specific locations across the US for 2012. The amounts are calculated after taking into account local solar insolation, and all available tax incentives and other available incentives and rebates. The results demonstrate that costs and financial returns of solar PV systems vary dramatically depending on the location where they are installed. The differences are primarily the result of variations in state incentives, electricity prices, and the level of solar insolation. This confirms that detailed, site specific, information about incentives, grid produced electricity rates, and levels of solar insolation is needed to determine whether the installation of a solar PV system makes economic sense in a particular location.
This study used ZIP code level data from the 2000 US Census to investigate the influence of local environmental, social, economic and political variables on the distribution of residential solar PV arrays across the United States. Current locations of residential solar PVs were documented using data from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Open PV project. A zero-inflated negative binomial reression model was run to evaluate the influence of selected variables. Using the same model, predicted residential solar PV shares were generated and illustrated using GIS software. The results of the model indicate solar insolation, cost of electricity and amount of available financial incentives are important factors influencing adoption of residential solar PV arrays. Results also indicate the Southwestern region of the United States and the state of Florida are currently underperforming in terms of number of housing units with solar PV installations.
Climate change and its potential impact is one of the greatest challenges facing mankind today. Viticulture and winemaking,
much like the ski industry, are climate change bellwethers as both are highly dependent upon the weather, climate and place.
Any future changes in the seasons, their duration, local maximum, minimum and mean temperatures, frost occurrence and heat
accumulation could have a major impact on the winegrowing areas of the world. These changes are already evident in the form
of increased vineyard plantings in what were a number of years ago thought to be marginal regions, such as southern England,
or the movement of ‘traditionally warmer’ varietals into new ‘cooler’ regions.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.