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One century later: the folk botanical knowledge of the last remaining Albanians
of the upper Reka Valley, Mount Korab, Western Macedonia
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:22 doi:10.1186/1746-4269-9-22
Andrea Pieroni (a.pieroni@unisg.it)
Besnik Rexhepi (besnik.rexhepi@unite.edu.mk)
Anely Nedelcheva (aneli_nedelcheva@yahoo.com)
Behxhet Mustafa (behxhetm@yahoo.com)
Kevin Cianfaglione (kevin.cianfaglione@unicam.it)
Cassandra L Quave (cquave@emory.edu)
ISSN 1746-4269
Article type Research
Submission date 4 March 2013
Acceptance date 4 April 2013
Publication date 11 April 2013
Article URL http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/22
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One century later: the folk botanical knowledge of
the last remaining Albanians of the upper Reka
Valley, Mount Korab, Western Macedonia
Andrea Pieroni1*
* Corresponding author
Email: a.pieroni@unisg.it
Besnik Rexhepi2
Email: besnik.rexhepi@unite.edu.mk
Anely Nedelcheva3
Email: aneli_nedelcheva@yahoo.com
Avni Hajdari4
Email: avhajdari@hotmail.com;
Behxhet Mustafa4
Email: behxhetm@yahoo.com
Valeria Kolosova5
Email: chakra@eu.spb.ru;
Kevin Cianfaglione4
Email: kevin.cianfaglione@unicam.it
Cassandra L Quave7
Email: cquave@emory.edu
1 University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, Pollenzo/Bra,
Cuneo I-12042, Italy
2 Department of Biology, State University of Tetova, Ilindenska, Tetovë,
Republic of Macedonia
3 Department of Botany, University of Sofia, Blv. Dragan Tzankov 8, Sofia 1164,
Bulgaria
4 Department of Biology, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, Mother
Teresa Str, Prishtinë 10 000, Republic of Kosovo
5 Institute for Linguistic Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, Tuchkov
pereulok 9, Saint Petersburg 199053, Russia
6 School of Environmental Sciences, University of Camerino, Via Pontoni 5,
Camerino (Macerata) I-62032, Italy
7 Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University, 550 Asbury Circle,
Candler Library 107E, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
Abstract
Background
Ethnobotanical surveys of the Western Balkans are important for the cross-cultural study of
local plant knowledge and also for obtaining baseline data, which is crucial for fostering
future rural development and eco-tourism initiatives in the region. The current ethnobotanical
field study was conducted among the last remaining Albanians inhabiting the upper Reka
valley at the base of Mount Korab in the Mavrovo National Park of the Republic of
Macedonia.
The aims of the study were threefold: 1) to document local knowledge pertaining to plants; 2)
to compare these findings with those of an ethnographic account written one century ago and
focused on the same territory; and 3) to compare these findings with those of similar field
studies previously conducted in other areas of the Balkans.
Methods
Field research was conducted with all inhabitants of the last four inhabited villages of the
upper Reka Valley (n=17). Semi-structured and open interviews were conducted regarding
the perception and use of the local flora and cultivated plants.
Results and conclusion
The uses of ninety-two plant and fungal taxa were recorded; among the most uncommon
uses, the contemporary use of young cooked potato (Solanum tuberosum) leaves and Rumex
patientia as a filling for savory pies was documented. Comparison of the data with an
ethnographic study conducted one century ago in the same area shows a remarkable
resilience of original local plant knowledge, with the only exception of rye, which has today
disappeared from the local foodscape. Medicinal plant use reports show important similarities
with the ethnobotanical data collected in other Albanian areas, which are largely influenced
by South-Slavic cultures.
Keywords
Ethnobotany, Mavrovo, Traditional Knowledge, Balkans
Background
Ethnobiological studies conducted in the Western Balkans in recent years have reported a
rich biocultural diversity and a remarkable vitality of traditional knowledge (TK) concerning
the local flora in this region [1-12]. Such studies have been postulated to represent crucial
lynch-pins for the development of community-based management strategies for local natural
resources, sustainable eco-tourism and high-quality niche food and herbal products [13].
On the other hand, the ethno-historical perspective in the European ethnobotanical literature
may represent an important tool for exploring trajectories of changes in plant use, as a few
recent works have shown [14-18]. However, the integration of original ethnographic data
with historical reports can only take place in those areas in Europe where detailed reports on
local uses of plants are available. The comparison of current ethnographic data on plant uses
with that reported in ancient treatises on medicinal plants can be more complex and even
problematic, as information regarding local plant perceptions cannot generally be traced
back. Comparative analysis between the plant knowledge of historical medical schools and
that of subaltern rural classes may, however, be useful for understanding eventual
hybridisations of these diverse plant knowledge systems [19-21].
The upper Reka valley in Western Macedonia represents one of the very few Albanian-
speaking areas in South Eastern Europe where a very detailed ethnographic account –
including important notes concerning local food and medicinal plant uses - was written in the
first decade of the 20th Century. Bajazid Elmaz Doda (approx. 1888–1933) was the personal
assistant and long-term partner of one of the most famous scholars in the field of Albanian
studies: the Hungarian aristocrat and palaeontologist Baron Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás
(1877–1933). Doda finalised a manuscript in 1914, probably written in collaboration with his
mentor/partner, which was focused on the daily mountain life of his village, Shtirovica,
located in the upper Reka Valley (approx. 1400 meters m.a.s.l.). This manuscript remained
unpublished until the Albanologist Robert Elsie found it in the Austrian National Library and
edited it in 2007 [22]. Doda apparently wrote this account to challenge the argument of the
Serbian-Austrian historian and astronomer Spiridon Gopčević (1855–1928), who described
the Albanians of the upper Reka Valley as “albanicised Slavs” [23].
Doda’s village of Shtirovica was completely destroyed in 1916 by the Bulgarian army [22].
However, a few surrounding tiny Albanian villages still survive to this day, despite the fact
that the local population has been dramatically eroded by recent migration waves, both to the
main centres in Macedonia and also abroad.
The aim of this study was to record the traditional plant knowledge of the last remaining
Albanians living in these villages of the upper Reka Valley and to compare this with the
ethnobotanical notes found in Doda’s work in order to better understand trajectories of
change in plant uses. Moreover, a further objective of the study was to compare this field data
with that of other recent ethnobotanical surveys conducted in surrounding areas and countries
in order to trace commonalities and similarities, and to address overlaps and divergences in
Albanian and South-Slavic traditional plant knowledge and practice.
Methods
Field study
In-depth open and semi-structured interviews, as well as participant observation were
conducted in August 2012 with members (n=17) of all remaining families of the last
inhabited villages of the upper Reka valley (Figure 1): Nistovë, Bibaj, Niçpur, and Tanushaj,
within the Mavrovo National Park. The same villages were inhabited a few decades ago by
hundreds of locals, who mostly migrated to the nearby towns of Gostivar and Skopje, as well
as abroad for work or (as in Tanushaj) as a consequence of a (minor) Macedonian portion of
the last Yugoslavian Wars.
Figure 1 Study area.
Locals are now exclusively Muslims, but Albanians of Christian Orthodox faith also lived in
the villages until a few decades ago. For example, in Nistovë, one side of the village (with a
mosque) is inhibited by Muslims (which is still in practice), while the other side was inhibited
by Orthodox believers. The entire population of Orthodox Christians migrated to towns a few
decades ago, but they return to their village homes sometimes during the summer. Most of
the houses in this part of the village are however abandoned even though the Church has been
recently restored. According to our (Albanian Muslim) informants, these migrated Orthodox
Christian Albanians assimilated within the Macedonian culture and now prefer to be labelled
as “Macedonians”, even if they are still able to fluently speak Albanian. Contact between
these two subsets of the village communities, which were very intense and continuous in the
past, no longer exists today.
All Albanian inhabitants of the upper Reka are – to different degrees deepening on the age –
bilingual in Macedonian. Participants were questioned about traditional uses of medicinal
plants and wild food plants (in use until a few decades ago or still in use today). Specifically,
data concerning the local name(s) of each quoted taxon, the plant part(s) used, in-depth
details about its/their manipulation/preparation and medicinal or food use(s) was collected.
Interviews were conducted in Albanian with the help of two simultaneous translators.
Prior informed consent was always obtained verbally prior to conducting interviews and
researchers adhered to the new ethical guidelines of the American Anthropological
Association [24]. During interviews, informants were always asked to show the quoted
plants. Voucher specimens of the most uncommon wild taxa, as well as digital pictures of the
most quoted preparations were taken and are deposited at the University of Tetovë and at the
University of Gastronomic Sciences, respectively. A short video documentation of the field
study is available online [25].
Taxonomic identification was conducted by the first author and plant nomenclature follows
Flora Europaea [26], the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III system [27] and The Plant List
database [28]. The collected data was compared with Bajazid Elmaz Doda’s ethnographic
study, which was conducted one century ago in the village of Shtirovica (Figure 1), within
the same study area of our survey [22], and with the most relevant recent Balkan
ethnobotanical field studies [1,8-10,13,29-33] and the other available South-Slavic linguistic
and folkloric-botanical sources [22,34-44].
Results and discussion
The current ethnobotanical knowledge of the upper Reka
Table 1 reports the plant uses recorded in the upper Reka valley. Ninety-two taxa were
reported to be known and in use by the last remaining inhabitants, who were all interviewed.
The resilience of the local traditional knowledge concerning plants is especially remarkable
when compared with the recordings of the local plant knowledge documented one century
ago (see last column of the table [22]). A few of the plant uses (with the exception of rye)
recorded one century ago are still actively practiced today in the upper Reka valley.
Table 1 Folk names and uses of plants and fungi quoted in the current study, compared with those recorded one century ago in the same
area
Scientific taxon and
family Local folk name(s) Ecological status or
provenience Part(s) used Local use(s) Folk name(s) and use(s) as recorded one century ago in
the same area [22]
Abies alba Mill. and
Picea abies (L.) H.
Karst. (Pinaceae)
Bren W Resin (smol*) MEDICINAL: topically applied to wounds, sometimes together
with tobacco (as haemostatic) or on warts Breh MEDICINAL: resin (smol*) as an ingredient of a
home-made poultice (mehlem) - made also by adding wax,
fat, and powdered pine wood – for treating wounds
Acer pseudoplatanus
L.(Sapindaceae) Klenje* W Wood HANDICRAFTS: diverse objects, among them, snow shoes Pani
Kleni*
Bark VETERINARY: decoction, in external washes for treating
wounds in animals
Achillea millefolium
L.(Asteraceae) Lule e bardhë W Dried flowering aerial
parts MEDICINAL: tea, considered healthy for stomach-ache and
liver problems; traded in the past
Lule miu
Allium cepa L.
(Amaryllidaceae) Qepa C Bulbs FOOD: many culinary uses, including home-made savory pies
called ndri, filled with buttermilk (dhallët) and diverse
vegetables; MEDICINAL: compresses made with crushed
onions and salt for treating bruises RITUAL: burned on the fire;
Qep; FOOD: filling for savory pies MEDICINAL:
externally applied with salt on wounds
the resulting strong odour was considered a repellent for
werewolves
Allium porrum L.
(Amaryllidaceae) Prash* C Fresh aerial parts FOOD: filling for home-made savory pies (ndri) Prasa
Juice MEDICINAL: instilled in the ear for treating ear-ache
Allium sativum L.
(Amaryllidaceae) Hudra C Bulbs FOOD: seasoning Hudr
RITUAL: burned on the fire; the resulting strong odour was
considered a repellent for werewolves; tied to cow horns as a
protective amulet against evil-eye
Alnus glutinosa (L.)
Gaertn. (Betulaceae) Verri W Bark DYEING: the bark was boiled in the past; the resulting red
decoction was used for dyeing in black Verri
Amaranthus spp.
(Amaranthaceae) Llabot e egër W Leaves FODDER
Arctium lappa L.
(Asteraceae) Kakuda W Leaves FODDER
Atriplex hortensis L.
(Amaranthaceae) Laboda* C Leaves FOOD: most preferred filling for pies (ndri)
Labat*
Betula pendula Roth
(Betulaceae) Mustekna W Bark MEDICINAL: burned; the vapours are exposed to the skin for
treating skin inflammations HANDICRAFTS: brooms Mushtekn
Boletus spp.
(Boletaceae) Këpurdha W Fresh fruiting body FOOD: stored dried and sold to middle men; traditionally it was
not consumed, nowadays is sometimes used in omelettes with
eggs and cheese, or as a filling for savory pies
(Varganj*)
Brassica oleracea L.
(Brassicaceae) Lakna C Leaves FOOD: in diverse preparations Lakna FOOD: filling for savory pies; lactofermented, in
sarma (sauerkraut leaves filled with rice and meat) or
minced in salads
Calamintha officinalis
Mill. (Lamiaceae) W Fresh leaves MEDICINAL: externally applied to treat toothache
Cantharellus cibarius
Fr. (Cantharellaceae) Kepurdha W Fruiting body FOOD: consumed fried with eggs and clarified butter
(Lisiçarka*)
Capsicum annuum L.
(Solanaceae) Spec (sweet
varieties) C Dried fruits FOOD: as a vegetable, fried; mixed with ricotta (gjizë) and
consumed after a few weeks; ground, as one of the ingredients of
the home-made seasoning mixture called piprik e shtupun,
prepared by mixing ground red peppers, chilli, pumpkin seeds,
corn flour, mint, and salt (traditionally consumed on boiled
potatoes or warm bread)
Spec
Piprik* C Dried fruits FOOD: ingredient of the spice mix piprik e shtupun (see above)
(hot varieties)
MEDICINAL: ground and mixed with clarified butter or pork fat
in a poultice, which is externally applied against rheumatisms
RITUAL: burned on the fire; the resulting strong odour is
considered a repellent for werewolves (lugata)
Carlina acanthifolia
All. (Asteraceae) Thera W Fresh flower
receptacles FOOD: consumed raw as snacks
Kaçani*
Carpinus betulus L.
(Betulaceae) Dru kaprivë W Wood HANDICRAFTS: diverse agricultural tools, including sickles
Carpinus orientalis
Mill. (Betulaceae) Gaber* W Bark VETERINARY: decoction, in external washed on cuts
Cetraria islandica (L.)
Ach. (Parmeliaceae) Mishk W Thallus MEDICINAL: gathered and traded in the past
Chenopodium bonus-
henricus L.
(Amarathaceae)
Çuen* W Roots FOOD: used in the past for making home-made halva*
(Ottoman sweet
prepared by gently stirring the decotion obtained
by boiling these roots in water, with wheat and/or corn flour for
one hour, and generally adding walnuts or raisins at the end, and
letting it cool/solidify); the roots were also traded in the past
Çuen FOOD: home-made production of the sweet halva,
made by cooking together roots, sugar syrup and powdered
nuts - roots of çuen were erroneously identified by Doda as
those of Saponaria spp. Upper Reka men were famous
halva-sellers
Citrullus lanatus
(Thunb.) Mansf.
(Cucurbitaceae)
Bostan B Fruit pulp FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed raw, considered a means for
cleansing the intestines
Lubenicë*
Clematis vitalba L.
(Ranunculaceae) Kurpna W Branches HANDICRAFTS: traditionally weaved in baskets used for bee-
keeping
Pofit*
Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT
(Dried?) flowers FOOD: used in the past as bread yeast
Cornus mas L.
(Cornaceae) Thona W Fresh fruits FOOD: consumed raw; FOOD/MEDICINAL: syrups and
distillate (raki thonet) considered healthy, esp. for treating fever Thon
Corylus avellana L.
(Betulaceae) Leithiza W Kernels FOOD: consumed raw as snacks Leithi
Branches OTHERS: as structural supports for bean plants in the vegetable
garden
Crataegus monogyna
Jacq. var. sericea
Dzekov (Rosaceae)
Murrisi W Dried flowers MEDICINAL: tea, as an anti-hypertensive Muris qeni RITUAL: child affected by measles was placed
under a hawthorn plant and water was thrown on him/her
Fruits FOOD: consumed as snack and in syrups and jams
Cucumis sativus L.
(Cucurbitaceae) Kastraveca* C Fruits FOOD: consumed raw, or, more often, lactofermented (turshi*)
Cucurbita maxima
Duchesne
(Cucrbitaceae)
Kungulla C Fruits FOOD: filling for pies Kungul FOOD: filling for pies (ndri)
Dried seeds FOOD: consumed as snacks; ground and used as an ingredient
of the home-made seasoning mixture piprik e shtupun (see
Capsicum annuum)
Euphorbia sp.
(Euphorbiaceae) Lule gjarpi W Aerial parts OTHERS: crushed and used for fishing trout (pastërmka) in the
river (as a fish poison) Lishanj
Fagus sylvatica L.
(Fagaceae) Ahu W Fresh young leaves and
kernels FOOD: consumed as a snack in the past Ah
Branches and wood FUEL;
HANDICRAFTS: fences, diverse agricultural tools, “skeleton”
of horse saddles and barns
Fomes fomentarius
(L.) J. J. Kickx
(Polyporaceae)
Eshka W Dried fruiting body OTHERS: burned; the resulting smoke is used to keep away
bees while gathering honey
Fragaria vesca L.
(Rosaceae) Drezdha W Fruits FOOD: consumed raw Drethsa
Fraxinus excelsior L.
(Oleaceae) Frashëri W Wood HANDICRAFTS: for building flutes (kaval*)
Gentiana lutea L.
(Gentianaceae) Shtarë e egëra W Roots MEDICINAL: largely gathered and traded in the past; use
unknown Shatra e egër
Helleborus spp.
(Ranunculaceae) Kukurek* W Roots MEDICINAL: inserted in the horse’s breast for treating
muscular blocks (horses not able to be ridden anymore) Kukurek VETERINARY: inserted into the nose to treat
nasal congestion in horses
Helichrysum plicatum
DC. (Asteraceae) Lule për molca W Dried flowering tops OTHERS: placed in the closets as a moth repellent
Hordeum vulgare L.
(Poaceae) Elb C Fruits FOOD: consumed in the past in gruels with corn; FODDER for
sheep Elb
Hyosciamus niger L.
(Solanaceae) W Dried flowers MEDICINAL: burned and the smoke exposed to the mouth to
treat toothache (in the past)
Hypericum perforatum
L. (Hypericaceae) Katrion* W Dried flowering tops MEDICINAL: tea, for treating kidney stones, colds, stomach-
ache, rheumatisms (used every day for at least a few months) or
simply drunk as a “healthy” beverage; topically applied for
treating wounds
Kantarion*
Çaj bistrë
Lule e verdhë
Fresh flowering tops MEDICINAL: Macerate in oil (obtained by exposing it in the
sun for several weeks) or prepare as a tea externally applied for
treating skin burns, cuts, or other skin inflammations
Juglans regia L.
(Juglandaceae) Arra SD Kernels FOOD: used for cakes; a specific pie (ndri) was prepared with
walnuts and lamb meat, and consumed on feast days Arr
Unripe fruits FOOD/MEDICINAL: dipped in honey (and eventually lemon
juice), the resulting preserve is considered healthy against
tuberculosis* and bronchitis
Juniperus communis
L. (Cupressaceae) Dëllinia W Galbules FOOD: seasoning MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cough,
rheumatisms and “good for the blood”; largely gathered and
sold, especially in the past
Dulinj
Dried bark OTHERS: smoked as a tobacco substitute
Lactuca sativa L.
(Asteracaeae) Marolla* C Fresh leaves FOOD: salads
Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill.
(Solanaceae)
Patlixhan* C Fresh fruits FOOD Patlingjan kuq
Malus domestica
Borkh. (Rosaceae) Molla SD Fruits FOOD/MEDICINAL: traditionally consumed raw, or roasted, or
in pies or jams; the fruits of the most acidic landraces were used
for producing home-made vinegar (adding water and letting
ferment for 40 days) - this vinegar is considered healthy for
treating hypertension
Moll
Fruits→Raki MEDICINAL: drunk as a stimulant (anti-lethargic)
Matricaria recutita L.
(Asteraceae) Kamomila W Dried flowering aerial
parts MEDICINAL: tea for treating toothache, stomach-ache and
belly pains (esp. in babies) Cfarlik
Medicago sativa L.
(Fabaceae) Jonxhe C Aerial parts FODDER
Melissa officinalis L.
(Lamiaceae) Milc W Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT: considered the best honey plant
Mentha longifolia (L.)
Huds. (Lamiaceae) Nagjas i egër W Dried flowering tops
MEDICINAL: tea, as a stimulant (considered poisonous if drunk
in large amounts)
Mentha spicata L.
(Lamiaceae) Nane W and C Dried leaves FOOD: ground, used as an ingredient of the seasoning mix
piprik e shtupun
(see Capsicum annuum)
Nagjas
MEDICINAL: tea, for treating stomach and intestinal pains, esp.
in children, or as an anti-diarrhoeal
Nicotiana tabacum L.
(Solanaceae) Duhan* B Dried crashed leaves VETERINARY: externally applied on wounds or skin problems
in sheep MEDICINAL: external applications for treating wounds
(mixed with honey)
Tutun*
Orchis spp.
(Orchidaceae) Salep* (two quoted
“folk specifics”: one
showing pink
flowers and the other
one with yellow
flowers)
W Dried tubers MEDICINAL: ground, and then mixed with milk and dried
again; the resulting powder is used in teas, as a “healthy”
beverage (rarely macerated in plum distillate and drunk as a
medicine); in the past largely gathered and sold
Broçka Salep FOOD: powdered orchid tubers were stirred
with warm water and sugar; many young men from the
upper Reka left their homes to work as salep, bosa and
halva sellers in Skopje, Istanbul, Romania, and Bulgaria
Origanum vulgare L.
(Lamiaceae) Çaj* W Dried flowering aerial
parts MEDICINAL: tea for treating sore throat, cough, heart
problems, intestinal discomforts, or as a recreational beverage
Çaj i malit
Çaj i livadhi*
Petasites hybridus (L.)
Gaertn. (Asteraceae) Kakuda Lapua W Leavs FODDER Kakuda
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
(Fabaceae) Grosha* C (brown and white
landraces) Dried seeds FOOD: soups Grosh FOOD: boiled, generally cooked together fresh or
dried meat, adding bone marrow (galgo)
Pisum sativum L.
(Fabaceae) Grashaka* C Seeds FOOD: cooked with meat or potatoes Nahut
Plantago major
L.(Plantaginaceae) Lule deli W Leaves MEDICINAL: tea, for treating kidney stones; externally applied
for treating cuts Bajsht delit MEDICINAL: external applications of leaves
and roots for treating furuncles
Primula veris
L.(Primulaceae) Gornicfet* W Flowers MEDICINAL: sold and traded in the past – use unknown Garicfet
Prunus avium L.
(Rosaceae) Shurshia SD Fresh fruits FOOD: consumed raw; syrups Qershi
Prunus cerasus L.
(Rosaceae) Vishnja* SD Fruits FOOD: consumed raw, or dried, or in syrups Vishnja
Resin (smol*) MEDICINAL: externally applied on skin inflammations
Prunus cerasus L. var.
marasca (Host.) Viv.
(Rosaceae)
Shurshia e egër SD Fruits FOOD: consumed raw or dried, or in syrups
Prunus domestica L.
(Rosaceae) Kumbulla Gjagalka SD (many diverse
landraces, with
yellow, red, and
black fruits)
Fruits FOOD: consumed raw or dried; cooked with sugar and dried,
and consumed as candies; hoshaf* – thickened fruit juice
preserve; it is diluted with water (and eventually sugar) and
drunk
Kumla
Fresh fruits (fermented
1–2 months and then
resulting must
distilled)→raki*
MEDICINAL: instilled in the ear for treating earaches; drunk as
a “healthy” beverage for the heart (rare) or to counteract
tiredness; externally applied as a disinfectant for wounds
MEDICINAL: distillate externally applied on bullet
wounds
Pyrus communis L.
(Rosaceae) Dardha W Fresh fruits FOOD: consumed raw Dardha
Rhamnus alpina L.
(Rhamnaceae) W Fruits FOOD: consumed as snacks
Robinia pseudoacacia
L. (Fabaceae) Bagrem* W Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT: the resulting honey is considered effective
against cough
Rosa canina L. (s.l.)
(Rosaceae) Kaça Shipinka* W Fresh fruits FOOD: jams Kaç
Dried fruits MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cold, fever, cough
Rubus idaeus L.
(Rosaceae) Medra W Fresh fruits FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed raw; syrup (sok*) and hoshaf*
(dense thickened juice, diluted with water and drunk) are
considered healthy
Medr
Mjedra
Malina*
Dried leaves MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cold
Rubus schleicheri
Weihe ex Tratt. and
other Rubus spp.
(Rosaceae)
Manaferra W Fresh fruits FOOD: consumed raw; jams Monca
Rumex acetosella L. Gisilica* W Fresh and dried leaves FOOD: filling for pies (in the past leaves were dried and stored Gasilica
(Polygonaceae) Kiselica* Kisilica* for the winter, then rehydrated in water and used as a fresh
vegetable)
Rumex patientia L.
(Polygonaceae) Lepçeta W Fresh leaves FOOD: filling for pie (peta) Lipgjet FOOD: consumed boiled with/in dhalt (kind of
Albanian buttermilk)
Salix alba L. and other
Salix spp.(Salicaceae) Shelçe W Fresh branches HANDICRAFTS: weaved in diverse kinds of baskets (kosh*) Shelçe MEDICINAL: steam baths for treating rheumatisms
Salvia verticillata L.
(Lamiaceae) Gamnash W Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT: The honey obtained from bees visiting the
plant is considered very effective against bronchitis
Sambucus ebulus L.
(Adoxaceae) Basdalina* W Fresh leaves MEDICINAL: topically applied against snake bites
Shtog i egër
Sambucus nigra L.
(Adoxaceae) Shtog W Flowers FOOD/MEDICINAL: syrup (sok*) considered a cough remedy
(expectorant); sometimes also given to children affected by belly
pains to drink
Shtog
Fresh fruits FOOD: syrups and jams
Wood HANDICRAFTS: for building spindles*
Satureja montana L.
(Lamiaceae) Lis W Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT
Secale cereale L.
(Poaceae) Thekna C Fruits FODDER; Thekn FOOD: kurkurama - gruel made by rye, corn, wheat
and beans
FOOD: roasted, as a coffee substitute*
Dried fruits
(grounded)→Flour FOOD: in the past used for baking sourdough bread (bukë
çerepi) -prepared adding dhallët (buttermilk) and fermenting 2–
3
days - and also for pies
FOOD: buk thekninta – sourdough bread; buk e persiet –
sourdough bread made by mixing rye, wheat, and corn
flours
Dried aerial parts
(straw) HANDICRAFTS: filling for horse saddles, pillows and
mattresses --
Sideritis spp.
(Lamiaceae) Çaj malit B (brought from the
town pazar/market,
presumably gathered
from mountainous
areas nearby)
Dried flowering aerial
parts MEDICINAL: tea for treating cold
Solanum tuberosum L.
(Solanaceae) Repa* C Tubers FOOD: traditionally consumed boiled with piprik e shtupun (see
Capsicum annuum); fried, or roasted Kampire
Kompira*
MEDICINAL: slices of a fresh tuber were externally applied on
the forehead for treating headaches
Young leaves FOOD: boiled and consumed as vegetables with buttermilk, or
as filling for pies (especially in the past – however one elderly
couple confirmed that they also consume them nowadays)
Syringa vulgaris L.
(Oleaceae) Ergovan* C Flowers ORNAMENTAL Ergavan
Tanacetum vulgare
L.(Asteraceae) Vratik* W Dried flowering tops MEDICINAL: tea, as a digestive; in the past, the decoctions
were externally used for washing children affected by rubella or
persons affected by hepatitis* – for this last use sometimes the
decoction was also drunk
VETERINARY: considered poisonous for calves
OTHERS: placed in closets as a moth repellent
Taraxacum officinale
Weber (Asteraceae) Bastë e egër W Fresh leaves FOOD: eaten in spring salads
Thymus serpyllum L.
(s.l.) Lis Majçina
dushnica* W Aerial parts MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cold and cough
(Lamiaceae)
Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT
Tilia cordata Mill.
(Malvaceae) Lipa* SD Dried inflorescences MEDICINAL: tea, for treating colds Blini
Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT
Resin (smol*) MEDICINAL: externally applied to skin inflammations
Trifolium spp.
(Fabaceae) Detelina* W Fresh flowers HONEY PLANT; Trfonj
FODDER: for cows, it is considered a galactagogue (promoting
milk production)
Trigonella foenum-
graecum L. (Fabaceae)
Gruni piprikes C Dried aerial parts FOOD: as an ingredient of the seasoning mix piprik e shtupun
(see Capsicum annuum)
Triticum aestivum L.
(Poaceae) Grur C Fruits FOOD Gruni FOOD: kukurama - gruel made by rye, corn, wheat
and beans
Fruits (ground)→Flour FOOD: bread and pies FOOD: buk e ngjeshun – leavened bread; buk grunit –
sourdough bread; buk e persiet – bread obtained mixing
corn, rye, and wheat flours peçiv - kind of crusty bread,
with a buttered inner part fli - a kind of crusty bread, made
by several alternate layers of dough and butter, each layer is
baked in sequence; koleç - bread made by diverse little
bread units; ndurdhi - like fli, but wit
h thicker layers, which
are broken and finally dipped with melted butter bosa – a
lacto-fermented beverage made with wheat flour, mixed
with millet flour (or maize flour), which was boiled in
water approx. 12 hrs.; the resulting mass was then knitted
by hands and, after the adding of yeast, kept overnight,
until it was dissolved in water; in the upper Reka, young
men used to migrate to town as bosa
producers and vendors
in the Ottoman Empire
Vaccinium myrtillus
L.
(Ericaceae) Shurshia të egra W Fresh fruits
FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed raw, and sometimes believed to
be “healthy for the blood”; syrups and jams; the fresh fruits are
nowadays gathered in the summertime in large amounts and sold
to middle men from Gostivar
Qyrshiat t egra
Baruk
Borovnica*
Dried leaves MEDICINAL: tea, used for heart problems
Veratrum album L.
(Melanthiaceae) Shtarë W Roots VETERINARY: decoctions, in external washes for treating lice
in animals; root inserted in the horse’s breast for treating
muscular blocks (horses can’t be ridden anymore)
Shtar VETERINARY: decoction of the roots was used for
treating scabies in sheep
Fresh leaves VETERINARY: considered poisonous if animals consume them
in large amounts (foaming at the mouth) VETERINARY: Consuming large amounts of the leaves of
the same plant was considered poisonous in sheep (foaming
at the mouth), even very rarely lethal
Dried leaves OTHERS: smoked as tobacco substitute
Verbascum thapsus L. Bubujak Brusla W Fresh leaves MEDICINAL: externally as an haemostatic; Bubujak
(Scrophulariaceae) OTHERS: used for covering butter, peppers with ricotta cheese,
or lacto-fermented vegetables
Urtica dioica L.
(Urticaceae) Kapriva* W Fresh leaves FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed boiled (also in the past mixed
with sorrel and potato leaves) or in soups, or as filling for savory
pies –consumption of nettle is considered healthy as a “blood
depurative”; MEDICINAL: externally rubbed for treating
rheumatisms
Kopriva
Roots FOOD: used in the past as rennet
MEDICINAL: decoctions are considered able to treat cancer and
especially to relieve liver problems (decoction of the leaves and
roots together)
Zea mays L. (Poaceae)
Çenk Kolomoç
Barsak C (white and yellow
landraces) Fruits FODDER Mçenk Kalamoç FOOD: kukurama - gruel made by rye,
corn, wheat and beans
Dried fruits
(ground)→Flour FOOD: buk kolomoçit - bread (traditionally leavened with
buttermilk [dhallët]); ingredient of the seasoning mix bagrdar -
polenta obtained boiling the flour for at least one hour on the
fire, generally served with buttermilk (dhallët), or clarified
butter (tlynë) or yogurt (kos) - esp. ewe yogurt (kos delje);
alternatively, polenta is served with beans or potato soup; pies
(peta), filled with various vegetables
FOOD: buk mçenkut – bread; buk pervlue – sourdough
bread; pershenik- leavened bread; pershesh - pershenik
dipped in buttermilk [dhalt] or yogurt [kos]) mçenka (like
kukurama, but prepared with corn only; bagrdar or
kaçamak me tlynë - polenta served with clarified butter
FODDER
RITUAL: corn flour was brought to the Islamic spiritual guide
(hoxha), who “wrote” something with this; this was considered
essential for treating the evil eye of a member of the family
Various herbaceous
species W Fresh stem MEDICINAL: inserted into the anus, as a purgative
Various tree species W Wood (burned)
→Charcoal MEDICINAL: used in the past in the ritual healing of the evil-
eye: three pieces of hot coals were put in cold water; with the
resulting water child face was washed (generally it has to be
done by the first-born for his/her brothers/sisters; the first-born
has to be treated by a neighbour) and the same water had to be
drunk by the child or animal; depending on how the coal was
dipped into water, this was also used for the diagnosis of the
evil-eye – sometimes the water was given to the child in three
spoons, which were then thrown behind the back; depending on
how the spoons fell on the ground, the occurrence of the evil-
eye
was confirmed
Ash OTHERS: for washing clothes*
Not identified Ferra magjara W Leaves FODDER: for donkeys
Not identified Kulosgjarpni W Fresh flowers VETERINARY: applied externally against snake bites in horses
Not identified Morava* W Leaves FOOD: filling for savory pies
* Recorded local phytonyms, names of plant parts or plant preparations, which have been recorded also among South Slavs (even if the etymology may not be always Slavic;
according to [22,34-44]); B: bought; C: cultivated; SD: semi-domesticated (not cultivated, but in some way “managed”; W: wild.
This seems to contradict what Bajazid Elmaz Doda postulated in his ethnographic report
about the possible disappearance of the Albanians and their cultural heritage in the upper
Reka [22], where an important folk medical heritage, although dramatically eroded, is still
occurring. Among the most uncommon plant uses, the most noteworthy is the continuation of
the use of the young leaves of cultivated potatoes and of wild Rumex patientia as filling for
home-made savory pies. To the best of our knowledge, the recording of a food use of aerial
parts of potatoes is new in contemporary Europe and may be explained by the extreme
poverty and scarcity of resources in this mountainous area, even in the context of the Western
Balkans. A confirmation of this phenomenon is perhaps best illustrated by the migration
trends from the upper Reka to Romania and Istanbul (mainly of young men), beginning in the
19th Century [22]. In another study conducted on the Albanian side of Mount Korab
(unpublished data), elderly locals confirmed that the upper Reka village on the (current day)
Macedonian side of the mountain was well known to them even in the folk history for being
extremely disadvantaged in terms of socio-economic conditions.
The linguistic features of the current ethnobotanical knowledge of the upper
reka valley
In Table 1, the folk plant names that were recorded in the upper Reka valley and which are
also used by South Slavs are denoted by an asterisk. Approximately one-third of the recorded
pyhtonyms are also used by the South Slavs, with some notable examples of Slavic
etymology concerning culturally-important and very commonly used wild plants, such as
Urtica dioca, Hypericum perforatum, and Primula veris, as well as most cultivated crops and
some forest trees too.
Wild gentian vs. the white hellebore: a surprising cognitive “inversion”
In the study area, the linguistic label of gentian (Gentiana lutea) and white hellebore
(Veratrum album) are the same. Gentian is, in fact, locally named as wild (meaning here
“looking-like”) white hellebore (shtarë). This contradicts what would be expected regarding
the plant cognitive prototype, which generally is represented by the most culturally salient or
mostly used folk species [45], which in the Balkans is surely gentian. Instead, here gentian
has been largely gathered solely for trade in the past and partially today, however a local use
of gentian is unknown. Vice-versa, the use of hellebore in local ethnoveterinary practices
may be very ancient; it is used mainly as external/topical agent for treating lice in diverse
animals and especially for healing horses (roots are inserted into the musculature of the horse
breast). This perhaps suggests that the gathering of Veratrum album in the Albanian
mountains preceded the gathering of gentian, which could have been introduced by
“external” factors: other cultures, such as the contiguous Slav ones, where the folk uses of
gentian are widespread [1,4-7], or by the demands of urban markets.
Cross-cultural comparison
Figure 2 shows that a relevant portion of the medicinal plant taxa recorded and used in the
upper Reka valley are also part of the folk medical heritage of surrounding Balkan regions,
where other field ethnobotanical surveys have been recently conducted (Figure 3).
Figure 2 Percentage of the wild medicinal plant taxa recorded and locally used in the
upper Reka, which have also been recorded as used in field ethnobotanical studies
conducted in other areas of Western Balkans (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Location of the Western Balkan areas, where the ethnobotanical studies used
for the comparative analysis have been recently conducted.
This is especially true in those areas where the Albanian population was historically in
extensive contact with the South-Slavic cultures, such as the Gollak area in eastern Kosovo
[9], the Pešter plateau in south-western Serbia [1] and the Sharr Mountain (Šar Planina in
Macedonian) in western Macedonia [29] (Figure 3) .
This may confirm the findings of both our linguistic analysis on the folk plant names carried
out in Table 1 and also Franz Nopcsa’s ethnolinguistic analysis of the terms referring to the
material culture in upper Reka [22], which showed very important loans from the Romanian
and especially Slavic languages. It can thus be postulated that the upper Reka Albanians had
been heavily influenced by the Slavic culture - and not vice-versa, as Spiridon Gopčević
stated [23].
Study participants confirmed that over recent decades their most important markets and
“exchange” centres have been the multi-ethnic (Macedonian, Albanian, and Turk) towns of
Gostivar in Western Macedonia and Prizren, in Southern Kosovo. Moreover, it must also be
noted that over the span of the last century, the Albanians of the upper Reka lived outside of
the borders of the Albanian state (founded in 1912), and for the major part of this period
within the former Socialist Republic of Macedonia within Yugoslavia, where the dominant
culture and languages have been Macedonian and Serbo-Croatian. In other words, the
remarkable “interference” of the Slavic cultures found within the domain of Albanian
traditional plant knowledge of the upper Reka represents a unique phenomenon, which
nowadays is not easy to trace back in detail. This could be due to the difficulty faced in
establishing to which degree the Slavic culture influenced the traditional knowledge among
Albanians in the upper Reka, considering the role that ancient “hybridisations” may have
played, as both Gopčević and Nopcsa, although in a different way, have underlined in their
respective works.
Moreover, as well analysed by Fredrick Barth more than four decades ago [46], cultural
contacts and boundaries among ethnic groups may be very complex and subject to dynamic
change, since they respond to very unique societal and historical circumstances. It could be
interesting to follow the future development of local perceptions of nature among the last
remaining Albanians of the upper Reka and the strategies that they will adopt through
processes of further negotiation of their identities within the rest of the population in Western
Macedonia and the whole country.
Other domestic remedies
Table 2 reports other domestic and medicinal remedies recorded in the area, which are not
based on indigenous plants; a large portion of these remedies survives only in the memories
of the interviewees.
Table 2 Food, medicinal, and other domestic uses of non-indigenous plants, and animal,
mineral, and industrial products quoted in the study area
Product (local name)
Local use
Animal rennet (stomach of very young animals)
(sirisht) Used for producing cheese, but also as a starter for making yogurt#; anti-diarrheal
Ants Used in the past as a rennet substitute#
Bear’s fat Used externally for treating rheumatisms#
Beer One glass of beer, drunk, is considered healthy for the kidney
Black piece of cloth Tied onto cow’s neck or horns, as a protective amulet against evil eye#
Bullet Attached to clothes and worn as a protective amulet against evil eye#
Buttermilk (dhallët) Drunk as a post-partum reconstituent or for treating intestinal troubles and hypertension;
Used as starter for producing home-made yogurt
Chicken Cooked for a long time, until obtaining a gelatinous material, which is further cooked
together with onions, corn flour and vinegar to create home-made soap#
Clarified butter (tlynë) Drunk for treating hypotension
Clothes dressed on the wrong side Protective amulet against evil eye#
Coffee powder Spoonful is ingested for treating hypotension; Decoction (“Turkish coffee”) for
hypotension; Externally applied to cuts
Copper sulphate Used externally for healing lameness in sheep#
Cow’s milk Drunk in cases of constipation
Cut Cutting the ewe’s ear and letting blood coming out was considered an effective method
for treating several sheep diseases#
Dried sheep and cow’s faeces Burned, the resulting smoke keeps the bees away while taking honey#
Goat milk Applied (warm) into the ear against earache#
Gunpowder (barut) Its odour is exposed to the nose of sleepwalkers, in order to bring them back to
consciousness#; Odour was also considered a repellent for werewolves#
Hare’s meat If consumed, believed to inhibit fertility#
Honey (mjalt) Consumed for improving blood circulation or as a post-partum reconstituent: Ingested for
treating sore throats
Knife A knife placed under the pillow is considered preventive for sleepwalking#
Leech Applied externally for “sucking the bad blood”#
Lemon Drunk to treat hypertension; Sometimes used in the past as rennet for making cheese#
Match’s head Topically applied for treating toothaches#
Mother’s milk Instilled in the ear for treating inflammations/earache
Mud Applied onto bee stings for pain relief#
Oil Ingested to treat constipation
Pork fat Externally used on burns#
Propolis Tea or macerate in raki used for treating cough/respiratory problems and intestinal
discomforts (all of which are considered “new” uses)
Ricotta cheese (gjizë) Consumed, is considered “good for the blood”
Royal gelly Consumed for improving mental faculties (“new” use)
Salt Brought to the Islamic spiritual guide (hoxha), who “wrote something” with this# - this
was considered essential for treating the evil eye of a member of the family; Mixed with
water, and the resulting solution instilled in the ear or eye for treating inflammations;
Mixed with hot water in external bathes for treating chilblains;
Applied topically for treating toothache
Soap A small piece inserted in the anus, as a purgative#
Snow Applied on the feet for relieving arthritic pains
Starch Ingested for treating diarrhoea
Stone Pressed on skin zone affected by the bee bite, in order to relieve the pain
Sugar Externally applied to cuts; Mixed with water (sherbet) for treating stomach-ache; Burned
and ingested considered a medicine for sore throats
Tobacco Haemostatic
Urin (human urin) Externally applied on cuts#; Drunk against hepatitis#
Vinegar from honey (uthull dëgjetes) - produced
at home fermenting in water honey and raw wax
for a couple of weeks
Used as rennet#; Externally applied on the front or feet for treating fever; Applied on the
chest for treating bronchitis; Applied on the belly of babies when crying or colicky
Yogurt (kos) Post-partum reconstituent
Water Drunk against high blood pressure; Fumigations of hot water (eventually heated by
previously heated stone) for treating cold
Whey (hirra) Drunk as a diuretic, or against hypertension, or “to decrease fats in the blood”
Wool Raw sheep wool externally applied for treating bruises#
# remembered, but nowadays disappeared use(s).
Conclusions
The very few last remaining Albanians living on the Macedonian side of Mount Korab of the
upper Reka still retain a remarkable level of local knowledge concerning botanicals; this
knowledge is however eroded, especially in quantitative terms, due the very tiny population,
who have decided to remain in the region despite the influence of economic hardships. The
hybrid “Albanian-Slav” cultural features of the local inhabitants, which have been largely
discussed and disputed in Balkanological studies, could be confirmed in our ethnobotanical
surveys, since both local plant names and especially a significant portion of the recorded
plant uses share common features with other Slavic and culturally mixed areas of the Western
Balkans. The multi-faceted knowledge recorded here could represent a crucial added value
for the local managers of the Mavrovo National Park and also for further fostering new forms
of eco-tourism, which must be sensitive not only to local biodiversity, but also to the multi-
cultural dimension of a historically complex area like the upper Reka.
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
AP designed the research and conducted the historical and field studies; BR assisted in the
field study; AN, VK, and HA contributed to the ethnolinguistic and cross-cultural
comparative analysis of the data; AN, HA, BM, and KC analysed the botanical taxonomic
part of the data; AP and CLQ drafted the overall scientific discussion. All authors read and
approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks are due to all of the inhabitants of the upper Reka, and especially to the Elvir
Bilalli and his family (Nistrovë) for their wonderful field assistance, generosity and
friendship; to Alessandro Scalerandi for the video documentation of the field study; to
Ludovico Roccatello and Alessando di Tizio for the logistic assistance in the field; to the
reviewers, for their precious comments.
This article is dedicated to the memory of Professor Sulejman Redzic, University of Sarajevo,
Plant Ecologist and Ethnobotanist, unforgettable, passionate colleague, who passed away in
January 2013.
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Figure 3
