Content uploaded by Mansour Zarra-Nezhad
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Mansour Zarra-Nezhad
Content may be subject to copyright.
A Brief History of Money in
Islam and Estimating the Value
of Dirham and DÏn¥r
M. Zarra Nezhad
Abstract: Before the appearance of Islam, dÏn¥r and dirham were the currencies in use
in the Byzantine and Iran empires, respectively. Both currencies were in use in pre-
Islamic Arabia and continued to be so in the Islamic state. In 74 AH the Islamic dÏn¥r
and dirham were minted. Estimating their value is a matter of considerable
importance to those doing research in Islamic economics. This paper estimates the
value of these two currencies using two methods ‘natural value’ and ‘purchasing
power’. It finds that a dÏn¥r was worth 261 to 293 thousand riyals or USD 32.5-36.5.
I. Introduction
Money has long been a medium of exchange, a standard of payment,
the unit of account and a store of value. The currencies in ancient time
were metal coins, particularly gold and silver. The dÏn¥r (gold) was
the currency unit in the Byzantine empire, and the dirham (silver) in
the Persian empire before Islam. A few decades after the conquest of
these empires, the Islamic state began to mint the Islamic dÏn¥r and
dirham. Estimating their equivalent value in modern times is
necessary in the study of the economic history of Muslims and the
economic system of Islam. The next section of this paper explains the
role of money, section three discusses the Islamic coins and section
four briefly reviews minting of money by Islamic states. Then, section
five estimates the value of Islamic currency using two different
methods, ‘natural value’ and ‘purchasing power’. The exchange rate
DRM. ZARRA NEZHAD is Assistant Professor of Economics, at the Shahid Chamran
University, Ahvaz, Iran.
© 2004, international association for islamic economics
Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004, pp. 51–65.
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 51
52 Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
of dÏn¥r to dirham is discussed in section six. A concluding section
summarizes the findings of this paper.
II. The Role of Money
An amazingly wide range of things have been used as money in
different societies, at different times in the past. Among the necessary
qualities of what may be used as a money are; that it is acceptable by
every one; that it can be stored and carried easily; and that it does not
wear out easily. For these reasons, the use of precious metals like gold
and silver became widespread. These metals were used for a long time
before the advent of paper money. To determine the measure and
value of these metals, the state (sovereign) had to seal a quantity of
them in the form of coin, which could be used by people in their
exchanges. Money, as it is known today, first appeared in the form of
coins made of gold, silver and other metals or alloys. The value of this
money was determined by the value of the metal content, so that it
was accepted publicly.
There were, however, problems with the use of gold and silver
coins, and these problems affected the economic exchanges and
productivity, eventually leading the institution of new forms of
money. Some of the problems of money in the form of coins were:
(i). It was easy for private and government swindlers to deliberately
change the content and alloy of the coins.
(ii). In the absence of a regulated method of minting coins, the coins
in circulation could take different forms.
(iii). The discrepancy between the weight and content of alloy in the
coins was high.
(iv). It was impossible to hold a balance between the amount of
coins and the rate of productivity in an economic system.
(v). Problems of counting and carrying the coins, as well as the
dangers of highway robbery, reduced the capacity for and
efficiency of transactions.
III. Islamic Coins (Currency)
During the pre-Islamic era two weights, dÏn¥r and dirham, were used
to weigh gold and silver (Bal¥dhurÏ, 1956: 425; Bal¥dhurÏ, 1947: 5-
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 52
53Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
6). These names were also used for gold and silver coins. Arabia used
both dÏn¥r, the Byzantine currency, and the dirham, the Persian
currency (al-M¥wardÏ, 1938: 154; Ibn Khald‰n, 1336 AH: 48). When
Islam came, the Prophet did not change the weights that were current
in Makkah. He approved the use of dirham and dÏn¥r as money
(Bal¥dhurÏ, 1956: 452; al-MaqrÏzÏ, 1913: 6). Both are mentioned in
the Qur’¥n (3:75) “Among the people of the scripture there is one
who if you trust him with a weight of treasure, will return it to you;
and among them there is one who if you trust him with dÏn¥r, he will
not return it to you unless you keep standing over him. That is
because they say we have no duty to the gentiles. They knowingly
speak a lie concerning Allah” and the Qur’¥n also says: “they sold
him for a few dirhams” (Qur’¥n, 12: 20).
33.11. DÏn¥r
During the early Islamic era, the Byzantine dÏn¥r, that weighed one
mithq¥l (a unit of weight, equal to about five grams) was the currency
used by people in their exchanges. However, though it was the official
currency of that time, the state did not have any control over its use
by people in their exchanges. This situation lasted until the year of 74
(AH) (compare to Bal¥dhurÏ, 1956: 454), when ¢Abd al-Malik ibn
Marw¥n began the minting of new coins under the guidance of
Mu^ammad ibn ¢AlÏ (the fifth Shi¢ite Im¥m) (al-ShahÏd al-Th¥nÏ,
1976: 1/50), and the Islamic dirham began to be used instead of the
old dÏn¥r. The value and the weight of the Islamic dÏn¥r was the same
as that of dÏn¥r (al-DhahabÏ, 1934: 2; Im¥m al-ShushtarÏ, 1964: 79).
So the value and weight of the dÏn¥r was not changed. So the dÏn¥r
can be considered as a basic measure of monetary value, and other
values can be measured against it. Archeologists have unearthed coins
of the Islamic era, of which it is clear that the weight of the dÏn¥r,
coined at the time of ¢Abd al-Malik ibn Marw¥n, was about 4.25
grammes (ßub^Ï, 1976: 427).
33.22. Dirham
Dirham, the Persian (Sassanid) currency, was used before and after
the appearance of Islam in Arabia. During the caliphate of ¢AlÏ ibn
AbÏ>¥lib new coins were coined with the name of Islamic government
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 53
engraved on them (Encyclopedia Britannica, 19/94). Some Qur’¥nic
words the year and the place of the coinage were written on both sides
of these coins in kufic script. The legend engraved on the coin was:
‘this dirham has been coined in Ba|ra in the year 40 AH” (al-Katt¥nÏ,
n.d.: 1/413-428). So it can be said that the first independent coin was
minted during the caliphate of ¢AlÏ ibn AbÏ >¥lib. However, that
happened at the end of his caliphate and was not continued after his
death. So, in effect, because of its rarity, the Islamic dirham was not
accepted as the regular currency. Instead, the Sassanid dirham
continued to be used as money until the caliphate of ¢Abd al-Malik
ibn Marw¥n (al-Shahid al-Th¥nÏ, 1976: 1/52).
There was a variety of Sassanid dirhams used in the early years
of Islamic rule, differing in value and weight (al-MaqrÏzÏ, 1913: 4;
D‰rÏ, 1948: 210). The BaghlÏ dirham (named after the person who
minted it) was minted under the order of ‘Umar ibn al-Kha~~¥b. It was
in fact, a recoinage of the W¥fÏ (KasravÏ) dirham and weighted 20
carats and contained 8daneghs. The >abarÏ dirham (from to
Tabaristan, in the north of Iran), was recoined by Kh¥lid ibn al-WalÏd
in the year 15 AH, weighted 1o carats and contained 4daneghs. The
JuraghÏ dirham weighted 12 carats and contained 4.5daneghs. In
addition to these three, there were other dirhams in use: the YamanÏ
and the MaghribÏ dirham which contained one and three daneghs,
respectively (al-M¥wardÏ, 1938: 154).
According to some jurists, the variation in the value of the
dirham led to difficulty in the estimation of financial religious duties.
To clarify the rate and range of the alms, ‘Umar ibn al-Kha~~¥b, the
second caliph, ordered that the most widely used dirhams be specified,
and the legal dirham defined based on the average of these dirhams.
However, scholars have argued that exchanges were estimated based
on BaghlÏ and >abarÏ dirhams; and the legal dirham was not coined
until 74 AH during the Ummayad caliphate (al-¤urr al¢®milÏ, 1978:
9/149; KulagnÏ, n.d.: 4/64).
The second hypothesis is the more persuasive, for the following
reasons:
(i). As mentioned, the first Islamic dirham was coined during the
caliphate of ¢AlÏ ibn AbÏ >¥lib in the year of 40 AH. However,
this was not followed up by subsequent governors, so the
54 Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 54
55Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
limited number of Islamic dirhams could not take the place of
the prolific number of Sassanid dirhams in circulation.
(ii). The variety of dirhams was considerable during the time of the
Prophet, but this had not led to any difficulty in the estimation
of the scope and rate of the alms-tax. It seems that, at that time,
6daneghs were considered as one dirham, and this credit
dirham was used to estimate the rate and value of the alms-tax
(al-¤urr alt-¢®milÏ, 1978: 9/149; KulaynÏ, n.d.: 4/64; al-shaykh
ßad‰q, 1957: 1/34). The same ratio would have been
practicable for the second caliph, without minting a new
dirham.
(iii). It has been reported that ‘Umar ibn al-Kha~~¥b ordered the
dirham to be re-minted the BaghlÏ dirham. Similarly, Kh¥lid ibn
al-WalÏd re-minted the >abarÏ dirham. This suggests that these
two dirhams were supplied by the government to become the
money of the time.
(iv). If a new dirham had been minted during the caliphate of ‘Umar
ibn al-Kha~~¥b and widely circulated as currency, ¢Abd al-Malik
ibn Marw¥n would have not feared the Romans threat to
engrave blasphemies against Islam on the coins they minted. All
he would have needed to do was forbid all exchanges except
those that used the Islamic dirham. However, he did face this
threat and did not know how to respond – until Mu^ammad
Ibn ¢AlÏ al-B¥qir suggested the minting of an Islamic dirham. In
this way, ¢Abd al-Malik ibn Marw¥n began to coin new dirhams.
(v). As can be understood from the record (al-DamÏrÏ, n.d.: 1/63),
the early Islamic governments did not have their own coins.
This can be seen from the Roman emperor’s claim, addressed to
¢Abd al-Malik ibn Marw¥n, that only he as Roman emperor
could mint the coins then circulating.
(vi). The oldest unearthed coins belong to the years of the caliphate
of ¢AlÏ ibn AbÏ >¥lib and ¢Abd al-Malik ibn Marw¥n. This
confirms the hypothesis.
Large numbers of Islamic dirhams were minted during the
caliphate of ¢Abd al-Malik ibn Marw¥n. About 30 dirhams were
selected from three different varieties, weighing 10, 6and 5mithq¥ls.
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 55
56 Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
The Islamic dirham was defined as the average weight of these three
dirhams:
10(1+0.6+0.5)
——————— = 0.7
30
The exchange rate between dirham and dÏn¥r was set out as
7/10. That is, 0.7methgal was the weigh of the Islamic dirham. Using
this ratio, the weight of this dirham can be estimated as follows:
7
4.25(——)= 2.275
10
Thus, the weight of the Islamic dirham was 2.275 grams, and
this was the basis for the relevant consideration in Islamic law.
IV. Coinage
As stated earlier, the Islamic government did not have any control
over coinage on the value of in-money circulation until the year 74
AH. There was no consistency and growing dishonesty, in the alloy,
the content and weight of coins. In addition, when ¢Abd al-Malik ibn
Marw¥n came to know that borders of curtains imported from Rome
were woven with proclamation of the Christian Trinity, he ordered
this to be changed to a proclamation of the Islamic creed in the textile
factories of Egypt. It is in retaliation for this that the Roman emperor
threatened to engrave blasphemy against the Prophet on Roman
coins.
To solve this problem, the Islamic government sought to
establish control of and improve the monetary system. Thereafter, the
government established legal Islamic dirham, and steadily expelled the
old coins in circulation out of its territory, and the new money
replaced them.
After the establishment of the mint houses, the people paid a
charge to have their gold turned into coins. The charge was one
percent of the weight of the given gold, to cover the cost of minting
(wages and fuel). In this way, the government managed to take
control of the assay of the coins and did its best to raise their quality
and consistency. It was ¢Umar ibn al-¤umayrÏ, the governor of Iraq,
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 56
57Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
who raised the purity of the silver coins for the first time. After him,
Kh¥lid ibn ¢Abdull¥h and Alghasry, the governors of Iraq at the time,
of Hish¥m ibn ¢Abd al-Malik, tried to raise the standard of the coins
with more care. Y‰suf ibn ¢Umar was the most successful governor in
this respect. Accordingly, the best money during the time of
Ummayads was the ‘Kh¥lidiyya’ and ‘Y‰sufiyya’ and Ab‰ Ja¢far took
the tribute based on these coins (Bal¥hurÏ, 1956: 455-456). During
the ¢Abbasid caliphate these efforts were continued and led to fruitful
results. Surviving coins from the Ummayads and ¢Abassid periods,
tested with modern equipment, show that the standard values of the
Ummayad dÏn¥r and the dÏn¥r current during the caliphate of H¥r‰n
al-RashÏd respectively were 87.9and 97.1percent of a common
measure (Im¥m ShushtarÏ, 1964: 80). These figures are remarkable,
given the relatively primitive equipment that would have been
available.
V. Value of Money
55.11. The ‘natural value’ of money
The ‘natural value’ of dirham and dÏn¥r refers to the value of the alloy
contents in dÏn¥r (gold) and dirham (silver). As mentioned, before the
appearance of Islam, dirham and dÏn¥r used to be exchanged
according to their weights. So the value of dÏn¥r and dirham was
determined by their contents (silver or gold), i.e., the value of money
was the same as the natural value of the metal content of the coins,
therefore, the term value of money (i.e. purchasing power) was not
under consideration.
Here, we estimate the natural value of the Islamic dirham and
dÏn¥r against the riy¥l (Iranian currency), based on the fitness of gold
during the Ummayad caliphate (87.9percent), the weight of Islamic
dÏn¥r (4.25 grams), and the price of each gram of gold 18 carats fine
on 24th June, 2003 which is 71600 riy¥ls in Tehran. It is worked out
as follows:
87.9
4.25x——=3.73575
100
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 57
58 Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
That is, the amount of the pure gold in each methgal is about
3.74 grammes. To estimate the amount of net gold used in each gram
of gold, we have:
18
——x100=0.75
24
Thus, the ratio of the pure gold in each gram is 75 percent of
gold 18 carats fine. So, the value of the Islamic dÏn¥r, on 24th June,
2003 can be estimated at 261168 rials.
71,600
2.73575x———=261,168.16
0.75
Against the dollar rate of 8,500 riy¥ls, each dÏn¥r can then be
estimated to be about 37 dollars.
55.22. Monetary value
The ‘monetary value’, or purchasing power of money has been defined
as the amount of goods or services that can be purchased by some
specific amount of money. Today, the value of money is determined
using the price index and it is easy to determine whether the value of
money has risen or declined with reference to the base year.
To determine the monetary value of Islamic dÏn¥r and dirham,
we need to figure out their purchasing power and compare them with
current purchasing power. To do that, we need to study different
sources for information about the prices of goods and services and the
rates of wages. With that information, we can, in theory, form a
basket of goods and services and estimate the purchasing power of
Islamic dÏn¥r and dirham. However, there are some practical
limitations to how far and how well we can do this:
(i). Costs and prices at the time cannot be surveyed directly; they
have to be inferred and adjustments made for inflation at the
time.
(ii). The methods and costs of production were very different then,
compared to today. If we ignore these differences, it will be
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 58
59Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
impossible to compare prices, which are determined based on
methods and costs of production.
(iii). Since the goods and services of the two periods are different
with regard to their value and quality, it may be difficult to find
goods of comparable quality and value.
(iv). In old days, land transport was limited to animals, which (in
contrast to today), were very important in transportation. This
is an important factor that has to be taken into consideration.
In spite of these limitations, the fact that in those times
production methods were relatively stable make it possible to infer
information about costs and prices. Also, there were no marked
changes in international trade so that, over the long term (excluding
periods of famine and inflation), the costs stayed unchanged.
Accordingly, we can with some confidence ignore temporary
aberrations and get the information needed for our comparison.
We have three types of baskets of goods.
Table 11: The Basket of Goods (A)
Weight of Goods Cost
Goods Old Current (riy¥l) Old (dirham) Current
Wheat 0.323 ghafÏz 1kg 0.969 2500
Meat 2.586 ratls 1kg 0.043 32000
Broad bean 1.2mods 1kg 0.041 5000
Date 2.586 ratls 1kg 0.043 5000
Salt 0.163 makooks 1kg 0.163 3000
Denim shirt 1suit Suit 4.0 5000
Total 5.259 97500
To clarify the figures pointed out in the table according to some
record, acre of wheat cost 1dirham (in cash) and one ghafÏz of cereal.
In other records, only the cash has been registered (4dirhams). From
this we can work out that 1ghafeez of wheat cost 3dirhams. The data
presented in al-K¥mil (Ibn al-AthÏr, 1973: 10/131) and al-®^k¥m (al-
M¥wardÏ, 1938: 148), confirm this estimate.
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 59
60 Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
The weight of each kgm in ghafeez is:
1/3.094 = 0.32321
Thus, the cost in dirham is estimated to be:
0.32321 x 3= 0.9692
According to the History of Baghdad (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ,
1913: 1/70) each 60 ratls of mutton cost one dirham. The data
suggested by al-K¥mil (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ, 1913: 1/70) confirm
this. The weight of 60 ra~ls is estimated to be 27.76 kgms. Considering
that each ra~l equals 386.75 gm (Zarra, 1988: 296), we have:
1000/386.75=2.5856
Thus, the cost in dirham can be estimated as follows:
(1x 2.5856)/60=0.04308
According to the History of Baghdad (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ,
1913: 9/466) each 30 mods of broad bean cost one dirham. The
weight of one kgm in ra~l is:
100/696.15=1.4365
Thus, the cost in dirham is estimated to be:
1.4365/696.15=0.0408
According to al-K¥mil (Ibn al-AthÏr, 1937: 12/227), each 60 ra~ls
of date cost one dirham. Thus, the cost in dirham is estimated to be:
2.5856/60=0.0431
As in al-K¥mil (Ibn al-AthÏr, 1937: 12/227), each mak‰k of salt
cost one dirham. Since each 0.163 mak‰k equals one kgm, then the
cost of each kgm salt is estimated to be 0.163 dirham.
Ibn AbÏ al-¤adÏd says: ¢AlÏ ibn AbÏ >alib brought a denim shirt,
which cost 4dirhams (Ibn AbÏ al-¤adÏd, 1959-1964: 2/15). As
recorded in the History of Baghdad (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ, 1913:
9/62), a medium quality and cheap shirt cost 8and 4dirhams,
respectively (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ, 1913: 9/62).
Now, in the second step, we form the next basket. The second
basket of selected goods are as follows:
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 60
61Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
Table 22: The Basket of Selected Goods (B)
Weight of goods Cost
Good Old Current Old (Derham) Current (Riy¥l)
Race 0.163 makook 1kgms 1.961 6500
Egg 30 30 0.667 12000
Oat 0.323 ghfreez 1kgms 0.323 2500
Oil 2.586 ratls 1kgms 0.163 36000
Almond 2.586 ratls 1kgms 1.939 37000
Honey 2.586 ratls 1kgms 0.259 19500
Total 5.311 113500
Some figures used in the table require some explanations. As
recorded in al-K¥mil (Ibn al-AthÏr, 1937: 12/183), each mak‰k of rice
cost 12 dirhams. To estimate the weight of one kgm in mak‰k we
have:
1/6.11827=0.1634
and the cost in dirham is estimated to be:
0.1634x12=1.961
According to the History of Baghdad (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ,
1913: 4/318), the price of 30 good nabat eggs was 4d¥nighs. Thus,
the cost in dirhams is:
4/6=0.667
The way the cost of oats is estimated is the same as what we did
in basket A. But, the cost of wheat was twice as much as that of oats
(Ab‰ Ubayd, 1919: 68; Ibn al-AthÏr, 1937: 15/131).
According to the History of Baghdad (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ,
1913: 1/70), each 16 ra~ls of olive cost one dirham. Thus:
2.5856/16=0.16162
As recorded in the History of Baghdad (al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ,
1913: 9/261), one kore of almond costed 60 dÏn¥rs. Thus, cost in
dirhams is:
2.5856 x 60=155.136
155.136 x15=2337.04
2337.04/1200=1.9395
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 61
The third basket consists of some selected services and their
prices as follows:
Table 33: The Basket of Selected Services (C)
Daily Wage
Worker Dirham Riy¥l
Architect(i) 5 100000
Bricklayer(ii) 4 100000
Carpenter(iii) 2 55000
Mud worker(iv) 0.286 40000
Farm hound(v) 0.167 65000
Making a dress(vi) 0.0714 25000
Total 11.524 38500
Notes: (i) Gardeezy, 1934: 5.; (ii) BayhaqÏ, 1923: 1/411; (iii) BayhaqÏ, 1923:
1/411; (iv) al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ, 1913: 6/275; (v) al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ,
1913: 6/275; (vi) al-Kha~Ïb al-Baghd¥dÏ, 1913: 6/275.
Using the data reported in these three tables, the purchasing
power of the Islamic dirham in comparison to rial can be estimated as
follows:
97,500/5.295 = 18,539.65 based on basket A
113,500/5.311 = 21,370.74 based on basket B
385,000/11.524 = 33,408.54 based on basket C
18,539.65+2,170.74+33,408.54 = 73,318.93
73,318.93/3=24,439.64
Thus, it can be said that the purchasing power of one dirham is
equal to the purchasing power of 24440 riy¥ls, and considering the
transfer rate of the value of dÏn¥r to dirham (12) in that time, the
purchasing power of each dÏn¥r in riy¥l is estimated to be:
24,439.64 x 12 = 293,275.72
As can be seen, the estimation of dirham by this method gives a
close result (293,000) in comparison to the previous one (261,000).
62 Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 62
VI. Exchange Rate of DÏn¥r to Dirham
As a general rule the exchange rate of dÏn¥r to dirham is determined
by the demand for and supply of gold and silver. In the earliest period
of Islam, the ratio of dÏn¥r to dirham was 10 to 1(Ibn ¢As¥kÏr,
1975:1/182). But after the conquest of Persia, Syria and Egypt during
the caliphate of ‘Umar ibn al-Kha~~¥b, the increase in the supply of
silver led to an increase in its cost. So the relative cost of gold
increased in such a way that the value of each dÏn¥r was equal to 13
dirhams (Im¥m al-ShushtarÏ, 1964: 90). This ratio did not change
until the time of the caliphate of HÏsh¥m ibn ¢Abd al-Malik in the
Ummayad caliphate (al-¤usaynÏ, 1976: 97). The rate rose to 15
dirhams to each dÏn¥r at the beginning of the Abassid government (al-
¤usaynÏ, 1976: 103). This ratio did not change until the year of 227
(AH) (Qud¥ma Ibn Ja¢far, 1974: 249-51; al-DhahabÏ, 1934: 2/847).
After that, this ratio rose and reached 22 at the beginning of 244 (AH)
(al-¤usaynÏ al-Shir¥zÏ, 1976: 281), but it began to decline again in
such a way that the value of one dÏn¥r was equal to 10 dirhams in 299
(AH) (Ibn al-JawzÏ, 1932: 120). Then in the middle of the Fatimid
rule, the value of dÏn¥r again rose and reached 18 dirhams (Im¥m al-
ShushtarÏ, 1964: 90).
As it can be seen, the value of dirham to dÏn¥r has experienced a
decreasing trend. Sometimes there were severe fluctuations away from
this trend, because of non-economic events, such as those that
happened during the caliphate of al-¤¥kim bi-Amrill¥h. But these
fluctuations were short lived, and the normal trend was soon restored.
When America was ‘discovered’ and the supply of silver began to
increase, the speed of this trend increased in such a way that,
considering the current value of dÏn¥r and dirham to riy¥l, the transfer
rate of dÏn¥r to dirham has been estimated as about 156.
VII. Summary
From ancient times, money has been used as a medium of exchange,
a standard of payment, a store, a gauge of value and also a unit of
account. The unit of money in times past was gold and silver, i.e.
Byzantine dÏn¥r and Persian dirham. These kinds of currencies had
their natural values. The natural value was always subject to cheating
by dishonest people. In addition to this problem, the counting and
63Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 63
64 Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
exchange of such coins was difficult. Therefore, coins were gradually
replaced by paper money. The earliest Islamic governments coined
their own Islamic dirham in 40 AH, but this dirham did not hold its
grounds as a currency in the country. In 74 AH, the Islamic dÏn¥r was
coined by the Islamic government, which established a mint for this
purpose and monopolized the coinage of dÏn¥r and dirham.
According to the findings of this study, one Islamic dÏn¥r, in terms of
the quantity and fineness of gold in it, is estimated to be 261168 riy¥ls,
i.e., about 32.5dollars. Using another method, we estimated the
purchasing power of the dÏn¥r for three baskets of goods and services
in terms of riy¥l and dÏn¥r (or dirham), with the following result: one
Islamic dÏn¥r was estimated to have a monetary value of 293275 riy¥ls,
i.e. about 36.5dollars. According to these two methods one Islamic
dÏn¥r can be estimated at between 32.5to 36.5dollars.
REFERENCES
Ibn Sal¥m Ab‰ Ubayd, G. (1919). Alamval (Properties). Cairo: Maktabatu Alkoliat
Alazharia.
Ab‰ Yal¥, M. H. (1938). A^k¥m Ab‰ Yal¥ (Governmental Laws). Cairo: Matbaatu
Alhalabi.
al-DhahabÏ, Shams al-DÏn M. (1934). Ta^riru al-dirham wa al-dÏn¥r (History of
Derham and DÏn¥r). Cairo: Edaratu Altabaa.
al-¤urr al ¢AmilÏ, M. (1978). Was¥’il al-shÏ¢a (Shiite Traditions). Tehran: ®l al-Bayt.
al-¤usaynÏ al-ShirazÏ, M. (1976). Min al-tamaddn al-Isl¥mÏ (From Islamic
Development). Beirut: Dar Al-ߥdiq.
¢Abd al-¤ayy al-KattanÏ. (n.d.). al-Tar¥tÏb al-Id¥riyya (Administrational Systems).
Beirut: Hassan Jalalasa.
Al-MaqrÏzÏ, Ab‰’l-Abbas A. (1911). al-Maw¥¢i· wa’l-I¢tib¥r bi-dhikr al-khi~a~ wa’l-
®lh¥r (Advice and Taking Advice by Recalling the Previous Works). Cairo: Matbaatu
Ahalabi.
Al-MaqrÏzÏ, Ab‰’l-Abbas A. (1913). al-Nuq‰d (Currencies). Cairo: Daru Ehia
Aluloom.
Al-M¥wardi, ¢AlÏ ibn Mohammad. (1938). al-A^k¥m al-Sul~aniyya (Govermental
Laws). Beirut: Daru Altabaa.
al-ShahÏd al-Th¥ni, Z. M. (1976). Shar^ al-Luma¢ (Exposition of Luma¢ Traditions).
Qum: Moasesatu Ahlelbait.
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 64
65Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2004
al-shaykh, ßad‰q. (1957). al-FaqÏh (Jurisprudent). Najaf: Sadooq.
Al-Bal¥dhurÏ, A. (1956). Fut‰h Al-buld¥n (Conquest of Cities). Cairo: Alkutobu
Alarabia.
Al-BayhaqÏ, E. (1923). al-Ma^¥sin Wa’l-Mas¥wi’ (Virtues and Evils). Tehran: Nashr
¢lm.
DamÏrÏ, Kam¥l al-DÏn (n.d.). ¤ay¥t Al-¤ayaw¥n (Life of Creature). Cairo: Kubra.
D‰rÏ, ¢AbdulazÏz. (1948). T¥rÏkh al-Ir¥q al-Iqti|¥dÏ (Economic History of Iraq).
Bagdad: Mabaatu Alhoria.
Gardeezy, Abusaeed (1934). Zayn al-Akhb¥r (Good Traditions). Tehran: Doniaeh
Ketab.
Ibn AbÏ al-¤adÏd, E. M. (1959-64). Shar^ Nahj al-Bal¥qha (Exposition of Nahj al-
Bal¥qha). Corrected by A. Ebrahim Mohammad. Cairo: Matbaatu Almoniria.
Ibn al-Ukhwa (1934). Ma¢¥lim Al-qurba fÏ A^k¥m Al-^isba (Signs of Similarity in
Municipal Rules). Beirut: Markaz Nashr Maktab Aluloom Alislamia.
Ibn al-AthÏr, E. Sh. (1937). al-K¥mil fÏ’l-T¥rÏkh (The Complete History). Cairo:
Matbaatu Almoniria.
Ibn al-JawzÏ (1932). al-Munta·am fÏ T¥rÏkh al-Mul‰k wa’l-Umam (History of Kings
and Nations).Cairo: Ma~ba¢at al-®d¥b.
Ibn Khald‰n, A. M. (1917). Muqaddimat (Introduction to History). Cairo: Ketabu
Alshabab.
Ibn Khald‰n, A. M. (1962). Sikka (Coins). Cairo: n.a.
Ibn ¢Asakir, A. (1975). TarÏkh MadÏnat Dimashq (History of Damascus). Beirut:
Raw\at al-Sh¥m.
Im¥m ShushtarÏ (1964). T¥rÏkh Miqy¥s¥t d¥r A|r ¤uk‰mat Isl¥mÏ, (History of
Measurements in Islam).Tehran: Chup Alrahim.
al-Kha~ib al-Baghd¥di, A. (1913). T¥rÏkh Baghd¥d (History of Baghd¥d). Beirut: D¥r
al-Kutub al-Islamiyya.
KulaynÏ, R¥zÏ. (n.d). U|‰l al-k¥fÏ (Adequate Principals). Tehran: Islamia.
Qud¥ma Ibn Ja¢far (1974). al-Khar¥j. London: Nashru bin Shams.
ßub^Ï, ߥli^ (1976). al-Nu·um al-Isl¥miyya (Islamic Systems). Beirut: D¥r al-¢®lim.
Zayd¥n, JurjÏ (1958). T¥rÏkh al-Tamaddun al-Isl¥mÏ (History of Islamic
Development). Cairo: Daru Alhelal.
Zarra Nezhad, Mansour (1988)., Review of Economic Problems of Primary Islamic
States, Masters Dissertation. Tehran: Tarbiat Moddares University.
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 65
REVIEW-No16 final 6/15/05 10:40 AM Page 66
