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On Making Marketing Science More Scientific: Role fo Orientations, Paradigms, Metaphors, and Puzzle Solving
Abstract
Marketing thinking is profoundly dominated by the empiricist world view and the logical empiricist paradigm. This article argues that marketing can be enriched by opening up to alternative paradigms that capture subjective experiences, conflicts, and liberating forces.
... Edison Jair Duque-Oliva con la palabra "marketing" se obtiene como resultado 323,067 documentos, pero, aunque la temática sea el marketing, no siempre la palabra está presente en los principales campos como título, resumen o palabras clave, dadas la existencia de sub áreas especializadas en la disciplina, lo cual implicaría que son muchos más. De otro lado, al examinar el desarrollo del conocimiento en marketing se encuentran diversas perspectivas (veamos, por ejemplo, estas tres): por un lado se puede observar la perspectiva de los estudios que desarrollan análisis bibliométricos sobre un tópico especifico (véase, por ejemplo, Beliaeva, Ferasso, Kraus y Mahto, 2022;Donthu, Kumar, Pandey y Mishra, 2021;Lim, Kumar, Pandey, Rasul y Gaur, 2022;Mostaghel, Oghazi, Parida y Sohrabpour, 2022;Mukherjee, Kumar, Mukherjee y Goyal, 2022); por otro lado, se encuentran estudios que hacen un análisis desde una perspectiva histórica (véase, por ejemplo, Arndt, 1985;Bartels, 1988;Bigné, 1996;Duque-Oliva, 2015;Esteban y otros, 1997;García Lahiguera, 1980;Jones y Monieson, 1990;Kering, 1996;Kumar, 2015;Luque, 2000;Mishra y Mishra, 2021;Munuera, 1992;Sánchez, 2001;Tadajewski y Jones, 2008;Wilkie y Moore, 2003); y finalmente, otros estudios hacen algún análisis teórico conceptual general o particular (véase, por ejemplo, Arndt, 1978;Barksdale y Darden, 1971;Borden, 1964;Dickinson, Herbst y O'shaughnessy, 1986;Donthu, Kumar, Pattnaik y Campagna, 2020;Enis, 1973;Hooley, Lynch Figura 1. Caja de herramientas del análisis bibliométrico y Shepard, 1990;Hunt, 1991;Kotler y Levy, 1969;Kumar, 2017;Liu, 2017, Lim y Rasul, 2022McNamara, 1972;Tucker, 1974;Vargo y Lusch, 2008;Vázquez, 2004). ...
... • 1936-1945 conceptos esclarecedores • 1946-1955 Arndt (1985) plantea que las escuelas de pensamiento en marketing son uno de los niveles más relevantes de la clasificación del proceso científico, pues su contribución al desarrollo de la disciplina es notoria. Normalmente se agrupan en comunidades que estudian dicho fenómeno desde un enfoque similar, construyendo o aportando conocimiento amplio y profundo sobre el fenómeno desde el punto de vista de cada escuela. ...
... Bajo el planteamiento de Galtung, uno de los niveles de la clasificación del proceso científico de Arndt (1985) son las escuelas de pensamiento en marketing. Arndt, fundamentado en la taxonomía de orientaciones alternativas (triángulo de la ciencia), aporta una clasificación fundamentada en los cambios de las perspectivas metodológicas y de investigación en marketing y se podrían sintetizar en: Estas dos dimensiones consideran, por una parte, la interactividad de la escuela de pensamiento en marketing, y por otro lado, la orientación económica si existe en el análisis. ...
Este artículo busca identificar de manera retrospectiva la investigación desarrollada en los últimos veinte años de la literatura de marketing y cómo se vincula con el avance de las escuelas de pensamiento en marketing. Para ello se hace una revisión de tipo bibliométrica basada en herramientas de co-citación y acoplamiento del mapeo científico enriquecido por el análisis de redes, de manera que permita brindar algunas sugerencias de investigación a partir de unos clústeres que dan una visión general del avance de la investigación en la disciplina. En cuanto a su diseño, metodología y enfoque, se desarrolla un análisis bibliométrico enriquecido con redes bajo el procedimiento de Donthu y otros (2021). Los resultados muestran siete tendencias retrospectivas de la investigación en marketing: 1. El proceso de marketing y del consumidor en un mundo social (offline, online); 2. El desempeño e impacto de los negocios a nivel local, regional e internacional; 3. La psicología del consumidor; 4. El desempeño del servicio y de las relaciones con el cliente; 5. Las características y modelos de la publicidad en el contexto social y sus efectos en redes sociales; 6. El marketing aplicado a la gestión y administración pública; 7. La gestión de la información en redes sociales. Estos elementos recogen la investigación de los últimos veinte años en la disciplina del marketing y proporcionan información sobre la manera como ha evolucionado la investigación y hacia dónde puede ir. Este artículo contribuye a una comprensión teórica y general de la evolución de la investigación en marketing con una aproximación desde la ciencia de datos y las técnicas bibliométricas enriquecidas, de modo amplio y como abrebocas, aunque no de manera profunda. Dada la cantidad de datos el resultado es global, pero se encuentra la necesidad de un mayor desarrollo de este tipo de revisiones con mayor delimitación y profundidad en el estudio de la producción investigativa específica y así aportar a una mayor comprensión del marketing como disciplina académica y sus áreas de acción.
... Metaphors can be spotted in each and every aspect of our life, they are "pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action" (Lakoff, & Johnson, 2003, p. 3). Since "human conceptual system is innately metaphorical" (Tynan, 1999, p. 18), metaphors help us make sense of the world (Arndt, 1985), they are instruments that we use in order to understand and verbalize an aspect of reality in such a way that it can be communicated and shared with other people. Put differently, metaphors are fundamental conceptual instruments that dominate our way of thinking and conceptualizing the world and also our way of communicating our ideas to other people. ...
... Put differently, metaphors are fundamental conceptual instruments that dominate our way of thinking and conceptualizing the world and also our way of communicating our ideas to other people. They are, however, incomplete models and partial truths (Arndt, 1985) since a concept is only partially structured by a metaphor in the sense that "it can be extended in some ways but not others" (Lakoff, & Johnson, 2003, p. 13). In this sense, the various metaphorical views adopted in conceiving of a science are in fact multiple perspectives applied to it that may result in influencing the adopted framework of analysis and the methods used (Arndt, 1985, p. 16). ...
... Arndt, in his 1985 paper, On Making Marketing Science More Scientific: Role of Orientations, Paradigms, Metaphors, and Puzzle Solving, demonstrates that scientific activity and scientific knowledge are based on the interplay between social and cognitive factors that results in paradigms which are rather taken for granted than questioned. Consequently, researchers are already "born" in a paradigm, they very often do not choose the framework they work in (Arndt, 1985). He argues that the dominant and constringent paradigm in marketing throughout the time has been that of logical empiricism, motivated, on the one hand, by the applied nature of the science and, on the other hand, by the perspectives chosen in conceiving it (Arndt, 1985). ...
The main objective of this chapter is to look at the concept of marketing from an integrative perspective, arguing for the complexity of the marketing philosophy and practices from linguistic, psychological and social points of view. Revisiting the concept of metaphor as a cognitive instrument will provide new insights into how it is employed and functions in marketing. Looking at the society’s evolution and the importance it gives to the individual will contribute to understanding the changes in the way marketing is conceptualized and will help the author formulate some cognitive and linguistic consequences of these changes.
... empiricism, falsificationism, postpositivism, etc.), there are common denominators among them. These include: (1) the ontological belief that apprehensible reality exists and is governed by invariant laws (realism); (2) the epistemological assumption that subjective values of the researcher can be excised from the research process through proper research design, sample choice, and validity and reliability checks (objectivism); and (3) the methodological approach that relies heavily on quantitative methods, statistical measures, and empirical verifications of propositional hypotheses (experimental methodology) (Arndt, 1985;Guba & Lincoln, 1994;Lincoln & Guba, 1985;Martin & McIntyre, 1997). Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. ...
... These include: (1) the ontological belief that apprehensible reality exists and is governed by invariant laws (realism); (2) the epistemological assumption that subjective values of the researcher can be excised from the research process through proper research design, sample choice, and validity and reliability checks (objectivism); and (3) the methodological approach that relies heavily on quantitative methods, statistical measures, and empirical verifications of propositional hypotheses (experimental methodology) (Arndt, 1985;Guba & Lincoln, 1994;Lincoln & Guba, 1985;Martin & McIntyre, 1997). Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. It is the most dominant orientation in modern American social science thought, which includes the park and recreation and the marketing fields (Arndt 1985;Guba & Lincoln, 1994). ...
... Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. It is the most dominant orientation in modern American social science thought, which includes the park and recreation and the marketing fields (Arndt 1985;Guba & Lincoln, 1994). This hegemony is maintained by pressures to conform through the narrow empiricist perspective which is characteristic of most Ph.D. programs; the prevalence of this model in most articles in major journals; preferred access to funding by proposals using this model; and the conservative approach adopted by promotion and tenure committees (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). ...
The objectives of the study were (a) to identify the reasons and concerns of those public administrators and marketing scholars who do not accept the usefulness of marketing in the public sector; (b) to deconstruct, comprehend, interpret, and critically appraise the current conceptualization of public sector marketing from the viewpoint of negativists identified in step (a); and (c) to reconstruct, redefine, reinterpret, and reoperationalize the current controversial conceptualization of public sector marketing into a new conceptualization in the context of park and recreation services. The critical theory approach to the study primary used non-empirical procedures data collection and analytic procedures which included investigative research, negative case analysis, and theoretical triangulation. These procedures were supplemented with empirical data collected from in-depth interviews with five scholars and with three parks and recreation managers. Results of the non-empirical procedures revealed the biased selective nature of the current conceptualization of public park and recreation marketing and the existence of alternative conceptualizations which have been ignored. The existing and alternative models were discussed with scholars and park and recreation managers. Support was found for the alternative models. From these data an alternative conceptualization of public park and recreation marketing was developed and named the concept of administered marketing. Implications for park and recreation managers are discussed. Directions for future research into the administratively managed park and recreation marketing concept are suggested.
... These include: (1) the ontological belief that apprehensible reality exists and is governed by invariant laws (realism); (2) the epistemological assumption that subjective values of the researcher can be excised from the research process through proper research design, sample choice, and validity and reliability checks (objectivism); and (3) the methodological approach that relies heavily on quantitative methods, statistical measures, and empirical verifications of propositional hypotheses (experimental methodology) (Arndt, 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994;Lincoln and Guba, 1985;Martin and McIntyre, 1997). Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. ...
... These include: (1) the ontological belief that apprehensible reality exists and is governed by invariant laws (realism); (2) the epistemological assumption that subjective values of the researcher can be excised from the research process through proper research design, sample choice, and validity and reliability checks (objectivism); and (3) the methodological approach that relies heavily on quantitative methods, statistical measures, and empirical verifications of propositional hypotheses (experimental methodology) (Arndt, 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994;Lincoln and Guba, 1985;Martin and McIntyre, 1997). Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. It is the most dominant orientation in modern American social science thought, which includes the park and recreation and the marketing fields (Arndt 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994). ...
... Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. It is the most dominant orientation in modern American social science thought, which includes the park and recreation and the marketing fields (Arndt 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994). This hegemony is maintained by pressures to conform through the narrow empiricist perspective which is characteristic of most Ph.D. programs; the prevalence of this model in most articles in major journals; preferred access to funding by proposals using this model; and the conservative approach adopted by promotion and tenure committees (Guba and Lincoln, 1994). ...
The book is about public recreation.The critical theory approach to the study primary used non-empirical procedures data collection and analytic procedures which included investigative research, negative case analysis, and theoretical triangulation. These procedures were supplemented with empirical data collected from in-depth interviews with five scholars and with three parks and recreation managers. Results of the non-empirical procedures revealed the biased selective nature of the current conceptualization of public park and recreation marketing and the existence of alternative conceptualizations which have been ignored. The existing and alternative models were discussed with scholars and park and recreation managers. Support was found for the alternative models. From these data an alternative conceptualization of public recreation marketing was developed and named the concept of administered marketing. Implications for recreation managers are discussed. Directions for future research into the administratively managed recreation marketing concept are suggested.
... These include: (1) the ontological belief that apprehensible reality exists and is governed by invariant laws (realism); (2) the epistemological assumption that subjective values of the researcher can be excised from the research process through proper research design, sample choice, and validity and reliability checks (objectivism); and (3) the methodological approach that relies heavily on quantitative methods, statistical measures, and empirical verifications of propositional hypotheses (experimental methodology) (Arndt, 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994;Lincoln and Guba, 1985;Martin and McIntyre, 1997). Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. ...
... These include: (1) the ontological belief that apprehensible reality exists and is governed by invariant laws (realism); (2) the epistemological assumption that subjective values of the researcher can be excised from the research process through proper research design, sample choice, and validity and reliability checks (objectivism); and (3) the methodological approach that relies heavily on quantitative methods, statistical measures, and empirical verifications of propositional hypotheses (experimental methodology) (Arndt, 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994;Lincoln and Guba, 1985;Martin and McIntyre, 1997). Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. It is the most dominant orientation in modern American social science thought, which includes the park and recreation and the marketing fields (Arndt 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994). ...
... Arndt (1985) notes that although the origin of the naturalist approach is attributed to the French philosopher Auguste Comte who defended positivism as a scientific method, naturalism is part of the Anglo-American philosophy of science tradition. It is the most dominant orientation in modern American social science thought, which includes the park and recreation and the marketing fields (Arndt 1985;Guba and Lincoln, 1994). This hegemony is maintained by pressures to conform through the narrow empiricist perspective which is characteristic of most Ph.D. programs; the prevalence of this model in most articles in major journals; preferred access to funding by proposals using this model; and the conservative approach adopted by promotion and tenure committees (Guba and Lincoln, 1994). ...
... Dixon (1978) contended that an organization (the Earth) is subordinate to governmental policy (the Sun) established by elected officials, and that it is government who determines equitable allocation of resources in a society. Rados (1981) elaborated upon Arndt's (1985) argument that "not all exchange is marketing" and took issue with Kotler and Bagozzi arguing that "not all marketing is exchange." Rados (1981) did not accept either Kotler's (1975) or Bagozzi's (1975) conceptualization of social marketing. ...
... In the marketing literature the pluralist tradition has been represented by the work of Monieson (1982;, and Arndt (1985) whose philosophical orientation relies heavily on the work of Gutlung (1990). Pluralists seek to break free from the paradigmatic provincialism which they perceive characterizes current marketing science. ...
... Pluralists seek to break free from the paradigmatic provincialism which they perceive characterizes current marketing science. To achieve this goal, advocates of pluralism suggest that: (1) the dominant naturalist approach in marketing should be diluted by adopting alternative research orientations such as criticism and constructivism (Arndt, 1985;Hirschman, 1986); (2) marketing scholars should practice their right to dissent, to understand, and to be simple (Monieson, 1982); (3) a diverse array of research paradigms to better reflect subjective experiences, values, criticism, and conflicts should be brought into marketing science (Arndt, 1985); and (4) different metaphors within alternative research paradigms (e.g. alienated man, victimized consumers, language and text, experienced man, irrational man, political economies, and the political marketplace) should be recognized by marketing scholars (Arndt, 1981;Pandya and Dholakia, 1992). ...
Societal problems represent both opportunities and challenges for private and public
organizations. Issues such as poverty, climate change and inequality can be seen either as a
burden or as a source for innovation. Multinational Corporations, Nonprofit Organizations
(NGOs), Cooperatives and Social-Purpose Organizations (SPOs) have engaged in projects that
can tackle some of these major societal issues. The paper explores existing discussion over
controvercial social marketing concept and develops superior conceptualization of social
innovation marketing concept based on pluralist research paradigm found in the phylosophy of
social science literature.
... There is a substantive debate about the philosophical traditions and methodological approaches of the marketing discipline (e.g., Arndt, 1985;Davis, Golicic, Boerstler, Choi, & Oh, 2013;Hirschman, 1986;Hunt, 1994;Palmer & Ponsonby, 2002). Marketing researchers have predominantly relied on the positivist philosophical research tradition for knowledge generation (Gebhardt et al., 2006). ...
... Market orientation research is dominated by the empiricist tradition of seeking objective knowledge. A common feature of the empiricist tradition is the monistic, physicalist and reductionist view of science (Arndt, 1985). Research published on market orientation in a broad range of academic journals indicates a significant reliance on quantitative methods. ...
Research on market orientation has evolved for more than two decades, and is now ripe for reflection on its paradigmatic and methodological moorings. We review market orientation research to understand research paradigms adopted in the studies using an operations research paradigm framework, and compare and contrast methodologies and research designs used in the literature. This study used the citation pearl-growing method to identify and review 137 studies on market orientation. The study finds a dominance of the positivist paradigm in the extant research, particularly in the North American journals. There have only been a few interpretive studies on market orientation in the past two decades. This study makes a case for methodological pluralism in the research on market orientation. The findings will benefit academia and practitioners in understanding the past research trends and identify potential future research areas. The review adds value to the literature in terms of presenting an overview of market orientation research, where the research field stands today, and where it is heading in the future.
... So much research has been accumulated for this middle-range theory that multi-attribute atti- tude models have been the subject of at least three major review articles (Lutz and Bettman 1977, Ryan and Bonfield 1975, Wilkie and Pessemier 1973. An illustration at the research program level can be found in marketing channels research which has increasingly shifted away from the behaviorally based conflict res- olution research program (Stern 1969) towards the po- litical economy research program (Achrol, Reve, and Stern 1983;Arndt 1979Arndt , 1983Frazier 1983;Stern and Reve 1980). To the extent that the political economy framework integrates both sociopolitical and eco- nomic structure and processes, it may be argued that it has greater explanatory power in analyzing inter- organizational exchanges in marketing channels. ...
... So much research has been accumulated for this middle-range theory that multi-attribute atti- tude models have been the subject of at least three major review articles (Lutz and Bettman 1977, Ryan and Bonfield 1975, Wilkie and Pessemier 1973. An illustration at the research program level can be found in marketing channels research which has increasingly shifted away from the behaviorally based conflict res- olution research program (Stern 1969) towards the po- litical economy research program (Achrol, Reve, and Stern 1983;Arndt 1979Arndt , 1983Frazier 1983;Stern and Reve 1980). To the extent that the political economy framework integrates both sociopolitical and eco- nomic structure and processes, it may be argued that it has greater explanatory power in analyzing inter- organizational exchanges in marketing channels. ...
The Lakatosian sophisticated methodological falsification framework is introduced, compared with other philosophies of science, and applied to reconstruct marketing science. From this the location and intensity of extant theoretical conflicts are pinpointed and explained, marketing's scientific status evaluated, and implications for research methodology in the discipline discussed.
... As I have argued elsewhere (Vargo 2007), academic marketing has been trying to be an applied science without a sufficient basicscience foundation (see also Arndt 1985). That is, we are trying to teach normative marketing without a clear understanding of markets, how they are formed, and how they function. ...
... Como argumentei em outro lugar (Vargo 2007), o marketing acadêmico tenta ser uma ciência aplicada sem uma base científica suficiente (ver também Arndt, 1985). Ou seja, estamos tentando ensinar marketing normativo sem uma compreensão clara dos mercados, como eles são formados e como funcionam. ...
There have been numerous calls for more relevance in academic marketing, both for and by practitioners and for customers (e.g., Sheth and Sisodia 2006, Hunt 2018, Jaworski, Kohli, and Sahay 2000). It might seem that these calls signal the need for more applied research, based on real data and real-world problems. However, it seems to me that there has never before been such a plethora of empirical articles in marketing journals as there are presently and thus the problem must be much more basic.
... Much of the debate on metatheory in marketing has centred on epistemic and methodological issues throughout the history of the discipline, particularly driven by scientific status of marketing, research methods and analytical techniques (Bartels 1951;Brown 1996;Tadajewski 2004). Debates between 'logical positivists', 'logical empiricists' and 'relativistic', 'interpretive' or 'postmodern research' have featured heavily (Arndt 1985;Hirschman 1986;Anderson 1988;Hunt 1990;Hirschman and Holbrook 1992). Questions of ontology have been bent to support these positions. ...
... Interpretive researchers deemphasised the external concrete social world, in order to assert knowledge is at the level of lived subjective experience. More relativist positions have sought to both recognize scientific inquiry as a social and historical exercise and enable alternative epistemological spaces in marketing theory (Arndt 1985). Objectivist researchers have aimed to see the research process as the development of a classified and systematic body of knowledge, coalescing around general principles, expressible in quantitative, predictive terms (Hunt 1990). ...
This paper is premised on the call to re-orientate marketing as a
contributing social science. It gathers together criticisms of
marketing research which identify inconsistencies that prevent
our progress. It posits that we are driven to reproduce these
inconsistencies because of a closed-system of practice and
because of the generative absence of an effective, reflexive and
integrative metatheoretical structure. In response to these
problems, the paper aims to offer an integrative metatheoretical
structure from which to ground our research and intervene in the
identified inconsistencies. The paper therefore offers a perspective
on the constitution of the world (what exists, its common
features, and how it comes to exist), before addressing the terms
and conditions on which the world is to be researched and
explained. This conceptual contribution employs tools developed
in the critical realist philosophy of social science to address:
instances of absence within marketing research; and how these
instances are generated and reproduced. It then suggests how
these absences can be rectified.
... Next, we provide a general outline of system theory as a research program and discuss the fundamental ontological commonalities of this framework compared to the conceptualization of business networks in the IMP approach. Third, we present and discuss what we believe are three important issues in system theory and we formulate them as "puzzles" (Arndt, 1985). We reflect upon how these puzzles are addressed in system theory and illustrate how they have been taken up in IMP research in order to call for a stronger conceptualization and sharpening of our understanding. ...
... There seems to be much more to be learned 522 IMP 10,3 from the conceptualization and ongoing theorizing in the general system theory, which could be a source of inspiration also for the further development of IMP as a research field, given their close prominence. We intend to contribute to this process by setting up a dialogue or conversation between general system theory and IMP research around a number of theoretical puzzles as discussed in Arndt (1985). As Arndt suggests, researchers in scientific programs tends to gather around new and marginal bits of knowledge that may extend the existing body of knowledge. ...
Purpose
The purpose of the paper is to contribute to further advancing of IMP as a research field by setting up and starting a theoretical conversation between system theory and the IMP.
Design/methodology/approach
The approach is based on a narrative literature study and conceptual research.
Findings
The authors find that system theory and cybernetics can be regarded as important sources of inspiration for early IMP research. The authors identify three specific theoretical “puzzles” in system theory that may serve as useful topics for discussion between system theorists and IMP researchers.
Originality/value
Only a handful of papers have touched upon the relationship between system theory and IMP before. This paper combines a narrative, historical analysis of this relationship with developing specific suggestions for using system theory as a vehicle for further advancement of IMP research.
... Arndt (1985, p. 11) conceptualized paradigms as social constructions "reflecting the values and interests of dominant researchers in science and their reference groups". Viewed as social constructions, different paradigms cannot be evaluated as being better than another or as offering more accurate views on reality (Arndt, 1985). Instead, different paradigms can be seen as alternative windows to the world (Morgan, 1980). ...
The ways in which companies address sustainability today shape the future for businesses, societies, and ecosystems at large. Yet, companies keep addressing the world’s most serious evolving challenges with varying degrees of concern, urgency, and strategic importance for as long as their role in relation to sustainability remains unclear. To develop a broader business commitment to sustainability and participate in tackling grand challenges such as climate change, human rights violations, the widening wealth gap, and disease outbreaks, companies need to rethink their current role of being in relation with the world that is facing mounting environmental, social, and economic pressures.
The purpose of this dissertation is, therefore, to explore the role of companies in relation to sustainability from multiple viewpoints. The four articles comprising the dissertation represent such viewpoints—strategy, management, co-creation, and holistic—that, together with this introductory part, provide a broad and timely outlook on companies’ role.
Theoretically, this dissertation combines the previously disconnected fields of marketing and sustainability transition to create a lens through which companies’ role is explored.
Methodologically, the articles use different methods but are bound together by a social constructionist research philosophy and a qualitative research strategy. Altogether, the primary data were generated from interviews with 13 managers and top executives and 25 millennial consumers in the Finnish business environment. The secondary data consist of annual reports, sustainability documents, and other public materials.
Basing on the insights gleaned from the articles, this dissertation proposes reframing as a method for companies to break out of their old roles and enact new responses to sustainability. Reframing can expand horizons and capacity for action by bringing the two frames of business and sustainability together. Reframing—that is, making new interpretations of a current situation and creating novel responses—is suggested to be particularly useful in three organizational areas, namely business strategies, management activities, and co-creation practices.
By conceptualizing a new construct, business sustainability transition, the dissertation makes its main theoretical contribution to the sustainability transition literature. The new construct captures the fundamental, system-wide sustainability improvements that companies can initiate in their business environment through purposeful marketplace interactions.
The key managerial takeaways are provided in the form of the Reframing Cube. As a metaphorical tool, the Cube can help managers think and address sustainability in new ways that can readily be translated into actions. While letting go of the old ways of being in relation with the world is not easy, it is suggested that by reframing their role in sustainability, companies can reap strategic advantages while facilitating much-needed business sustainability transitions. Therefore, companies are key actors in shaping our common future for economically healthier, environmentally friendlier, and socially more balanced modes of production and consumption.
... Por tal razón el mercadeo cobra vital importancia como elemento de apoyo para la nueva gerencia, que requiere cambios 256 Ledy Torcoroma Gómez Bayona y Gustavo Adolfo Moreno López Opción, Año 34, Especial No.18(2018):239-269 trascendentales en beneficio de las comunidades de manera igualitaria y equitativa, (Arndt, 2011); donde se identifiquen tanto necesidades como oportunidades para mejorar en la prestación de buenos servicios y desarrollar programas y proyectos que minimicen las consecuencias de la falta de planeación en cuanto a necesidades y prioridades. ...
Resumen El presente trabajo de investigación se sustenta bajo una revisión de literatura desde la pregunta ¿qué relación se evidencia entre el capital relacional y la gestión académica, a partir de algunas estrategias de marketing educativo?, Por ello, el objetivo que se plantea es analizar la importancia y los enfoques del capital relacional en la gestión académica; identificando algunas estrategias bajo la mirada del mercadeo educativo. Los resultados muestran que el individuo constantemente lidera alternativas que permiten el desarrollo y la sostenibilidad de diferentes proyectos, siendo el relacionamiento bajo los enfoques de confianza, satisfacción y lealtad, componentes importantes para la gestión académica, igualmente, se concluye que es necesario involucrar aspectos relacionales que potencialicen los resultados de los grupos de interés para impactar la gestión académica. Palabras clave; capital relacional, gestión académica, satisfacción, lealtad. Opción, Año 34, Especial No.18 (2018): 239-269
... Arguably, this is, at least in part, the wrong goal, given that there is no real theory of the market, at least in marketing (Vargo, 2007). As Arndt (1985) pointed out, marketing has evolved more from normative science than from basic science (see also Vargo, 2007). Likewise, Venkatesh et al. (2006: 252) have argued, 'The term market is everywhere and nowhere in [marketing]'. ...
... And Kitchen's not the only one or the most recent. From Arndt (1985) and Rosenberg's (1984) early analyses, through the combative interventions of Hunt andMenon (1995a, 1995b), via Zaltman's (1997Zaltman's ( , 2003 patented, packaged and premium-priced ZMET method, to Rojas Gaviria's (2016) putative programme of "poetic projection", a steady stream of metaphor-oriented articles has flowed into marketing's ever-deepening conceptual reservoir (Belk et al., 2003;Bouillé et al., 2016;Capelli and Jolibert, 2009;Cornelissen, 2003;Rentschler, 2006, 2008;Henry, 2005;Hirschman, 2007;Joy and Sherry, 2003;O'Malley et al., 2008;Rentschler et al., 2012;Sundar and Noseworthy, 2014;Tuominen, 2007;von Wallpach and Kreuzer, 2013). ...
Purpose
Much has been written about metaphor in marketing. Much less has been written about simile and metonymy. It is widely assumed that they are types of metaphor. Some literary theorists see them as significantly different things. If this is the case, then there are implications for marketing theory and thought.
Design/methodology/approach
In keeping with literary tradition, this paper comprises a wide-ranging reflective essay, not a tightly focussed empirical investigation. A combination of literature review and conceptual contemplation, it challenges convention by “reading against the grain”.
Findings
The essay reveals that, far from being part of metaphor’s supporting cast, simile and metonymy are stars in themselves. With the aid of three concise cases-in-point – relationship marketing (RM), the consumer odyssey (CO) and Kotler’s generic concept (GC) – the authors present an alternative interpretation of their conceptual contribution and continuing importance.
Practical implications
Marketing management is replete with metaphorical speculation (positioning, warfare, myopia and more). The shortcomings of such figures of speech are rarely spelled out, much less foregrounded. By raising figurative consciousness, marketing practice is furthered.
Originality/value
As similes and metonymies are rarely spoken about in marketing scholarship, the study starts a much-needed conversation. It raises the issue of marketing’s figurative foundations and, in so doing, offers further scope for future debate.
... The usefulness of metaphors in marketing research has been thoroughly discussed (e.g. Arndt, 1985;Tynan, 1999) and even though metaphors can provide "partial truths and incomplete models" (Arndt, 1985, p. 17), several benefits of using metaphors can be identified. For example, "liberating metaphors" (p. ...
... The setting of goals, in fact, gives a finalization to the system and activates its interaction with other systems. Agreeing with literature proposing a reverse causality view of phenomena (Arndt, 1985;Kirkham, 1992;King, 2003;Vannini, 2006b), we argue that the systems' behaviour is influenced not much by past events but rather by the goals they desire to achieve in the future. This change in perspective from the past to the future may represent a relevant contribution to business management helping understand the behaviour of decision makers in conditions of complexity in which the classical causality view results inadequate. ...
Purpose – This paper applies the Viable Systems Approach (VSA) to the study of individuals and organizations' viability, interpreting their life dynamics as interaction processes activated by the pursuing of goals and by the need to gain access to resources. Design/methodology/approach – The paper takes the Viable Systems Approach as a framework of reference to draw theoretical and methodological contributions of systems thinking in business management. Findings – A viable systems' value co-creation model is developed by integrating the contributions of several recent theoretical advances which propose a systemic interpretation of the concept of value. The VSA contributes to highlight the subjective, contextual, emergent and interactional nature of value, and to put forward a view of viable systems' interactions as value co-creation processes through which they synergistically achieve their goals by effectively integrating resources. Research limitations/implications – The paper findings effectively deal with conceptual problems but should be integrated with empirical research. Practical implications – The paper has relevant managerial implications that suggest that decision makers should open their minds to the exploration of new approaches by building on their capability of envisioning future scenarios and being committed in creating them. Originality/value – The deepening of viable systems' interaction dynamics allows recognizing the syntropic action of the system's finality in activating interaction and committing actors toward a resonant achievement of their goals. A reverse causality hypothesis emerges, revealing the laws behind individuals and organizations' behaviour, and suggesting to rethink business management models by accomplishing a change in perspective from a past to a future based view.
... Moreover, outcome discrepancy between original and replication studies can be attributed not only to methodological variation but also to publication factors such as selection criteria and reporting biases. One such factor is confirmation bias, the expectable byproduct of the confirmatory approach, also known as falsifiability, that is widely accepted as the best practice of marketing science ( Armstrong, 1979Armstrong, , 1982Armstrong et al., 2001;Arndt, 1985). First introduced by Popper (1959Popper ( /1934, logical empiricists such as Carnap (1936Carnap ( , 1937 developed the confirmatory approach by changing the term "verification" of a theory to gradual "confirmation" ( Carnap, 1950, p. 425). ...
Purpose
The authors aimed to examine the presence and character of inter- and intra-approaches to replication studies published in five leading marketing journals ( Journal of Marketing , Journal of Marketing Research , Journal of Public Policy & Marketing , Marketing Science , Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science ) across four decade intervals (i.e. 1980s, 1990s, 2000s and 2010/2011). The research sought answers to three research questions.
Design/methodology/approach
Content analysis of a randomly selected sample of 2,717 articles found 128 replicative studies in the journal issues. Comparisons of the replication approaches of the studies address two issues: the criticism that intra-study replication is not true replication as it is inconsistent with the criterion of researcher independence and the reported outcomes of the replicative studies relative to those of the original studies.
Findings
Overall, the presence of replications increased over time; however, the increase was attributable primarily to the number of intra-study replications published in two decades, the 2000s and 2010/2011 intervals. Conflicting findings infrequently appeared in the replication studies regardless of approach, indicating the possible existence of confirmation bias in the marketing literature.
Originality/value
Replication in marketing is either improving or stagnant depending on the accepted definition of replication. Of special importance, given the questioning of the intra-study approach as true replicative research, more replicated findings produced by independent researchers are needed to establish theoretical validity of marketing knowledge for use by both marketing academicians and decision makers.
... Regardless of the dearth of empirical work in service-dominant (S-D) logic, it is clear from the conceptual work that Vargo and Lusch oppose marketing's positivist/empiricist paradigm (Arndt 1985; Tronvoll et al. 2011). Recently, Edvardsson et al. (2011), Löbler (2011), and Helkkula et al. (2012) have contributed to the understanding on philosophical roots in S-D logic. ...
... Since early in the explication of S-D logic, we (e.g., Vargo, 2007) have suggested that it could lend itself to a general theory, initially, not so much through a general theory of marketing as through a more foundational general theory of the market. That is, we agree with Arndt (1985) when he says, "In marketing, the problem is rather one of spinning off a basic science from a problem solving discipline" and note that marketing has evolved more from normative science than from basic science. Likewise Venkatesh, Penaloza, and Fuat (2006, p. 252) have argued, "The term market is everywhere and nowhere in [marketing]." ...
During the last decade, service-dominant (S-D) logic (1) has taken a series of significant theoretical turns, (2) has had foundational premises modified and added and (3) has been consolidated into a smaller set of core axioms. S-D logic can continue to advance over the next decade by moving toward further development of a general theory of the market and, even more broadly, to a general theory of value cocreation. To support this theory of the market requires developing more midrange theory frameworks and concepts of service exchange, resource integration; value cocreation; value determination; and institutions/ecosystems. These midrange theories can be partially informed by theories outside of marketing, including those under the rubrics of practice, evolutionary, complexity, ecological and structuration theories. Evidence-based research is also needed and some opportunities include strategy making and implementation in a complex service ecosystem as well as applications of complexity economics and the study of the service of cognitive mediators (assistants) and linking this to how individuals and other actors use and develop heuristics in complex service ecosystems. Additionally, opportunities exist for using S-D logic as a broader framework for the study of macromarketing, including ethics, economic, environmental and social sustainability, as well as public policy. For each of these, the further study of institutions and institutional arrangements, which facilitate coordination among actors in service ecosystems is needed.
... A research paradigm specifies philosophical assumptions about the ontology, epistemology, and methodologies for developing and testing theory (Kuhn, 1970; Möller, Pels, & Saren, 2009). Adopting a certain paradigm determines the relationship between the data, theories, and values of the researcher and guides the formulation of research questions (Arndt, 1985). The dominant paradigm in marketing research is positivism (Hirschman, 1986; Piekkari, Welch, & Paavilainen, 2009; Welch et al., 2010). ...
Demonstrating the monetary outcomes of marketing is no longer considered a
virtue but a necessity by the top management. Marketers are increasingly held
accountable for their actions, yet most marketers struggle in their attempts to
measure marketing performance. The emergence of digital analytics has raised
optimism of improved measurability due to its ability to track customer
behavior in the digital environment. However, research lacks a clear
understanding of the advances and limitations of digital analytics, and what it
takes from an organization to make the most of its usage. The dissertation
advances the knowledge in this area by investigating how industrial companies
can use digital analytics for measuring and optimizing digital marketing
performance.
The primary data of this dissertation come from three case studies that ex-
amine the use of digital analytics from different angles. The first case study ex-
plores the use of digital analytics for overcoming universal marketing perfor-
mance measurement challenges; the second study investigates the organiza-
tional processes for measuring digital marketing performance through the use
of digital analytics; the third study takes a step further and studies how digital
analytics data can be harnessed for optimizing digital marketing performance.
The findings confirm that digital analytics produces data that can be used
for measuring and optimizing digital marketing performance but its real value
is determined by an organization’s ability to process the data into meaningful
insights that inform decision-making. Overall, the findings suggest that the
greater use of digital analytics can be seen as a movement toward data-driven
marketing where marketing decisions are based on information rather than ex-
perience and intuition. While demonstrating the benefits that companies may
gain from the use of digital analytics, the dissertation also discusses the dangers
of relying on digital analytics data that may lead organizations to maximize
short-term revenue generation at the expense of long-term marketing perfor-
mance.
... There have historically been competing paradigms in marketing research. The dominant paradigm has been called 'functionalist' (Arndt, 1985;Burton, 2001;Hanson and Grimmer, 2007;Hunt, 2002;Tadajewski, 2004Tadajewski, , 2008Tadajewski, , 2009Tadajewski and Hewer, 2012), but many advocates of 'interpretivist' research are also evident (e.g. Belk, Sherry, and Wallendorf, 1988;Brown, Bell, and Carson, 1996;Egan, 2009;Gummesson, 2003;Mathyseens and Vandenbempt, 2003). ...
... The debate was initiated by scholars who questioned the premises of logical empiricism (and most generally positivism) as the dominant paradigm in marketing (e.g. Anderson 1983Anderson , 1986 Peter and Olson 1983; Arndt 1985; Hirschman 1986; Hudson and Ozanne 1988; Hirschman and Holbrook 1992). This, in turn, was contested by proponents of positivism (Hunt 1976Hunt , 1990Hunt , 1991Hunt , 1992Hunt , 1993Hunt , 2003). ...
Marketing is everywhere around us. It is perhaps the most visible aspect of business and even if not everyone has had the experience of being a marketer, there are very few people in the world who have not been exposed to marketing activities in their capacity as customers. As a result, a common mistake made by students who are new to marketing is they believe that they already pretty much know everything there is to know about marketing (Celly, 2007). Exacerbating this, for many third level institutions introductory marketing courses are largely based on teaching a toolbox based approach (O’Malley and Patterson 1998; Catterall et al., 2002; Hill and McGinnis 2007) with assessment often involving short or multiple choice questioning. As a result, a great number of students do not connect with marketing theory in any meaningful way, and deep learning and engagement is certainly not fostered (Celly, 2007).
Why is this important for you? Well, that all depends on why you are studying marketing. If, like many people, you believe that the purpose of marketing education is to prepare students for the world of work (Hill and McGinnis, 2007), then you need to be confident that what you learn now, and how you learn, will prepare you well for your future. However, it is not always easy to know if what you learn now will be sufficient for the work you will later be required to do. What we do know is that marketing managers of the future will have to deal with extraordinary levels of disruption and change – much more than marketers of any previous generation. They will have to deal with rapidly changing technology and shorter product-life-cycles (Christensen and Overdorf 2001; Gilbert and Bower 2002; Hill and McGinnis 2007). They will operate in a complex, dynamic global marketplace in which consumers’ continue to demand increasingly new, different and more meaningful experiences (Pine and Gilmore, 2011). Knowledge of the past is unlikely to be sufficient to deal with complex new issues as they arise in the future (Hill and McGinnis, 2007). Future marketing managers will, therefore, need to be able to evaluate whether extant marketing theories remain useful, whether they can be adapted, or, whether completely new theories are required. In order to negotiate the complex marketplace, and make informed practical decisions, these managers will need to be effective learners and thinkers in action. An essential meta skill in this regard is the ability to think – in critical, creative and reflexive ways – and this is foundational to becoming an effective practitioner in whatever capacity you choose to work (Schon 1983; Catterall et al., 2002; Cunliffe 2004; Paul and Elder 2004; Hill and McGinnis 2007; Hill et al., 2007). The ability to think about theory therefore becomes more important than the content of the theory itself – because thinking about is a transferrable meta skill that you can take from education to the world of work. Mastering this skill is essential to becoming an effective marketing practitioner.
This chapter first reviews the nature and purpose of theory as a tool of thought that enables the development of reflexive practitioners. We then introduce you to the rich and diverse landscape of marketing theory and we revisit seminal debates that shaped marketing thought and practice. In doing so, we hope to highlight the transformative potential of marketing theory; learning from the past can lead to better future marketing thought and practice (Witkowski 1989).
... Indeed, an illuminating discussion and defence of metaphor use in marketing was authored by Rindfleisch (1996). A metaphor is being employed in this paper as a representation to transfer meaning within a shared world view (Arndt 1985). The meaning can be transferred from a familiar domain – here a journey – to an unfamiliar domain: in the case of this paper, this is the digitalization of marketing. ...
This paper identifies and examines the four stages of marketing's digitalization journey to date and the points of interest along the way. The metaphor of a journey provides a narrative through which to understand the complex changes that are occurring within the digitalization of marketing. The digital journey has no final destination yet, but it is possible to identify an origin and chart its route thus far. In reflecting on this journey, insights emerge, which pose ongoing challenges for businesses and for the marketing discipline. The digitalization of marketing provides new options for routes to markets, communication, brand building, relationship development, trialling pricing, product development, sourcing insights, as well as a platform for innovation. But, only if businesses embark on this journey, and then keep up with the pace once en route. The implications for business stemming from marketing's digital journey are detailed along with avenues for future research, to develop further understanding of digitalization. The theoretical contributions made by this paper include both a novel mapping of the complex trajectory of marketing's digitalization through a visualization and an articulation of the main four gaps in current research and practice knowledge within marketing. The gaps include the need for a strategic view, the issue of technical silos, the changing conceptions of time, and the tension between empowered consumers and their reliance on pre-filtered information. This paper provides a critical appraisal of the digital journey so far, resulting in a distilled conceptualization and route map, which should help guide future researchers.
Responding to Holbrook's questioning of “what's unfair” in “The Distorted Mirror,” the author extends the discussion of advertising's cultural impact on values. He examines the validity of the model Holbrook assumes to be implicit and provides a more explicit statement of the essential argument. He accepts some but refutes many aspects of the critique and suggests a research agenda.
Relationship marketing has become an important part of today’s economic research and practice that complements the traditional marketing approach. With regard to building a reliable theoretical foundation for this branch of science, the transference of established psychological and sociological theories is of particular significance. As an attempt to further frame the underlying theoretical basis, the present article focuses on discussing sociology’s convoy model theory in view of business-to-customer relationships. On the one hand, this contributes to the progression of relationship marketing’s fundamental conception. On the other hand, it provides management implications specific to a novel subject.
This chapter offers an overview of morality as a form of knowledge in society, and of how markets through time have been suggested as a moralising entity in society. It then offers a contrasting perspective, of markets as an institution “amoralising” society. Going on to discuss markets as socially embedded, the chapter interlinks actors within and outside the boundaries of markets in attempts to moralise global markets. With a focus on the role of business organisations in the moralisation of global markets, this chapter outlines three leading approaches to the moralisation of global markets, in terms of a functionalist approach, a descriptive approach, and a critical approach. The chapter finishes by suggesting discourses as the building blocks for the moralisation of global markets.
I like nothing so much as a good philosophical discussion. For one thing, it just feels so delightfully scientific to be bandying about high minded terms like "epistemology," "ontology," "realism," "relativism," and "paradigm" with great abandon. For another thing, it is simply essential in my view of the world of science to which I enjoy belonging that one should be fully engaged in the ethical and normative underpinnings of scientific practice. That, to me, operationally characterizes philosophy of science. Our scientific philosophies facilitate the debating, codifying, and explicating of our "agreed-to rules of the road" for doing our work. They are our scientific code of conduct, so to speak. In my way of thinking, the rules of the road are important for all good researchers to understand and share if we are to hew faithfully to our paradigms and do good normal science research.
The problem for me is that I see the emerging debate over whether our field is a science or not through two distinct lenses, and I'm getting some parallax out of it. I've earned two doctorates at two different stages of my career; one in marketing when I was much younger, and one more recently in information systems. That does not make me any smarter than the average bear, and it could certainly be argued that it's a sure sign of not being smarter, since one could say I had to do it twice to get it right. Yet, it has afforded me a very unique perspective on the emerging ontological debate about our discipline because, quite literally, I Have Been There Before! I've studied the Philosophy of Science two fulsome times in my career, and I've gotten some interesting perspectives each time as each was in the midst of an existential debate over status, and both of these experience bear upon my agenda-setting here, as an editor.
While learning my scientific craft as a first-time doctoral student in marketing, I reveled in the debate that much of academic marketing was enmeshed in during the 80s on whether marketing was a science or a technology and if a science, how best to be practiced. We future scientists all read Kuhn (1970) in our philosophy of science seminar, as well as Dubin (1978) and a flock of excellent philosophical essays collected in a tome edited by the redoubtable Jagdish Sheth (Sheth & Garrett, 1986) - a philosophy of science volume that many in marketing and elsewhere still use, aged though it might be. We marketers also saw a collection of philosophical essays by thought leaders of the field under such titles as "Marketing, Scientific Progress, and the Scientific Method" (Anderson, 1983), "On Making Marketing Science more Scientific" (Arndt, 1985), "Paradigms Lost" (Deshpande, 1983), and "Metatheory and Metamethodology in Marketing" (Leong, 1985). The debate in marketing continued well past that point and has extended into recent years (e.g., Brown, 1996; Easton, 2002), indicating that the debate we have now in information systems has years yet to go. It is not a simple question we deal with, and the answers take time and fulsome consideration.
The paper advocates pluralist methodological paradigm approach for improving the quality of empirical and theoretical public and nonprofit research. Many researchers rely on logico-positivist/empiricist research paradigm as leading orientation to improve the quality of their work, clarify the theoretical contributions of their work, and reduce the probability of having their journal submissions rejected. The main thesis of this paper is that pluralist methodological approach will benefit the quality of empirical and theoretical public and nonprofit research. Alternative conceptualizations of public and nonprofit marketing are suggested.
Marketing scholars have repeatedly called for more conceptual work. Despite this, the number of conceptual contributions within the discipline of marketing is declining. This chapter argues that one strategy to change this is development of methodological frameworks that can guide and accredit the creation of conceptual scientific knowledge. This chapter offers a framework—the Conceptual and Empirical Research (CER) model—to guide conceptual and empirical research. The model consists of three embedded layers—ultimate presumptions, abductive logic and research design, which describe and interrelate the processes of conceptual as well as empirical research and show how knowledge creation is an emergent process. A range of conceptual research strategies are proposed that facilitate both the discovery and justification of conceptual insights.
This study provides an approach to teaching and learning in the international business (IB) classroom about cultural values, beliefs, attitudes, and norms through the study of cultural metaphor. The methodology is based on established qualitative methods by using participants’ visual pictures and written explanations—representative of their initial perspectives of another culture—as units of analysis. Prior to and after a cross-cultural immersion experience in China, students are asked to contribute a tangible visual image of their impression of Chinese culture and briefly write about it. Upon their return, students are once again asked to submit another image of culture along with an additional written explanation in order to explicate their further understanding of culture’s role in cross-border interactions. Findings point to the increased capacity to construct redefinitions of culture based upon their experiences. They also reveal a glimpse into the ideas, imaginings, and attitudes of students as they attempt to make sense of unfamiliar world views, practices, and norms in light of the increasing interconnection in our world.
Purpose
This paper aims to present a commentary and reflection on Nenonen et al. ’s paper on theorizing with managers.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper is a conceptual reflection.
Findings
The author finds much to agree with Nenonen et al. ’s work, but finds some aspects where greater breadth could be added to further strengthen it. The author further suggest that the alleged gap should be critically examined.
Originality/value
This paper extends Nenonen et al. by proposing a broader framework for viewing the relevance and implementability of academic marketing research.
Purpose
For social marketers to become effective change agents, evaluation is important. This paper aims to expand existing evaluation work to empirically respond to Gordon and Gurrieri’s request for a reflexive turn in social marketing using reflexive process evaluations: measuring more than “what” worked well, but also evaluating “how” and “why” success or indeed failure happened.
Design/methodology/approach
An online survey, adapting Dillman’s tailored design method empirically assesses 13 reflexive process hypotheses. With a response rate of 74 per cent, regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the proposed hypotheses and to identify the significant predictors of each of the reflexive process relationships under investigation.
Findings
The study empirically examines and shows support for three reflexive process evaluation constructs – relationships, knowledge and networking. Network involvement and reciprocity; two process dimension constructs do not exert any impact or predict any relationship in the conceptual framework.
Originality/value
This paper expands evaluation theory and practice by offering a conceptual framework for reflexive process evaluation that supports the logic to be reflexive. It shows support for three reflective process evaluation constructs – relationships, knowledge and networks. Another unique element featured in this study is the empirical assessment of Gordon and Gurrieri’s “other stakeholders”, extending evaluations beyond a traditional client focus to an interconnected assessment of researchers, clients and other stakeholders.
The comparative test has traditionally been viewed as a theoretical and methodological technique that was useful for making rapid advances in the development of marketing as a science. Enthusiasm for the comparative test is rooted in logical empiricism. Unexplored implications for the use of the comparative test in marketing are offered from the sophisticated methodolog ical falsificationist and the social constructionist perspectives. A proposed solution to the problems that are created from using the comparative test in the traditional manner is presented. The solution proposed is relevant to methodology in science in general and should aid research and the development of theory in marketing.
There are two historical issues in marketing that have not been sorted out: the power of marketing in the strategies of big companies, and the relevance of the discipline. These issues became more important in the globalization era because of the enhancement of asymmetries within the market and the academy. The article shows that the low power of marketing within the big company was a central topic for research in the domain of marketing strategy and that the concept of market orientation weakened the interest on this domain as from the early 1990s. The author argues that in order to overcome this problem it is necessary not just going against the dominant academy, but also understanding sociohistorical interests and mechanisms that shape the area in the U.S. In the end the article provides suggestions for the development of a Brazilian research agenda on marketing strategy.
The emerging business environment can no longer be considered stable; it can best be characterized as complex, uncertain, and dynamic. Hence, scholars point out that those management approaches, which helped organizations to cope successfully with the steady, incremental change of the past, are outdated in respect of the scale and pace of the current change.
Metaphors shape and structure our thoughts and thus govern our accepted view of the world. They are one of a number of tropes (figurative uses of a word) which allow us to view a problem in a new way through the juxtaposition of ideas, a process which can be enabling and generate creativity in conceptualizing and theorizing. Metaphors also allow us to clearly communicate ideas in an interesting fashion. This chapter reflects upon the nature and role of metaphors and offers guidance upon their use. The use of metaphors in marketing is then critically examined, finally the metaphor of marriage in relationship marketing is considered. It is argued that marriage has become a dormant metaphor which has artificially constrained our conceptualizing in this field and has become a substitute for thinking.
This book is an extension to a trilogy beginning with The Future of Marketing (2003), followed by The Rhetoric and Reality of Marketing: an International Managerial Approach (2003), and then Marketing Mind Prints (2005). Each of these edited volumes dealt with the subject and discipline of marketing and were favoured by contributions from some of the leading theorists in the discipline. As was stated in a previous volume, marketing as a theory, practice, and discipline has now been under fire or under criticism for some time. Certainly the received wisdom associated with the managerial school of marketing and indeed the value of the school is under serious scrutiny by practitioners, and not least by theorists and students.
The marketing mix concept is quintessential to marketing. It follows directly from and expresses the very nature of marketing. It is inherent to anymarketing situation – even if this ismore obvious in somesituations than in others. Logically therefore its origin and traces are intertwined with those of the marketing discipline. The antecedents of marketing go way back into the history of many economies, even if these show different time patterns (Fullerton, 1988). Taken together a study of marketing history reveals that marketing theory and managerial practice resulted from fundamentally and substantially changing market circumstances in the Western world, mainly around the end of the nineteenth and during the first half of the twentieth century. An increasing divide between production and consumption implied the structural presence of supply as well as of demand in diverse product and service areas. Over the course of history, both supply and demand potential tended to become increasingly substantial as well as heterogeneous and consequently also more or less non-transparent. Importantly also, even if potential demand typically increased (for example, because of rising incomes) potential supply was or became typically even larger in relative terms (for example, because of innovations). The emergence of these buyers’ markets forced marketers to engage in all sorts of marketing efforts to attract the attention
Sosyal Bilimlerin epistemolojik doğası hakkındaki varsayımlar pozitivist ve anti-pozitivist epistemoloji olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Sosyal bilimler disiplini içerisinde yaşanan paradigmatik tartışmalar son yıllarda pazarlama disiplini içerisinde de gözlenmektedir. Pazarlama bilgisinin temel kaynağını oluşturan hâkim paradigmanın sorgulanmaya başlamasıyla birlikte alandaki tartışmalar ve araştırma geleneğindeki değişim pazarlama alanında farklı araştırmacılar tarafından ele alınmakta ve tartışılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda diğer sosyal bilimler disiplinlerinde olduğu gibi pazarlama alanı içerisinde farklı bakış açılarının ve araştırma geleneklerinin var olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Alıcı ve satıcı davranışlarının çözümlenmesine odaklı pazarlama bilgisi, ilgili diğer disiplinlerdeki birikimlerden ve kuramsal bilgilerden de yararlanmaktadır. Bu çalışmada pazarlama disiplini içerisindeki paradigma tartışmaları değerlendirilmiş ve bu tartışmalar dahilinde pazarlama bilgisindeki dönüşüm irdelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Sosyal bilimler içerisinde yer alan diğer disiplinlere göre pazarlama alanında henüz yeni sayılabilecek bir sürece sahip paradigma tartışmaları daha derinlemesine analiz edilmelidir.
Marktforschung dient der Gewinnung von Informationen für Marketingentscheidungen. Die Unternehmen und Institutionen, welche derartige Informationen benötigen, produzieren sie selbst oder fragen sie auf einem Markt nach, auf dem Marktforschungsinstitute, Unternehmensberater, Verbände, Behörden und Wissenschaftler als Anbieter auftreten. Wäre der Markt für Informationen vollkommen, brauchte man sich keine Gedanken über die Zukunft der Marktforschung zu machen, der Markt würde für die „richtigen“ Angebote sorgen.
As marketing moves towards establishing itself as a science, marketers must consider what measures are to be taken to best accomplish this feat. This paper first examines the Mertonian normative model of how science operates achieving the goal of accumulating knowledge and then assesses how the discipline of marketing fares when compared against this model. In areas where marketing appears to fall short, recommendations for improvement are made.
Researchers have always been faced with the temptation of exploring data bases to discover atheoretical relationships. The advent of the computer 25 years ago, made this process easier. Today the process is made even easier by increasingly sophisticated quantitative techniques. This article uses the philosophy of science to address the questions concerning the circumstances that make it acceptable to explore data bases without a strong theoretical perspective.
Adopting an ‘agnostic’ approach to power leaves social marketing open to strong criticism and without a mandate to fully evaluate its effects. This chapter considers the implications of this and proposes a way forward. Following an orientating overview of social marketing’s evolution, it is proposed that being able to incorporate the framing effects of power through a critical social marketing lens would support social marketing in countering its critics and offer quality self-review. A discussion of what kinds of power can be wielded through organisations acknowledges that an ethical decision-making process is fundamental. Moreover, it would be important for any ethical codes to encourage challenging thinking that takes full account of interventions, including inadvertent effects, and must be guided by the moral intensity of the social issue. High quality evaluative research would offer a means to critically engage with the impact of social marketing on quality of life and provide an ongoing source of educational development.
A currently popular position among consumer advocates and many public policy makers is that more product information is better. A 3 (number of brands) x 3 (number of items of information per brand) factorial experiment which tested this contention revealed that, while consumers do feel more satisfied and less confused, they actually make poorer purchase decisions with more information.
Describes the current dissatisfactions with the paradigm that has recently guided experimental social psychology-testing of theory-derived hypotheses by means of laboratory manipulational experiments. The emerging variant of doing field experiments does not meet the criticisms. It is argued that an adequate new paradigm will be a more radical departure involving, on the creative side, deriving hypotheses from a systems theory of social and cognitive structures that takes into account multiple and bidirectional causality among social variables. On the critical side, its hypotheses testing will be done in multivariate correlational designs with naturally fluctuating variables. Some steps toward this new paradigm are described in the form of 7 koan. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
1. vyd. Přeloženo z angličtiny Na tit. s. uvedené 12. vyd. patří anglickému originálu
Two distinct types of generalizability are identified in consumer research. One entails the application of specific effects, whereas the other entails the application of general scientific theory. Effects application and theory application rest on different philosophical assumptions, and have different methodological implications. A failure to respect these differences has led to much confusion, regarding issues such as the appropriateness of student subjects and laboratory settings.
This paper shows that increases in the minimum wage rate can have ambiguous effects on the working hours and welfare of employed workers in competitive labor markets. The reason is that employers may not comply with the minimum wage legislation and instead pay a lower subminimum wage rate. If workers are risk neutral, we prove that working hours and welfare are invariant to the minimum wage rate. If workers are risk averse and imprudent (which is the empirically likely case), then working hours decrease with the minimum wage rate, while their welfare may increase.
Marketing in business is the task of finding and stimulating buyers for a firms's output. Product development, pricing, distribution, and communication are the mainstays of marketing, while progressive firms also develop new products and chart the trends and changes in people's needs and desires. Marketing can either apply its knowledge to social problems and organizations or remain in a narrowly defined business activity. Every organization has basically the same functions: personnel management, production, income, and promotion, which are using modern marketing skills in commercial sectors. Suppliers and consumers are needed by all organizations. In Canada a group wished to promote an antismoking campaign but they had little money compared to the tobacco companies. This group used modern marketing techniques to combat their lack of funds and found many ways, e.g., books, articles. A business firm uses a multitude of marketing tools to sell its product. Nonbusiness organizations frequently do not integrate their programs the way the businesses place all activities under one marketing vice president and department. Astute marketing depends on continuous feedback from consumers and suppliers. They are dependent upon up-to-the-minute research that tells them about changes in the environment and moves of competitors. Nonbusiness organizations are often casual about the research upon which they base their vital decisions.
Interviews conducted with chief executive and operating officers in 30 major U. S. corporations identify a number of important issues for consideration by marketing managers and educators.
Alienation has interested philosophers and researchers for many years, but only recently has empirical study been directed toward consumer alienation from the marketplace. The author reports the development of a test to measure alienation from the marketplace based on psychometric principles. The findings suggest that a reliable and valid measure has been constructed. The consumer alienation scale was found to be unidimensional rather than consisting of identifiable subscales. In addition, areas for future research that will aid the marketing manager in applying knowledge of consumer alienation to decision making are discussed.
Marketing theory generally has related to a well-defined set of structures and processes and has maintained a relatively consistent point of view. This article analyzes current pressures to change the definition of marketing and discusses two possible viewpoints that could aid in the development of consonant theory.
This article identifies elements of an institutional approach to marketing to supplement the presently dominant paradigm based on the neoclassical economic theory of resource allocation. An important part of the political economy of marketing systems is the interplay of the three main social and economic control mechanisms: markets, politics, and hierarchies. The institutional framework is applied to areas such as comparative marketing and performance indicators for marketing systems.
Marketing science studies are usable to the practitioner only by chance. That field has become too narrowly focused a discipline. To be usable, macromarketing studies must remain open to the poetics, the "art" of the field. A transcending mental construct is required, one that enhances, not destroys, our scientific heritage.
Two books have been particularly influential in contemporary philosophy of science: Karl R. Popper's Logic of Scientific Discovery, and Thomas S. Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Both agree upon the importance of revolutions in science, but differ about the role of criticism in science's revolutionary growth. This volume arose out of a symposium on Kuhn's work, with Popper in the chair, at an international colloquium held in London in 1965. The book begins with Kuhn's statement of his position followed by seven essays offering criticism and analysis, and finally by Kuhn's reply. The book will interest senior undergraduates and graduate students of the philosophy and history of science, as well as professional philosophers, philosophically inclined scientists, and some psychologists and sociologists.
Most attribute the current malaise of American business to the virus of inflation, the paralysis brought on by government regulation and tax policy, or the feverish price escalation by OPEC. Another view, however, says that responsibility rests not with general economic forces alone, but also with the failure of American managers to keep their companies technologically competitive over the long run. This controversial diagnosis draws on the authors' own extensive work in the production field as well as their recent association with Harvard's International Senior Managers Program in Vevey, Switzerland. Having taken a long, hard look from abroad at how American managers operate, they propose some strong medicine for improving the health of American business. 9 references.
It is argued that the long debate concerning the scientific credentials of marketing has been couched in terms of an idealized notion of science as the ultimate source of objectively certified knowledge. A review of contemporary literature in the philosophy, sociology, and history of science reveals that this canonical conception of science cannot be supported. The implications of this literature for the marketing-as-science debate are developed, and practical measures for the enhancement of scientific practice in marketing are discussed.
Reports on an empirical study of the decision to purchase computers in a single firm. States it is a competitive bidding situation with several suppliers attempting to win a contract that eventually reached £3.5 million pounds. Illustrates how the politics of the firm can influence significant purchase decisions and, in particular, how gatekeepers within the firm's buying centre can structure the outcome of purchase decision in line with their position in the political process. Bases the study on a large organisation in England, in the period 1957–1968, with regard to four computer purchase decisions. Concludes that it is clear that the computer suppliers had differential access to the firm's power structure and it was also evident they had differential knowledge of its operation.
The purpose of this paper is to present the elements of a radical humanist critique which suggests that the discipline of organization theory has been imprisoned by its metaphors, and to stimulate an awareness through which it can begin to set itself free. The paper explores the relationship among paradigms, metaphors, and puzzle solving showing how organization theory and research is constructed upon a network of assumptions that are taken-for-granted. The metaphorical nature of theory and the implications of metaphor for theory construction are examined. A theoretical and methodological pluralism which allows the development of new perspectives for organizational analysis is suggested. While orthodoxy is based upon a few metaphors characteristic of the functionalist paradigm, metaphors characteristic of other paradigms, which challenge the ground assumptions of orthodoxy, are shown to have much to offer.
This article reviews the field of Comparative Marketing in terms of scope, types, and depth of studies; methodological issues, conceptual and managerial payoffs, and teaching approaches. After its first quarter of a century as an international business topic, Comparative Marketing is still relatively green.© 1981 JIBS. Journal of International Business Studies (1981) 12, 61–79
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On Complex Sys-tems with Human Components Fors-varets Forsknings-Anstalt, PlaneringsbyranThe De-Americanization of Marketing Thought: In Search of a Universal Basis
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Social Construction of Consumption PatternsCriteria for a Theory of Responsible Consumption
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Economics and the Public Pur-poseEmpiricism, Criticism, Constructiv-ism: Three Approaches to Scientific Activity," paper pre-sented at the Third World Future Research Conference
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Impact of Pre-Call Request Form and Gender Interaction on Response to a Mail Survey
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Marketing Theory: Conceptual Foun-dations of Research in Marketing, Columbus, OH: Grid Marketing Theory: The Philosophy of Mar-keting ScienceConsumer Research: A State-of-the-Art Review
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Environmental Problems and Mar-keting: Saint or Sinner?," in Marketing Analysis for Soci-etal Problems
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Sociology of Science," in Hand-book of Modern Sociology
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The Anal-ysis of Consumer Actions," in The Language of Social Re-search
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Marketing Warfare in the 1980's
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The Structure of Scientific Revo-lutions The Essential Tension
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Consumer Alienation, General Dissatisfaction, and Consumerism Issues: Conceptual and Managerial Perspectives
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Symbolism and Life Style Chi-cago: American Marketing, 140-150Marcology 101 or the Domain of Market-ingInterpreting Consumer Mythology: A Structural Approach to Consumer Behavior
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Motivation Research and Mar-keting Management, Boston: Division of Research, Grad-uate School of Business Administration
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Comments in a Panel Discussion in Marketing Theory: The Philosophy of Marketing Science
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Organizations and Organization The-oryControl-ling Tropes in Administrative Science
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Leadership Is a Language Game
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Objective KnowledgeDistribution Channels as Political Economies: A Framework for Comparative Anal-ysis
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The Ghetto Marketplace
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Funderinger Over Forskning i Fysiken," unpublished paper
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Organizing the Marketing Function
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