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Mixed-scanning: A “Third” Approach to Decision-making*
Abstract
A rationalistic approach to decision-making requires greater resources than decision-makers command. The incremental strategy, which takes into account the limited capacity of actors, fosters decisions which neglect basic societal innovations. Mixed-scanning reduces the unrealistic aspects of rationalism by limiting the details required in fundamental decisions and helps to overcome the conservative slant of incrementalism by exploring longer-run alternatives. (Incremental decisions tend to imply fundamental ones, anyway.) The mixed-scanning model makes this dualism explicit by combining (a) high-order, fundamental policy-making processes which set basic directions and (b) incremental ones which prepare for fundamental decisions and work them out after they have been reached. Mixed-scanning has two further advantages over incrementalism: It provides a strategy for evaluation and it does not include hidden structural assumptions. The flexibility of the different scanning levels makes mixed-scanning a useful strategy for decision-making in environments of varying stability and by actors with varying control and consensus-building capacities.
... «Fuggelmyra skole» var komplementaert til pensum, og skulle bidra med ulike perspektiver slik at studentene fikk øve seg i å se utfordringer både i et teoretisk og i et situasjonsbestemt perspektiv. Å veksle på disse kaller Etzioni (1973) for et «mixed scanning approach». Med dette undervisningsopplegget hadde vi et ønske om å utvikle god praksisbasert undervisning der teori og praksis skulle kobles tettere sammen ved å veksle på hvilke av disse perspektivene vi brukte. ...
... I lys av funnene kan teoribasert kunnskap betraktes av studentene å ha en forrang foran den mer praksisbasert kunnskapen på campus fordi de har et pensum å forholde seg til. Ved å sørge for at teoretisk og erfaringsbasert kunnskap fremstår som mer integrert for studenten blir det lettere for studentene å forstå det kompliserte samspillet mellom teori og praksis (Heggen & Raaen, 2014), og det er fruktbart å bytte mellom både teoretiske og situasjonsbestemte perspektiver (Etzioni, 1973). Slik kan vi oppnå en laererutdanning som er basert både på forsknings-og erfaringskunnskap, slik forskriften slår fast (Forskrift om rammeplan for grunnskolelaererutdanning for trinn 1-7, 2016). ...
For many years, ”drawing a mathematics teacher” has been an activity that new student teachers in mathematics have been required to do in their first teaching session within the teacher training program. Having already been students themselves for at least thirteen years, during which most of them had mathematics classes several times a week, they had quite clear preconceptions of how teaching mathematics occurs, what kind of mathematics is taught and by whom. In this chapter I address what these drawings produced by student teachers can tell us: They bear imprints of all three elements, that is, the type of teaching, the nature of mathematics and the behavior or appearance of the mathematics teacher. More than 400 drawings were collected over a six-year period and analyzed, and they revealed that there is a surprising consensus around these presentations.
... Consensing can resolve outdated assumptions and address strategic dissonance. Although consensing offers a pathway to reconcile paradoxical tensions and inform incremental and fundamental strategic decisions (Etzioni, 1967(Etzioni, , 1986, it is not without challenges. Potential pitfalls of consensing include groupthink (Janis, 1971;Whyte, 1989), the illusion of unanimous agreement by false consensus (Haug, 2015;Krueger & Zeiger, 1993;Pope, 2013;Ross et al., 1977) or presumptive consensus, inertia (Barr et al., 1992;Hedberg & Jönsson, 1977), information overload (Ackoff, 1967;Edmunds & Morris, 2000), and paralysis by analysis (Langley, 1995). ...
... In consensing, decision timing and rhythm refer to the optimal moment and pace when shared understanding reaches a point that allows purposive cooperation between stakeholders, i.e., collective social action (Tana et al., 2022). This is influenced by many factors, including the nature of the decision (incremental vs. fundamental) (Etzioni, 1967(Etzioni, , 1986, the degree of consensing outcomes, and the organization's context. However, there is no absolute 'right' moment to reach a consensus, as the optimal timing will always depend on the specific context and dynamics of consensing. ...
This thesis explores the role of consensing, a process of cognitive consensus-building through the mechanisms of sensing and synthesizing, in digital transformation strategy formulation within the Swedish public sector. It introduces the novel concepts of consensus surplus (a shared understanding that exceeds the requirements for action), deficit (insufficient shared understanding to support strategy implementation), and debt (the accumulation of unresolved issues due to a lack of consensus-building). The study argues that consensing plays a critical role in aligning strategic intent and shared understanding among stakeholders, leading to these varied outcomes. This process is enabled by the organizational infrastructure of dialogue, which encompasses generative, diagnostic, and integrative dialogue types that facilitate the development of shared understanding.
Drawing upon a critical realist stance and an abductive and retroductive research approach, this study offers a nuanced perspective on the cognitive dynamics of consensing based on an in-depth analysis of qualitative data from interviews, surveys, and document analysis. It challenges prevailing notions and encourages a more collaborative approach to strategy formulation. The thesis conceptualizes consensing as a mechanism for aligning strategic intent with shared understanding, a novel approach in the formulation of digital transformation strategies.
The thesis contributes to digital strategizing literature by highlighting the role of consensing in bridging the gap between intended and realized strategies. It proposes actionable strategies for fostering effective dialogue and mitigating status quo bias, thereby facilitating more dynamic and inclusive strategy formulation processes. The research also outlines potential avenues for future inquiry, such as exploring the impact of organizational culture on consensing processes and examining the role of digital platforms in facilitating consensus-building.
By presenting consensing as a vital tool for organizations navigating digital transformation, this research enriches the discourse in digital strategizing and organizational practice. It advocates for a deeper understanding and application of consensing to enhance the efficacy of strategy formulation in the public sector, with implications for both theory and practice.
... El uso de estos medios está determinado por los intereses y las finalidades que cada uno de los actores tenga. Esto tiene importancia particularmente en las interacciones donde se busca influir en la definición y uso de bienes públicos; distintos actores buscan incidir en los distintos momentos de creación, operación y diagnóstico de las acciones de gobierno que operativizan el uso de los bienes públicos (Etzioni, 1967). ...
En los estudios sobre patrimonio cultural en México el papel del estado como actor, arbitro y finalmente custodio son tomados como un hecho, como algo dado. Los cuestionamientos generalmente recaen en dos ámbitos: los datos técnicos, históricos, arquitectónicos o culturales que permiten considerar a una construcción o actividad como parte del patrimonio, o la capacidad que tiene la autoridad para retomar principios sobre conservación patrimonial que han sido adoptados en otros países u organizaciones internacionales. Ante esto, el presente trabajo analiza el tema de la patrimonialización como un conflicto entre una organización civil mexicana que cuestiona el papel que debía desempeñar la autoridad en la salvaguarda del patrimonio y las instituciones estatales que estudian y tutelan los bienes culturales. El caso de estudio es la zona arqueológica de Huapalcalco en Hidalgo, la participación que tivieron la sociedad civil local, particularmente la organización Niebla y Tiempo, el gobierno local y el Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia en lograr este nombramiento durante los años 2008 al 2020.
... The theory seeks to ensure that in any decision-making quest, the best elements of rational choice thinking and Incrementalism are to be employed in order to arrive at a final conclusion. Mixed-Scanning Theory acquires its strength from its eclectic nature (Etzioni 1967). ...
This chapter entails brief elucidations of three decision-making theories, five economic theories, and eleven education (learning/teaching) theories. The theories on decision-making concern the action or process of choosing among alternative options, especially important ones. Those on economics deal with the production, consumption, and transfer of wealth. And those on education – learning/teaching – discuss the acquisition and instruction of knowledge or skills through experience, study, or by being taught.
... In between the above-mentioned "incrementalism" and the "garbage bin" model lays the proposition of Etzioni [28] who discussed the issue of distinguishing the governmental decisions between those with long-term repercussions and those that relate more to an incrementalistic approach that has short-term implications. His contribution is valuable in terms of considering the two options as being two variables that divide issues in a relatively substantive approach. ...
Public policies have been going through a transitional state in which conventional tools such as the “top-down” approach in the executive phase of public design have proven to be less effective. In an inherently uncertain and chaotic world, public administrations are assigned with the implementation of rules governing post-netaw public management expertise within a context that is ever-changing and which transcends what has been so far considered as “normality” in a hierarchical model. To create a viable environment, political leaders and civil servants engage in a struggle to manage uncertainties through existing networks and the relevant expertise of stakeholders. Moreover, nonconventional methods that are unfamiliar to the hierarchical (Weberian) state, such as heuristic judgments, the application of principles of the neuroscience behaviorist approach, and so forth, open up new road maps for public administration to enable organizations to act in a nonlinear and incrementalistic manner. In this chapter, it will be attempted to break down the new prospects that appear; this is a dynamic public administration, remodeled in an efficient manner catering to the needs of contemporary users. It is stressed that immediate, flexible forms of management must be established; the aim of this is to achieve a mutually accepted situation as has been recommended by experts and stakeholders, in order to be able to determine what may be a viable, provisional solution.
Abstract
This paper titled Spirituality and decision-making in industrial organisations: The current views examinedone of the most current issues in industrial organisational management today. This is the idea of allowingpeople’s spirituality to begin to influence their decision-making activities in the workplace. This exercisehitherto had been within the arm beat of formal, rational and bureaucratic principles in the organisation.Writers and supporters of this new move cite the nature of today’s industrial organisations as their reason.They cite the growing complexity and uncertainties of today’s industrial organisations as creating causesfor concern for both workers and management. Conclusions are that allowing spirituality to influenceorganisational decision-making would be for the good of workers and management. Among the key wordslooked at are spirituality, decision-making, organisation, and organisation culture.
(1) (PDF) SPIRITUALITY AND DECISION-MAKING IN INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATIONS; THE CURRENT VIEWS. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381614384_SPIRITUALITY_AND_DECISION-MAKING_IN_INDUSTRIAL_ORGANISATIONS_THE_CURRENT_VIEWS [accessed Jun 22 2024].
The first chapter outlines the concepts of policy and policymaking, distinguishing them from politics and presenting the evolution of the policy concept in the twentieth century. Various approaches to policymaking are presented, including the positivist approach, according to which public affairs are governed in a rational-comprehensive manner. An alternative is the post-positivist approach, eliminating the illusion of certainty and acknowledging the existence of divergent opinions or viewpoints. Then, the method of analysis based on the policy cycle model is described, with special emphasis on processes such as: (1) agenda setting; (2) policy formulation; (3) decision-making; (4) policy implementation; (5) policy evaluation. Furthermore, attention is drawn to the question of ethical values and group identity, which form the basis for understanding human cognition and conduct. Factors influencing the shift in policymaking approaches, including the argumentative turn, the increasing role of open participation, and the epistemic value of civic deliberation, are discussed. Issues of civic activity and social self-organization are highlighted as crucial, with the premise that active and engaged citizens are the core of effective deliberation. The chapter demonstrates how the shift towards deliberation, dialogue, and civic engagement in public policy has led, in the early 21st century, to the development of various innovative e-participatory mechanisms classified as 'open' policymaking. It concludes that open policymaking necessitates a different analytic approach compared to traditional policymaking, potentially involving the scrutiny of collective intelligence manifestations in online projects.
Successful human societies and successful humans are good at problem-solving because it brings benefits. In doing so, they deploy socially honed learning faculties (language, cognition, recall memory, consciousness) unique to the human species. Problem-solving is inseparable from progress since solutions to one set of problems give rise to the next set: there is no status in social problem-solving. Humans build on general, transferable theoretical knowledge and craft skills, learned in logic-of-practice, coupled with context-specific knowledge (subjective and emotional), expanding the stock of solved problems and mobilising new capabilities.
There are striking .regularities in the budgetary process. The evidence from over half of the non-defense agencies indicates that the behavior
of the budgetary process of the United States government results in aggregate decisions similar to those produced by a set of simple
decision rules that are linear and temporally stable. For the agencies considered, certain equations are specified and compared with data
composed of agency requests (through the Bureau of the Budget) and Congressional appropriations from 1947 through 1963. The comparison indicates that these equations summarize accurately aggregate outcomes of the budgetary process for each agency.
The scrutiny of governmental decision making and policy judgments is unceasing. A recent National Academy of Sciences report, for example, criticized the government for technological decisions that did not take cognizance of their impact on the deployment and utilization of scientists and engineers. The total issue is again joined in this symposium which presents some sharply contrasting viewpoints on administration, politics, and social change. Yehezkel Dror of the Hebrew University reexamines the decision making theory of Charles Lindblom's 1959 Review article, finds it wanting where rapid social change is occurring, and presents a new "normative" model for policy makers. Lindblom, now with the Department of State, defends his thesis in the context of American political change. Examining both the original Lindblom thesis and the Dror critique, Roger Jones of the Budget Bureau finds practicing administrators to be extremely skeptical of models and "other prescribed methodology as a road to administrative salvation." Placing the Lindblom essay in the perspective of public administration as a continuing study, Mickey McCleery of Antioch College finds in it an insightful contrast to the traditional theory of responsible bureaucracy. However, he joins with Jones in doubting the utility of models, and with Heydebrand in noting the philosophical difficulty of accepting what is as what ought to be. A University of Chicago sociologist, Wolf Heydebrand critiques the Dror model and the "essentially conservative framework" of Lindblom's argument.
Short courses, books, and articles exhort administrators to make decisions more methodically, but there has been little analysis of the decision-making process now used by public administrators. The usual process is investigated here-and generally defended against proposals for more "scientific" methods. Decisions of individual administrators, of course, must be integrated with decisions of others to form the mosaic of public policy. This integration of individual decisions has become the major concern of organization theory, and the way individuals make decisions necessarily affects the way those decisions are best meshed with others'. In addition, decision-making method relates to allocation of decision-making responsibility-who should make what decision. More "scientific" decision-making also is discussed in this issue: "Tools for Decision-Making in Resources Planning."
See also Herbert A. Simon, Models of Man The Politics of the Budgetary ProcessThe Science of 'Muddling Through Strategy of Decision, op. cit.; and The Intelligence of Democracy
- Charles E Lindblom
See review of A Strategy of Decision by Kenneth J.
Arrow in Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 79 (1964),
p. 585. See also Herbert A. Simon, Models of Man
(New York: Wiley, 1957), p. 198, and Aaron Wildavsky,
The Politics of the Budgetary Process (Boston: Little,
Brown and Co., 1964), pp. 147-152.
' Charles E. Lindblom, "The Science of 'Muddling
Through'," Public Administration Review, Vol. 19
(1959), pp. 79-99; Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics and Welfare (New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1953); Strategy of Decision, op.
cit.; and The Intelligence of Democracy, op. cit.
6 Lindblom, The Intelligence of Democracy, op. cit.,
pp. 144-148.
The Intelligence of Democracy
- Lindblom
A Strategy of Decision
- Lindblom Braybrooke
Boulding in a review of A Strategy of Decision in the
- E Kenneth
The Power of the Purse, loc. cit
- Fenno