TPPC-2010-0237
The emergence of sustainable manufacturing practices
M. Despeisse, F. Mbaye, P.D. Ball* and A. Levers
Department of Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK
* Corresponding author. Email: p.d.ball@cranfield.ac.uk
(Submitted 6 November 2009)
(Revised 20 May 2010)
(Revised 15 December 2010)
Sustainable manufacturing appears to be a rapidly developing field and it would be
expected that there is a growing body of knowledge in this area. Initial examination of
the literature shows evidence of sustainable work in the areas of product design, supply
chain, production technology and waste avoidance activities. Manufacturers publish
metrics showing significant improvements in environmental performance at high level
but information on how these improvements are achieved is sparse. Examining peer
reviewed publications focused on production operations there are few cases reporting
details and there has been little prior analysis of published sustainable manufacturing
activity. Moreover, the mismatch between academic and practitioner language leads to
challenges in interpretation. This paper captures and analyses the types of sustainable
manufacturing activities through literature review. In turn this can help manufacturers to
access examples of good practice and help academics identify areas for future research.
Keywords: sustainable manufacturing; literature review; best practice; case studies
Introduction
Population growth combined with developing countries’ demand for the life-style of
industrialised countries creates increasing pressures on our planet. The need for
sustainable development constitutes the greatest challenge in human history. Early
environmental activities were associated with corporate citizenship and corporate
social responsibility (Matten and Crane 2005). Nowadays, legal and financial
incentives are making the adoption of environmentally-sound business practices a
question of sustaining business economically over time.
Manufacturing clearly has a major contribution to make towards a more
sustainable society. The motivations for manufacturers to become more proactive in
improving their environmental performance are increasingly linked to cost reduction:
material and energy inputs as well as waste disposal costs have dramatically increased
over the last decade as finite resources diminish. Evidence of environmental
degradation has driven tougher legislation and resulting punitive costs for non-
compliance. Public interest in environmental and social performance of companies
also steers the market towards cleaner and more ethical products and practices.
Early work in sustainable manufacturing was carried out under the label of
Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing (ECM). It included considerations for
source reduction, dismantling, design for manufacturing and assembly as well as
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cradle-to-reincarnation concepts (Owen 1993). Later development of ECM done by
Sarkis identified three dimensions to ECM strategies (product, process and
technology) and the strategies themselves constitute the famous ‘Rs’: reduction,
remanufacturing, recycling and reuse (Sarkis 1995; Sarkis and Rasheed 1995).
Current improvements in manufacturing are focused on lean manufacturing
(Lewis 2000, Yang 2011), product design (Waage 2007, Tan et al. 2010), and the ‘Rs’
strategies (Fleischer et al. 2007). Whilst measures of performance improvements are
showing brand name companies are moving towards sustainable manufacture, detail
on implementation is difficult to find. In cases where details are available the focus
tends to be on the specific technology rather than from a broader industrial
engineering perspective. Thus there is a need to review and document the current state
of activities and develop a knowledge library in order to drive academic research and
disseminate best practices among manufacturers.
In order for academics and practitioners to understand the extent of current
practice and disseminate it, there is a need to understand what work has been carried
out to date and what motivated it. Current sustainable manufacturing practices are not
well mapped and therefore the justification and mechanism for improvements and
their impacts are unclear. A better understanding in this area could support better
adoption of sustainable manufacturing principles. This paper therefore presents an
analysis of current practice adoption to assess where work has been done and what
has motivated it.
Sustainable frameworks and models
Sustainable development is defined as meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED,
1987). It is a simple matter to manipulate this definition for sustainable
manufacturing. It can be defined as a new paradigm for developing socially and
environmentally-sound techniques to transform materials into economically-valuable
goods.
Sustainable development is well-defined and widely recognised as a key
concept for a safer future. The 3Ps (People, Planet, Profit) or 3BL (Triple Bottom
Line) (Elkington 1997) underline that sustainable development is not only about
addressing environmental issues, but it tackles three encompassing dimensions:
economic, social and environmental. Practically, many child-concepts have been
developed to support sustainable development at various levels of activity, such as
sustainable manufacturing and industrial ecology (Frosch and Gallopoulos 1989),
ecological footprint (Wackernagel and Rees 1996) and cradle-to-cradle design
(McDonough and Braungart 2002). Other research fields for industrial sustainability
are developing and rapidly growing, such as Product-Service Systems (Baines et al.
2009) and whole supply chain simultaneous with the design of products and
production systems (Srivastava 2007, Haapala et al. 2008). They cover the areas of
product design, supply chain management and customer-oriented approaches and
adopt a lifecycle perspective which enables more integrated thinking on how to
change the design of products and production systems in order to reduce their
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environmental impact in the most efficient way (Seuring and Müller 2008, Vachon
and Klassen 2008, Tan et al. 2010).
Minimising manufactured products’ embodied energy is attracting more and
more attention as energy cost is increasing as well as the associated environmental
impact (Rahimifard et al. 2010). Beyond energy efficiency in manufacturing, the
assessment of embodied energy encompasses more than energy directly related to the
lifecycle of a product: it shows the importance of material choice and supply chain
parameters (Kara et al. 2010).
To achieve sustainable manufacturing, there are rules defined by various
authors. Major changes are needed to move towards more sustainable industrial
practices (Lovins et al. 1999, Allwood 2005, Abdul Rashid et al. 2008):
1) Use less by dramatically increasing the productivity of natural resources
(material and energy);
2) Shift to biologically inspired production models such as reduction of
unwanted outputs and conversion of outputs to inputs: recycling and all its
variants, cleaner production, industrial symbiosis;
3) Move to solution-based business models including changed structures of
ownership and production: product service systems, supply chain structure.
4) Reinvest in natural capital through substitution of input materials: non-
toxic for toxic, renewable for non-renewable;
To summarise, sustainability requires improved resource use-productivity
(Seliger et al. 1997, Seliger et al. 2008) in order to reduce natural resource inputs as
well as consequent waste and pollutant outputs.
Industrial ecology models emphasise the move from a linear to a closed-loop
circulation of resources. These models take a ‘black box’ view of the industrial
system. The focus is on inputs and outputs of the system, resource-use productivity
and eco-efficiency. This systems perspective allows the shift from local (sometimes
suboptimal) solutions to more global and effective solutions in order to achieve a shift
from linear ‘type I’ to more closed loop ‘type II’ or ‘type III’ system as illustrated in
Figure 1. It also helps to avoid overlooking some resource flows and unforeseen
release to the ecosphere by using mass balance to make sure it complies with the first
law of thermodynamics. It emphasises industrial systems’ interactions with the
environment in an integrated way.
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‘Type I’ ecology
ecosystem
component
unlimited
resources
unlimited
waste
‘Type II’ ecology
ecosystem
component
ecosystem
component
ecosystem
component
energy &
limited resources
limited
waste
‘Type III’ ecology
ecosystem
component
ecosystem
component
ecosystem
component
energy
Figure 1: Systems view in industrial ecology (Graedel, 1994).
Such ecosystem components could be established as sub-systems within a
single enterprise or across multiple enterprises where the waste outputs of a process
can be used by another. For example, Yuan and Shi (2009) describe both internal
reuse and reuse by other enterprises of smelter waste.
Over the decades, advanced computing techniques (Garetti and Taisch 1999)
have developed tremendously together with computing capacity. Modelling and
optimisation techniques have proven to be a reliable tool to support manufacturing
improvements. Modelling and simulation techniques integrating material, energy and
waste flows (Ball et al. 2009b) can help to understand interactions between processes.
They can improve resource-use productivity by identifying losses from the system
which can be used elsewhere as a valuable input. Such closed loop material flow and
reduction in virgin material consumption is illustrated in Figure 2. It shows the value
added to material from the resource extraction (from the ecosphere) as it flows
throughout the industrial system (through the technosphere) until it reaches its end-of-
life. This conceptual model views the manufacturing system as part of a bigger system
and clearly shows how the ‘Rs’ strategies can retain value by closing the loop within
the technosphere. One example of reuse and recycling is given by Wiendahl et al
(1999) for a disassembly factory.
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LIFE CYCLE STAGES
VALUE IN TECHNOSPHERE
Technosphere
Ecosphere
Material
extractor or
grower
Material
processor or
manufacturer
Retailer and
consumer
Waste
collector or
processor
Limited
resources
Limited
wastes
Recycle
Remanu-
facture
Reuse
“Up-cycle”
“Down-cycle”
Incinerate
and landfill
Figure 2: Convert waste into resource input to keep value (Ball et al. 2009a).
Figure 2 shows the life cycle stages of material and hence the immediate
association of the material that forms the final product. Viewing material in its widest
form as a resource it is extended to include consumables, water, air, etc. Whilst these
may not reach the consumer they are extracted, used, potentially re-used and
eventually lost as waste. Energy can be treated in a similar way in that the dominant
energy forms are a result of extraction, transformation, possible reuse and eventual
loss. Significant energy conversion and loss is incurred within each life cycle stage,
such as the material processor or manufacturer stage.
By considering materials and energy together, say at the manufacturer stage,
the production system, its buildings and the supporting infrastructure can be
considered together. Treating these as ecosystem components within a larger system
offers potential for greater reuse and recycling. Such a wider view would include any
surrounding industry or community. The perspective of this research broadens the
view of sustainable manufacturing activities and has the potential to uncover a wider
range of cases reported in the literature and a wider range of practices employed.
So what evidence is there that companies have moved from ‘Type I’ ecology
to more closed loop practices? Are these practices ‘pure lean’ practices or are they
pursuing a wider agenda? If there is significant evidence of sustainable manufacturing
practices, are there frameworks, models and methodologies emerging to guide others
beyond reporting on specific technological changes? This paper examines research
that aims to establish what practices have been reported in the area of sustainable
manufacturing, specifically from an industrial engineering perspective.
Research design
3.1 Methodology
Research is a strategic way of building knowledge to innovate products, processes,
production systems, industrial organisations and business models in order to achieve
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sustainability goals in manufacturing. Science-based disciplines, especially industrial
engineering, contribute to turn research results into innovative solutions for
companies to meet society needs while respecting the limits of the planet in an
efficient way.
The area of sustainable manufacturing is a rapidly developing field, but yet
there are few quality reports on current levels of sustainable manufacturing activities
in companies. Thus, this research aims to fill this gap by providing a collection of
practices obtained from cases reported. By documenting and analysing these cases, it
will allow manufacturers to view examples of good practice and help academics to
identify areas for future research.
A review of the state-of-the art in sustainable manufacturing was conducted to
understand the necessity and emergence of this relatively new field, and the ensuing
main dimensions and concepts. Particular attention was paid to available enablers of
sustainable manufacturing.
Case studies of sustainable practice in industry were collected from the
literature and reputable web sites. The data collected was mapped against defined
criteria and a lifecycle model to establish current practice. Finally an analysis was
carried out to identify changes in sustainable practices in industry.
3.2 Data collection method
Recalling the different terminology used in the literature for the sustainable
manufacturing field, a set of keywords listed in Table 1 was used to gather
information from established databases of peer reviewed sources and selected web
sources.
Table 1: Keywords used for case studies collection.
Discipline Sector Area of
application
Filter cases Type of activity
sustainable
green
eco-friendly
environment*
clean
lean
low
zero
manufactur*
production
process
industry
Energy
waste
material
water
air
carbon
emission
case
practice
implement*
applicat*
reduc*
recycl*
reuse
recover*
conserv*
The keywords were collected from initial examination of peer reviewed
sources, trade journals and websites such as the environmental pages of brand name
manufacturers. It should be noted that there is a challenge to link the keywords
commonly used in general academic publications with the terminology used in the
detailed cases available that can be classed as relating to sustainable manufacture.
The selection of keywords in Table 1 describes the subject area. The keywords
from each of the five columns are included in searches. The first column contains
keywords describing the discipline, the second column identifies the sector, the third
column contains application keywords, the fourth filters publications reporting
application and the fifth contains the focus of the application. Different combinations
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where used to obtain the raw list of cases before exclusion criteria were applied. For
the search string, the OR operator was used to group keywords within a column and
the AND operator used to group between columns.
Sources included were books from journal publishers, commercial academic
search engines, university catalogues, trade journals, academic conferences and
respected websites. The initial searches were based on relatively recent publications
(2000 to date). References from publications found on the initial searches were also
included resulting in older publications being included.
From the sources obtained exclusion criteria were applied. Conceptual
publications and those which could not be related to practice in companies were
removed. Secondly, those publications that had only anecdotal evidence of practice
were ignored (i.e. the evidence presented must be objective). Finally, those
publications with insufficient detail to make objective judgements of the type of
activity and its impact were removed. These exclusion criteria were applied in parallel
reducing the focus from the original many thousands of sources. The final list of cases
was then analysed in detail and used for the analysis presented here.
Sustainable manufacturing activity
Due to the complexity of cases, relevant categorisation was used to compare and
rationally assess the developments in sustainable manufacturing practices.
Data were first classified within five descriptive categories: sector, company
name, sustainable practice type, savings resulting from the practice and sustainable
practice description. An example is shown in Table 2. In order to perform a consistent
analysis, cases were then categorised according to area of improvement and benefits
drawn from the implementation of sustainable practices. The categorisation
considered two sets of criteria (primary and secondary) and the three pillars of
sustainable development (people, profit, planet). The primary criteria were to
objectively classify the data, the secondary criteria assessed the data against the
product lifecycle and environmental impact.
Table 2: Example of information extraction from the case studies.
Number Area Compa
ny
Activity/Type Savings Description
Case 1 Steel
industry
Weirton
Steel
Compressed Air
System
Improvements
Increase Production
at a Tin Mill
Reduced compressor shutdowns,
production downtime and product rejects
Better efficiency of the system lower
energy and maintenance costs
Installation of new
compressors
Leak reparation
Initial cost $246,000
Case 2 Automoti
ve glass
Visteon
Corp.
Millwater Pumping
System Optimization
Improves
3.2 GWh per year
$280,000 per year
Higher efficiency and lower demand for
process cooling water
Use of Variable Speed Drives to match
the system output to the plant's demand
more efficiently
Reduction of water treatment chemical
purchase/use
Renovation of the
pumping system
Initial cost: $350,000
Case 3 Metal
forging
Modern
Forge
Compressed Air
System Optimisation
Project improves
production at a
Metal Forging Plant
Lower energy use and lower maintenance
costs
Improved product quality
Improvement of the
compressed air system
Initial cost: $105,000
Case 4 Automoti
ve
aluminiu
m
AAP
Saint
Mary's
Aluminium Recycling
in after-market
aluminium
automotive wheels
Energy savings 15.6 Btu
Aluminium waste reduced from 8% to
1.5%
Cuttings oils now recycled
DOE's grant of $300,000
In-house chip reclamation
Advanced furnace with
better recovery and fewer
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production cost savings: 1.60$ per wheel ($1.9M/yr) pollutants than the off-site
melting process
4.1 Primary criteria
Primary criteria listed in Table 3 were used to classify information drawn from the
cases to keep the maximum level of objectivity, namely:
•Generic criteria that capture the cases dispersion in terms of location, date and
sector;
•Criteria related to the publication to appreciate the pertinence and objectivity
of the cases;
•Analytical criteria that enable discussion on the sustainable practices
themselves: what motivates the implementation, what is the focus of the
environmental impact, what are the benefits and how the savings are described
and measured (practice improvement focus).
Table 3: Detailed primary criteria types.
Type Criteria
Generic Geography
Year of the practice implementation
Industrial sector
Publication Type of publication
Year of publication
Focus of the publication
Analytical Motivation for implementation
Metrics of the savings
Benefits expressed
Practice improvement focus
4.2 Secondary criteria
Breaking down the last primary criterion above of ‘Practice improvement focus’,
secondary criteria were defined for the interpretation and analysis of industrial
practices as shown in Table 4. Two types of secondary criteria were used successively
to study the improvement practices in more detail:
1) ‘Environmental impact’ criteria which describe the environmental impact
addressed by the production process change:
oEnergy use reduction;
oAir emissions reduction/elimination (heat, solvent, carbon, ...);
oWater use reduction;
oWastewater emissions reduction/elimination;
oMaterial use reduction;
oMaterial waste reduction/elimination (solid waste, hazardous waste).
8
2) Under each ‘environmental impact’ criterion, six sub-criteria were defined as
CARDFS. The first four relate to the product lifecycle model and the last two
relate to the environment around the production system:
oComponent stage in the lifecycle;
oAssembling stage in the lifecycle;
oRecycling stage in the lifecycle;
oDown-cycling stage in the lifecycle;
oFacilities modification;
oServices to business or to the community.
Table 4: Examples of analysis using secondary criteria.
PRACTICE IMPROVEMENT FOCUS
Case #
Energy
use
Air
emissions Water use Wastewater Material
use
Material
wastes
c A d f c a r f s a r f s c A d f s c a d f c a d f s
1
2
3
4
5
6
Relating back to the literature review and Figure 2, C and A relate to the
Materials processor or manufacturer stage and R and D relate to the ‘Rs’ strategies.
Finally, F and S relate to the wider view of manufacturing of not simply production
technology but the ecosystem components that support or can exist in the same
system in the technosphere.
4.3 Benefits expressed categorisation against SD three pillars
To highlight the motivations for implementing sustainable practices, an analysis of the
benefits expressed was carried out, an example of which is shown in Table 5. These
benefits were distributed in areas that recall the three pillars of sustainable
development (SD): people, profit and planet. The criteria used for classifying the
benefit was as follows: that the major benefit was the highest or only claimed benefit;
the medium benefit related to a gain that was shown to be significant but not highest;
the lower benefit related to lesser and/or peripheral gain. A shaded differentiation
outlines the contribution of the benefits expressed to each area.
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Table 5: Practical application of the analysis to case studies by interpreting the benefits
expressed in the cases.
Case no. People Profi
t
Plan
et
1
2 Major benefit
3 Medium benefit
4 Lower benefit
5
6
7
4.4 Mapping
The combination of different classifications against the primary and secondary criteria
provides a wide view of practices and options available for improvement. This
mapping allows the identification of current patterns in sustainable manufacturing.
Table 6 gives an example of mapping with a view of the complete table
including the descriptive categories, primary and secondary criteria, and the area(s) of
the expressed benefits.
Table 6: Example of industrial cases mapping.
Practice improvement focus Benefits
expressed
Case # Energy use Air
emissions
Water use Wastewate
r
Material
use
Material
waste
Peo
ple
Pr
ofi
t
Pla
net
c a d f c a d f c a d f c a d f c a d f c a d f
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
10
Findings
This section discusses the findings of the case analysis summarised in Appendix 1.
References for these cases are located in Appendix 2.
5.1 Literature challenges for the analysis
In general, the literature lacks sufficiently detailed companies cases on sustainable
manufacturing to conduct a mapping as described above. Many of the cases found
were from books dedicated to sustainable manufacturing and from environmental
organisation publications and membership organisations websites. However, there are
a growing number of conferences and projects reported in academia on sustainable
manufacturing that outline the practical applications of sustainable concepts.
In total 83 cases were selected based on the search strategy described earlier.
The number obtained and subsequently considered was lower than expected given the
breadth of the search terms used, the years covered and the level of anecdotal and
reported activity. The requirement for the detail of changes made and the benefits
obtained was highly influential in the actual number of cases selected for analysis. It
is therefore observed that the level of detailed reporting of actual work carried out in
manufacturing companies and the resulting benefits is low. Appendix 1 summarises
the cases against the environmental categories of energy, air emissions, water and
wastes.
The origin and benefits expressed in the cases examined are shown in Table 7
whilst Table 8 shows the sector and the improvement focus. A broad spread in terms
of geography, industrial sector and practice focus is evident. The benefits expressed
are notably skewed towards economics and environment.
Table 7: Geographical origin and expressed benefits of the cases.
People Profit Planet
All Major All Major All Major Total
Global 1 0 4 1 5 5 6
North America 4 0 20 16 20 9 25
South America 1 0 6 3 5 4 7
Europe 1 0 14 4 18 14 18
Africa 4 0 13 2 11 11 13
Asia 2 1 5 0 12 11 12
Oceania 0 0 1 0 2 2 2
Total 13 1 63 26 73 56 83
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Table 8: Sector and focus of the improvement work.
Sector and focus Energy
use
Air
emission
s
Water
use
Waste
water
Material
use
Material
waste
Number
of cases
Agriculture 3 1 2 3 2 2 6
Automotive 7 4 7 4 9 4 13
Aerospace 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Cement 1 2 0 0 2 1 2
Chemical 3 4 1 1 2 4 5
Petroleum 1 0 0 1 1 2 3
Electrical goods 0 1 1 0 0 1 2
Electronic devices
and computer
1 1 1 1 0 1 2
Food and beverage 2 0 4 4 0 2 5
Oil and soap 0 0 1 1 2 0 2
Paper and printing 3 0 2 1 1 2 3
Wood Furniture 1 1 0 1 2 1 2
Textile 4 0 3 4 2 2 6
Metals 11 6 1 1 2 6 14
Casting 1 0 0 1 2 1 3
Machining 2 0 1 1 1 0 2
Non-specific 6 3 1 1 3 6 12
Totals 46 23 25 26 31 35 83
5.2 Improvement measurement
Manufacturers publish significant improvements in metrics at high level (such as
increased product quality, productivity, energy and water savings), and associated
economic savings, through the use of company annual reports and website summaries.
Understandably, it is typical that shallow or no details are given on how these
improvements are achieved.
Most of the metrics expressed are operational performance indicators (OPI),
which means that in most of the cases, progress towards sustainability has been
measured against processes, facilities and equipment performance (Starkey 1998).
Three different types of OPI have been identified:
•Conventional operational performance metrics: productivity, efficiency,
product quality, maintenance rate, failure rate, etc.;
•‘Operations’ impact’ environmental performance metrics: energy and water
use, solid waste and wastewater rate, pollutant emissions, etc.;
•‘Prevention’ environmental performance metrics: potential for
disassembly/reuse/recycling.
Companies do measure their management performance and environmental
condition but these metrics have been noticed mostly for the cases related to
environmental organisation projects or when the environmental condition is necessary
for the business continuity (e.g. community impact rate). Environmental organisation
projects often focus on social benefits so management indicators such as job
creation/preservation are often expressed.
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Table 9 illustrates the results of the research in terms of metrics for sustainable
practices impact found. Most of the metrics can be classed as lagging, with few
leading metrics to indicate likely performance improvements in the future. This could
suggest that the infrastructure for sustainable manufacturing activities in companies
has yet to mature.
Table 9: Types of indicator and metrics expressed in the case studies.
Management performance
indicators (MPI)
Operational performance
indicators (OPI)
Environmental Condition
Indicators (ECI)
Profits/savings
Job preservation rate
Job creation
Employee satisfaction rate
Health & Safety results
Innovation potential
Space requirements
Productivity/efficiency
Energy use
Water use
Maintenance rate
Product quality
Solid waste rate
Reuse rate
Wastewater rate
Carbon/gas/ air emissions
rate
Hazardous products use
Failure rate
Potential for disassembly/
reuse/recycling
Wastewater treatment rate
Waste recovery rate
Heat losses rate
Hazardous sludge volume
Community impact rate
Noise level
5.3 Maturity of the field
Interestingly, the overall literature searched lacked descriptions of failures or practices
implementation shortfalls. This is in contrast to mature disciplines such as lean,
project management and enterprise resource planning (ERP) where papers often
describe implementation failures and quote project failure rates in double digit
percentages. Only industrial research will enable understanding of the issues that
companies can face when implementing sustainable practices. The area is not mature
enough to get both positive and negative feedback on sustainable practices
implementation.
5.4 Motivation for sustainable practices implementation
One important tendency observed is the economic motivation for reducing costs and
improving productivity. Many cases are also motivated by the environment and
society (government incentives, sector/customer pressure, environmental legislation,
new standards) resulting in companies integrating more and more sustainability in
their corporate strategy and ethics. This recalls again the three interrelated dimensions
of sustainability (people, planet, profit) and shows that companies are mostly moving
towards sustainability by compliance to societal changes and requirements.
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5.5 Implementation strategies
Implementation strategies of sustainable practices expressed in the cases match
Allwood (2005) and Seliger’s (2004) approaches and strategies for sustainable
manufacturing.
Table 10 summarises the results of the research in terms of common practices
employed by the companies towards sustainability that was earlier illustrated in Table
2. Results have been obtained by scoring using the frequency of practices for each
lifecycle stage in a particular environmental area. The columns relate to changes to
the CARDFS secondary criteria described earlier. Table 10 is drawn from the
summary of practices contained in cases found shown in Appendix 1. The table does
not present only where practices will appear; it presents where practices are more
commonly reported.
Table 10: Common implementation strategies highlighted from the research.
Modification
of sub-
Components
Modificatio
n
of
Assembly
process
Recycling Down-
cycling
Modification of
production
Facilities
Services to
businesses
or to
community
Improving energy use X X X X
Improving water use X X X
Improving material
use X X X X
Reducing air
emissions X
Reducing wastewater X X X
Reducing material
waste X X X X X
5.6 Benefits expressed
The ranking of the sustainable practices benefits expressed in the cases shows
environmental benefits are considered as most important benefits followed closely by
economic ones (see Table 7). Interestingly, social aspects are never expressed as
major benefits. When looking at the frequency of expressed benefits in the cases,
economic and environmental benefits are prevailing. It is noted from these cases that
financial outcomes from sustainable practices are predominant over corporate
citizenship motivations.
Discussion
Despite a thorough data collection method combining a broad range of keywords and
consistent databases, the literature does not contain significant numbers and complete
illustrations of sustainable practices in industry. Information is particularly deficient
regarding quantification of benefit, implementation difficulties and knowledge
management about sustainability in companies.
Knowledge in the sustainable manufacturing field is fragmented but unified
theories, generally accepted frameworks and models are developing. As there is a
growing interest in environmental concerns, environmental activities are now part of
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the many corporate strategies. The large range of terms and notions used in the
literature can negatively impact the discussion and knowledge shared among
researchers and practitioners (Abdul Rashid et al. 2008). Seliger et al. (2008)
emphasises the challenge of communication in sustainable manufacturing. This work
supports this view with a diverse range of terms being used in describing the cases. As
a result, there is an extensive use of terms like ‘eco’ or ‘green’ but there are currently
no standards concerning the terminology.
Cases from books, conferences and academia mostly refer to sustainable
manufacturing theoretical concepts as presented before in the literature of the field.
Cases presented by the business community itself describe practices only in a
technical and financial point of view; they infrequently recall the existing terminology
of sustainable manufacture used by academics. This difference can be explained by
the fact that sustainable manufacture is a new field spreading in academia and the
practitioner community but not yet adopted as a framework in the business
community.
The different cases showed that current practices for sustainability are aligned
with Allwood’s and Seliger’s approaches and strategies for sustainable manufacturing
even if the language is different from what used in the sustainable manufacturing field
literature. As a result, a categorisation of the current sustainable practices against the
existing frameworks could help guide companies new to the field.
From the analysis of the benefits expressed from sustainable practices
implementation, it appears that environmental impact reduction and economic
benefits predominate over social aspects. But details on how these improvements are
achieved remains to be further explored.
The key messages therefore to extract for this work for practice are:
•There appears to be significant activity in the area of sustainable
manufacturing but this is not well documented by industry or academia.
Hence, practices need to be gained first hand from direct company contact as
well as use of literature.
•Care needs to be exercised not to use narrow language when examining
sustainable manufacturing work as there is diversity in how the work is
labelled.
•When considering the benefits for operations improvement, work in this area
as expected cites environmental impact as a primary motivation and this is
invariably supported by economic benefit. Social motivations are less
dominant.
•There is a wealth of metrics for assessing the impact of sustainable
manufacturing activities. It should be noted that most are lagging indicators
with few examples of leading indicators to guide future work.
Conclusion
The introduction of sustainable manufacturing practices is clearly taking place within
industry. The translation of sustainable manufacturing principles into an operational
activity is a blind spot on which this research sheds light. Current sustainable
improvements reported are mainly focused on design, supply chain, technology and
15
waste avoidance activities and there has been little prior analysis of published
sustainable manufacturing activity.
This paper is an attempt to help manufacturers envisage examples of practice
and to help academics identify areas for future research by reviewing current literature
on sustainable manufacturing activities.
The first observation is the need for manufacturers and researchers to
document, analyse and publish more cases on the practice and benefits of sustainable
manufacturing. The use of common terminology between academics and practitioners
will assist in the accessibility of these cases.
The data collection was performed using a set of keywords covering the
subject over a wide range of industrial sectors. The size of the sample was not
representative enough to show sector specific trends in the industry practices. The
source of information mostly provided the outcomes of sustainable manufacturing
practice implementation rather than the means, with a certain bias due to the focus of
the organisation or the publication (energy/waste/water, managerial/technological,
etc.). This is illustrated through the annual reports and corporate websites for
companies showing the metrics but not necessarily the changes made and is supported
by analysis of the literature. The study revealed the lack of details on how companies
achieve the improvements reported. The metrics used are operation performance
indicators (OPI) which shows that it is possible to move towards sustainable
manufacturing. It was noted that the indicators tended to be lagging with few leading
indicators in evidence. Additionally, there were no reported cases of failure in the
implementation of sustainable manufacturing practices which could help others in
understanding the problems faced with implementation.
Word count to here: 5400 inc abstract and tables.
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18
Appendix 1. Categorisation of the practices obtained from the cases against environmental categories and potential strategies and tools
to address (source reference in appendix 2).
Environmental
category
Area of change Change practices Change focuses
highlighted from the
practices
Key strategies and tools
available
Energy
C: component . Material substitution: less weight, better efficiency
. New machining method
. Virtual development
. Manufacturing strategy
(product and process design)
. Losses
. Process efficiency
. Energy supply (source and
control)
. Process control
. Equipment (efficiency and
control)
. Housekeeping
. Industrial ecology: energy
audit
. Lean & green: value stream
mapping, Pareto, 5 why's
. Integrated view: modelling
tools
. Technology assessment
. Eco-balances
. Environmental indicators:
Operational Performance
Indicators
A: assembly . Renewable source of energy
. Energy capture in low pressure steam
. Elimination of bottlenecks
. Cleaning using an oil skimmer
. Adjust energy supply for varying load requirements
. Control of heat exchange and evaporation
. Process efficiency increased
. Process optimisation
. Energy baseline
. Better housekeeping
R: recycling . Reuse of steam condensate
. Energy reusing
D: downcycling . Recovery of steam condensate
F: facilities . Equipment upgrade for better efficiency
. Leakage reparation
. Computerized equipment
. High efficiency lamps, ballasts and motors
. Variable speed drives
. Installation of bare steam pipes
. Temperature controller
. Improved boiler efficiency by reducing air-fuel ratio
. Steam pump and piping network
. Steam insulation
. Briquetting technology
. Metering
S: services . Trading of waste to other business or local
community as input for their energy supply
19
Environmental
category
Area of change Change practices Change focuses highlighted
from the practices
Key strategies and tools
available
Air emissions
C: component . Virtual Development . High temperature
equipment
. Dust released
. Solvent use
. Heat released
. Mounting process
. Cooling process
. Manufacturing strategy
. Integrated view: simulation
tools (tracking)
. Technology assessment
. Environmental auditing
. Eco-balances
. Environmental indicators:
Operational Performance
Indicators
. Industrial ecology: emissions
inventory
. Lean & Green: Value stream
mapping
A: assembly . Replacement of CO2 per compressed air for cooling
parts
. Virtual development
R: recycling . Reuse of furnace gas
. Recycling of bypass dust
D: downcycling none
F: facilities . Solvent recovery system
. Filter
. Increase unit efficiency
. Improve furnace isolation
. Upgrade furnace
. Upgrade oven
. Replacement of modular type by rotary type of
electronic component in mounting machines
S: services . Piping of heat generated by buildings to local
community facilities
20
Environmenta
l category
Area of change Change practices Change focuses
highlighted from the
practices
Key strategies and tools
available
Water use and
wastewater
C: component . Virtual Development . Manufacturing strategy
. Process efficiency
. Hazardous material use
. Water management
. Wastewater management
. Equipment efficiency and
control
. Housekeeping
. Losses
. Industrial ecology: water
audit
. Integrated view: Modelling
and simulation tools (tracking)
. Lean & green: value stream
mapping
. Technology assessment
. Pollution prevention
techniques
. Eco-balances
. Environmental indicators:
Operational Performance
Indicators
A: assembly . Hazardous substances substitution or elimination
. Process optimisation
. Steam condensate collection
. Process change: segregation of the cooling water,
vacuum water and process water
. Water use efficiency increased
R: recycling . Mechanical vapour recompression
. Water recirculation
. Processing water reuse
. Reuse of steam condensate
. Pre-cleaning of parts with dirty solvents for limiting
the water use in a second cleaning process
. Recirculation of water for cooling and heating
D: downcycling . Water cleaning using an oil skimmer
. Anaerobic treatment of organic nutrients in
wastewater to produce biogas
. Filtration
F: facilities . Equipment upgrade
. Equipment efficiency increased
. Leakage reparation
. Equipment modification
. Current counter flow
. Automatic shut-off valves
. Centrifuge to reduce the water content of the sludge
. Visual controls and displays throughout the plant
S: services none
21
Environmental
category
Area of change Change practices Change focuses
highlighted from the
practices
Key strategies and tools
available
Material use
and waste
C: component . Consideration of disassembly, reuse and recycling
issues during product design
. Smaller material input before processing
. Virtual development
. Manufacturing strategy
(product and process
design)
. Housekeeping
. Waste management
. Process efficiency
. Equipment efficiency
. Hazardous material use
. Industrial ecology: emissions
inventory
. Waste audit
. Lean & green: value stream
mapping
. Integrated view: Modelling
tools & simulation tools
(tracking)
. Material flow analysis
. Life cycle
assessment/analysis
. Eco-balances
. Environmental indicators:
Operational Performance
Indicators
A: assembly . Material use efficiency increased
. Process optimisation
. Material substitution when hazardous
. Better housekeeping
R: recycling . Cutting oils recycling
. Scrap and slag reuse and recycling
. Solid waste recycling
. Sorting of the wastes
D: downcycling . Waste recovery system
. Treatment of the wastes
F: facilities . Preventive maintenance of the equipment for
limiting failures
. Closed loop material supply
. Waste collection system
. Equipment upgrades
. Visual controls and displays for increasing
employees' awareness
. On-site recycling
S: services . Trading of waste as input to other business or local
community (eco-industrial park)
22
Appendix 2. Reference list for case analysis.
The following list of references provides the sources for the cases listed in Appendix 1.
Sector Specific subject Year1Source
Aerospace Identification of
substitute Materials
1998 Dhooge, P., Glass, S. and Nimitz, J. (1998), Successful Environmentally Friendly, high Performance Substitute Materials for
Manufacturing and Facilities, SAE technical Paper 981872, Society of Automotive Engineers, USA.
Agriculture Process optimisation 2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Agriculture Reduction of milk
losses
2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Agriculture Cleaner production in
the sugarcane
industry
2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Agriculture Sugar cane 2006 Gunkel, G., Kosmol, J., Sobral, M., Rohn, H., Montenegro, S. and Aureliano, J., 2007. Sugar cane industry as a source of water
pollution - Case study on the situation in Ipojuca river, Pernambuco, Brazil. Water, air, and soil pollution, 180(1-4), 261-269.
Agriculture Leather 2003 Stoop, M.L.M., 2003. Water management of production systems optimised by environmentally oriented integral chain management:
Case study of leather manufacturing in developing countries. Technovation, 23(3), 265-278.
Agriculture Beet sugar 2006 Zbontar Zver, L. and Glavič, P., 2005. Water minimization in process industries: Case study in beet sugar plant. ̌Resources,
Conservation and Recycling, 43(2), 133-145.
Automotive Millwater Pumping
System Optimization
Improves
2003 Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy: http://www.osti.gov/glass/Best%20Practices
%20Documents/Assessment%20Case%20Studies/Millwater%20pumping%20system.pdf
Automotive Aluminium Recycling
in after-market
aluminium
automotive wheels
production
1998 California Energy Commission: http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/toolbook.pdf [last access 13/12/2010]
Automotive Industrial Heat-
Treating (carburizing)
1998 Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy: http://www.osti.gov/bridge/purl.cover.jsp?purl=/755966-
XRptCL/native/ [last access 13/12/2010]
Automotive Applying Design for
Environment (DfE)
methodology to Rapid
Manufacturing (RM)
2006 N Hopkinson, Y Gao, D J McAfee, 2006. Design for environment analyses applied to rapid manufacturing. Proc. IMechE Part D:
Journal of Automobile Engineering, 220 (10), 1363-1372
Automotive Cleaner production in
metal parts machining
processes
2007 Seliger, G. (2007), Sustainability in Manufacturing: Recovery of Resources in Product and Material Cycles, 1st ed, Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany
1 Year of the project or year the paper was written
23
Automotive Cleaner production in
a vehicle transmission
manufacturing
process
2007 Seliger, G. (2007), Sustainability in Manufacturing: Recovery of Resources in Product and Material Cycles, 1st ed, Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany
Automotive Cleaner production
for the assembly of a
camshaft drive
2007 Seliger, G. (2007), Sustainability in Manufacturing: Recovery of Resources in Product and Material Cycles, 1st ed, Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany
Automotive Caterpillar, Making
sustainable progress
possible
2008 International Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing 23-24 Sept. 2008 (OECD, Rochester, NY, USA):
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/47/4/41503487.pdf
Automotive General Motors,
Sustainable
manufacturing for
Future Automotive
Propulsion
Technologies
2008 International Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing 23-24 Sept. 2008 (OECD, Rochester, NY, USA):
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/47/41503423.pdf
Automotive Environmental Eco-
Efficient practices
2007 Business in the community: http://www.bitc.org.uk/resources/case_studies/afe1259_ford.html
Automotive Achieving zero waste
to landfill
2004 Business in the community: http://www.bitc.org.uk/resources/case_studies/afe256envtoyota.html
Automotive Sustainable Lean
Manufacturing
2004 Network for Business Innovation and Sustainability:
http://nbis.org/nbisresources/operations_product_service_management/lean_mfg_casestudy_genie.pdf
Automotive Forklift
manufacturing
2009 Kim, J., Park, K., Hwang, Y. and Park, I., 2010. Sustainable manufacturing: A case study of the forklift painting process.
International Journal of Production Research, 48(10), 3061-3078.
Casting Infrared Drying 1998 California Energy Commission: http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/toolbook.pdf [last access 13/12/2010]
Casting Cleaner production on
a casting
manufacturing
process
2007 Seliger, G. (2007), Sustainability in Manufacturing: Recovery of Resources in Product and Material Cycles, 1st ed, Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany
Casting Pollution prevention
in a zinc die casting
company
2002 Park, E., Enander, R. and Barnett, S. M. (2002), "Pollution prevention in a zinc die casting company: a 10-year case study", Journal
of Cleaner Production, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 93-99.
Cement Cleaner production in
the cement industry
2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Cement Envionmental impact
of cement production
2009 Kabir, G. and Madugu, A.I., 2010. Assessment of environmental impact on air quality by cement industry and mitigating measures:
A case study. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 160(1-4), 91-99.
Chemicals Re-engineered
Fertilizer Production
1998 American Council for an Energy-efficient Economy: http://www.aceee.org/P2/p2cases.htm [last access 31/05/2009]
Chemicals Saving Energy in the
Chemical Industry
1998 American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy: http://www.aceee.org/P2/p2cases.htm [last access 31/05/2009]
24
Chemicals Fine chemical 2009 Wernet, G., Conradt, S., Isenring, H.P., Jiménez-González, C. and Hungerbühler, K., 2010. Life cycle assessment of fine chemical
production: a case study of pharmaceutical synthesis. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 1-10.
Chemicals Soda ash (Chemicals) 2006 Kasikowski, T., Buczkowski, R., Cichosz, M. and Lemanowska, E., 2007. Combined distiller waste utilisation and combustion gases
desulphurisation method. The case study of soda-ash industry. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 51(3), 665-690.
Chemicals Chemical factory
toxic release
2008 Yu, Q., Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Ma, W.C. and Chen, L.M., 2009. Safety distance assessment of industrial toxic releases based on
frequency and consequence: A case study in Shanghai, China. Journal of hazardous materials, 168(2-3), 955-961.
Electrical
goods
Cleaner production in
household appliance
manufacturing
processes
2007 Seliger, G. (2007), Sustainability in Manufacturing: Recovery of Resources in Product and Material Cycles, 1st ed, Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany
Electrical
goods
Panasonic, Reduction
of carbon emissions
by increasing the
productivity
2008 International Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing 23-24 Sept. 2008 (OECD, Rochester, NY, USA):
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/0/41508285.pdf
Electronic
devices and
computer
IBM cools data centre
with swimming pool
2008 Turton, S. (2008), "IBM cools data centre with swimming pool", PC Pro: computing in the real world, [Online], , accessed on: 15
june 2009 available at: http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/184539/ibm-cools-data-centre-with-swimming-pool.html
Electronic
devices and
computer
Water Use and
Wastewater
Reduction
1998 Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy: http://www.osti.gov/bridge/purl.cover.jsp?purl=/663334-
Dr42De/webviewable/ [last access 13/12/2010]
Food and
beverage
Bioenergy recovery in
a brewery production
plant
1998 American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy: http://www.aceee.org/P2/p2cases.htm [last access 31/05/2009]
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, NYS Governor's Awards for Pollution Prevention:
http://www.dec.ny.gov/public/22539.html [last access 13/12/2010]
Food and
beverage
Conservation of water
and energy
2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Food and
beverage
Water Recycling &
Treatment System
1998 California Energy Commission: http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/toolbook.pdf [last access 13/12/2010]
Food and
beverage
Distillery water use 2003 Saha, N.K., Balakrishnan, M. and Batra, V.S., 2005. Improving industrial water use: Case study for an Indian distillery. Resources,
Conservation and Recycling, 43(2), 163-174.
Food and
beverage
Food and cleaner
production
2003 Kupusovic, T., Midzic, S., Silajdzic, I. and Bjelavac, J., 2006. Cleaner production measures in small-scale slaughterhouse industry -
case study in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journal of Cleaner Production, 15(4), 378-383.
Machining Aqueous Cleaning
System
1998 North Carolina Division of Pollution Prevention and Environmental Assistance: http://www.p2pays.org/ref/01/0056537.pdf [last
access 13/12/2010]
Machining Ultrasonically
Assisted Cutting of
Intractable Materials
NK Babitsky V, Mitrofanov A and Silberschmidt V, 2004. Ultrasonically assisted turning of aviation materials: simulations and
experimental study . Ultrasonics, 42 (1-9): 81-86.
Metals Compressed Air
System Improvements
Increase Production at
a Tin Mill
2000 Compressed Air Challenge, Library, Case Studies: http://www.compressedairchallenge.org/library/casestudies/weirtons.pdf
25
Metals Compressed Air
System Optimisation
Project improves
production at a Metal
Forging Plant
2000 Compressed Air Challenge, Library, Case Studies: http://www.compressedairchallenge.org/library/casestudies/moddr.pdf
Metals Innovation in the Die
Steel Forging
Industry
1998 California Energy Commission: http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/toolbook.pdf [last access 13/12/2010]
Metals Waste re-use:
Systems and
Technology for
Advanced Recycling
(STAR)
1998 North Carolina Division of Pollution Prevention and Environmental Assistance: http://www.p2pays.org/ref/02/01094.pdf [last access
13/12/2010]
Metals Fabricated Metal
Products
Manufacturer
1998 American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy: http://www.aceee.org/P2/p2cases.htm [last access 31/05/2009]
Metals New Dispersion
Strengthened Low
Cost Ductile Cast Iron
for Light Weight
Components
(DILIGHT)
NK Loughborough University: http://wolftest.lboro.ac.uk/research/manufacturing-technology/SMART/sustainable-projects-students.htm
Metals Wire rods factory 2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Metals Cleaner production in
Aluminium Foundries
2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Metals Cleaner production in
the Iron and steel
industry
2007 El-Haggar, S. (2007), Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle for Sustainable Development, 1st ed,
Elsevier Academic Press, California, USA.
Metals Steel technologial
change and emissions
2004 Lutz, C., Meyer, B., Nathani, C. and Schleich, J., 2005. Endogenous technological change and emissions: The case of the German
steel industry. Energy Policy, 33(9), 1143-1154.
Metals Foundry cleaner
technology
2007 Pal, P., Sethi, G., Nath, A. and Swami, S., 2008. Towards cleaner technologies in small and micro enterprises: a process-based case
study of foundry industry in India. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16(12), 1264-1274.
Metals Steel eco-efficiency 2009 Van Caneghem, J., Block, C., Cramm, P., Mortier, R. and Vandecasteele, C., 2010. Improving eco-efficiency in the steel industry:
The ArcelorMittal Gent case. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18(8), 807-814.
Metals Toxicity in
aluminium production
2006 Koehler, D.A. and Spengler, J.D., 2007. The toxic release inventory: Fact or fiction? A case study of the primary aluminium industry.
Journal of environmental management, 85(2), 296-307.
Metals Reverse Logistics in
aluminium
2005 Logožar, K., Radonjič, G. and Bastič, M., 2006. Incorporation of reverse logistics model into in-plant recycling process: A case of
aluminium industry. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 49(1), 49-67.
Non-specific Mexican 1965- Aguayo, F. and Gallagher, K.P., 2005. Economic reform, energy, and development: The case of Mexican manufacturing. Energy
26
manufacturing 1999
(published
2005)
Policy, 33(7), 829-837.
Non-specific Dry cleaning 2006 Altham, W., 2007. Benchmarking to trigger cleaner production in small businesses: dry-cleaning case study. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 15(8-9), 798-813.
Non-specific Industrial area
synergy
2008 Beers, D.V. and Biswas, W.K., 2008. A regional synergy approach to energy recovery: The case of the Kwinana industrial area,
Western Australia. Energy Conversion and Management, 49(11), 3051-3062.
Non-specific Indian manufacturing 2009 Mukherjee, K., 2010. Measuring energy efficiency in the context of an emerging economy: The case of indian manufacturing.
European Journal of Operational Research, 201(3), 933-941.
Non-specific Eco-industrial park
energy cogeneration
2008 Strafelt, F. and Yan, J., 2008. Case study of energy systems with gas turbine cogeneration technology for an eco-industrial park.
International Journal of Energy Research, 32(12), 1128-1135.
Non-specific Industrial area waste
management
2009 Tarantini, M., Loprieno, A.D., Cucchi, E. and Frenquellucci, F., 2009. Life Cycle Assessment of waste management systems in
Italian industrial areas: Case study of 1st Macrolotto of Prato. Energy, 34(5), 613-622.
Non-specific Water resource
protection
2001 Chour, V., 2001. Water resources protection today: End-of-pipe technology and cleaner production. Case study of the Czech Odra
River watershed.
Non-specific Thermal power
generation
2006 Murty, M.N., Kumar, S. and Dhavala, K.K., 2007. Measuring environmental efficiency of industry: A case study of thermal power
generation in India. Environmental and Resource Economics, 38(1), 31-50.
Non-specific Industrial ecosystem 2007 Okkonen, L., 2008. Applying industrial ecosystem indicators: Case of Pielinen Karelia, Finland. Clean Technologies and
Environmental Policy, 10(4), 327-339.
Non-specific Policies for waste
management
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