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Running in New and Worn Shoes - A Comparison of Three Types of Cushioning Footwear
Abstract and Figures
In this study, the effect of shoe degradation on running biomechanics by comparing the kinetics and kinematics of running in new and worn shoes was investigated. Three types of footwear using different cushioning technologies were compared.
Longitudinal study.
Pre- and post-tests on overground running at 4.5 m s(-1) on a 20-m laboratory runway; performance measured using a force platform and a motion capture system.
24 runners (14 men and 10 women)
200 miles of road running in the same pair of shoes. Within-group factor: shoe condition (new/worn); between-group factor: footwear type (air/gel/spring).
Stance time was calculated from force data. External loads were measured by maximum vertical force and loading rate. Kinematic changes were indicated by sagittal plane angles of the torso, hip, knee and ankle at critical events during the stance phase.
Stance time increased (p=0.035) in worn shoes. The torso displayed less maximum forward lean (p<0.001) and less forward lean at toe-off (p<0.001), while the ankle displayed reduced maximum dorsiflexion (p=0.013) and increased plantar flexion at toe-off (p<0.001) in worn shoes. No changes in the hip and knee angles. No between-group difference among the three footwear groups or condition by type interaction was found in any measured variables.
As shoe cushioning capability decreases, runners modify their patterns to maintain constant external loads. The adaptation strategies to shoe degradation were unaffected by different cushioning technologies, suggesting runners should choose shoes for reasons other than cushioning technology.
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... 14 Similarly, Escamilla-Martínez et al. 13 found that the EVA midsole shoes started to deteriorate at 350 km by evaluating plantar pressure distribution. Moreover, Kong et al. 15 suggested that slight modifications in the mechanical characteristics of shoes result in kinematic changes after about 320 km of running. ...
... Importantly, mechanical tests do not predict shock during actual running because of neuromuscular adaptation. 15,16 There are several studies that analyzed the effect of shoe use on biomechanics in traditional running shoes, [13][14][15] but there is a lack of studies evaluating the effects of shoe use on RE. 15 Moreover, there are no known studies that evaluate the effects of wear of different midsole materials on RE for AFT. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate RE and biomechanics in new and worn AFT of different midsole materials (EVA vs. PEBA). ...
... Importantly, mechanical tests do not predict shock during actual running because of neuromuscular adaptation. 15,16 There are several studies that analyzed the effect of shoe use on biomechanics in traditional running shoes, [13][14][15] but there is a lack of studies evaluating the effects of shoe use on RE. 15 Moreover, there are no known studies that evaluate the effects of wear of different midsole materials on RE for AFT. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate RE and biomechanics in new and worn AFT of different midsole materials (EVA vs. PEBA). ...
Background
Ethylene and vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyether block amide (PEBA) are recently the most widely used materials for advanced footwear technology (AFT) that has been shown to improve running economy (RE). This study investigated the effects of these midsole materials on RE and biomechanics, in both fresh and worn state (after 450 km).
Methods
Twenty‐two male trained runners participated in this study. Subjects ran four 4‐min trials at 13 km‧h⁻¹ with both fresh EVA and PEBA AFT and with the same models with 450 km of wear using a randomized crossover experimental design. We measured energy cost of running (W/kg), spatiotemporal, and neuromuscular parameters.
Results
There were significant differences in RE between conditions (p = 0.01; n² = 0.17).
There was a significant increase in energy cost in the worn PEBA condition compared with new (15.21 ± 1.01 and 14.87 ± 0.99 W/kg; p < 0.05; ES = 0.54), without differences between worn EVA (15.13 ± 1.14 W/kg; p > 0.05), and new EVA (15.15 ± 1.13 w/kg; ES = 0.02). The increase in energy cost between new and worn was significantly higher for the PEBA shoes (0.32 ± 0.38 W/kg) but without significant increase for the EVA shoes (0.06 ± 0.58 W/kg) (p < 0.01; ES = 0.51) with changes in step frequency and step length. The new PEBA shoes had lower energy cost than the new EVA shoes (p < 0.05; ES = 0.27) with significant differences between conditions in contact time.
Conclusion
There is a clear RE advantage of incorporating PEBA versus EVA in an AFT when the models are new. However, after 450 km of use, the PEBA and EVA shoes had similar RE.
... Individuals' footwear might wear after a long time of wearing. Inappropriate footwear was indicated to be associated with bone fractures [2]. Additionally, high correlations were investigated between the outsoles of footwear and balance [3]. ...
... A previous study has indicated that the degradation of shoes is one of the significant risk factors for runningrelated injuries [6]. The influence of shoe degradation on biomechanics during running were examined [2]. As for the worn-shoe group, the stance time increased significantly and the ankle revealed a decrease in the maximum dorsiflexion, which indicated that runners might alter their running patterns to maintain constant external loads. ...
... Furthermore, a previous study proposed that a longer TTSG has the potential to increase the risk of some injuries, such as anterior cruciate ligament injuries in collegiate athletes [44]. Worn shoes were also indicated to increase stance time and adapt kinematics [2]. Individuals with worn shoes might alter their normal patterns to regulate constant external loads. ...
The purpose of the study is to determine the influence of lateral-heel-worn shoes (LHWS) on balance control ability through the single-leg drop jump test. The results could be beneficial by preventing lower limb injuries. Eighteen healthy participants performed the single-leg drop jump test. Times to stabilization for ground reaction forces (TTSG) in the anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, and vertical directions were calculated to quantify dynamic balance control ability. Outcome variables of the center of pressure (COP) were used to examine the main effect of LHWS during the static phase. The postural control ability was assessed through time to stabilization for the center of mass (TTSC) in the three directions. TTSG and TTSC for the LHWS group were found to be longer than those for the new shoes (NS) group in the M/L direction (p < 0.05). An increase in the TTS revealed an increased risk of falls during physical activities. However, no significant effects for both TTSG and TTSC were found in the other two directions between LHWS and NS groups. A static phase was cropped using TTSG for each trial, which indicated a phase after participants obtained balance. Outcome measures derived from COP showed no significant effects in the static phase. In conclusion, LHWS weakened balance control ability and postural stability in the M/L direction when compared to the NS group. During the static phase, no significant differences were found between the LHWS group and the NS group in balance control ability and postural stability. Consequently, lateral-worn shoes might increase the risk of fall injuries. The results could serve as an evaluation of shoe degradation for individuals with the aim of avoiding the risk of falls.
... Nigg et al. found that the vertical GRF loading rate increases with speed independent of the cushioning variations, while another study showed unchanged GRF loading rates with footwear of varying cushioning at different speeds, and yet another study showed lower GRF loading rates in harder midsoles with no dependence on running speed [29][30][31]. Running distance or running duration has been considered by five studies [32][33][34][35][36]. None of the studies found significant footwear-by-time/distance interaction effects on vertical GRF loading rates, ground contact times, peak rearfoot eversion angles, and knee flexion angle at initial contact. ...
Injury prevention is essential in running due to the risk of overuse injury development. Tailoring running shoes to individual needs may be a promising strategy to reduce this risk. Novel manufacturing processes allow the production of individualised running shoes that incorporate features that meet individual biomechanical and experiential needs. However, specific ways to individualise footwear to reduce injury risk are poorly understood. Therefore, this scoping review provides an overview of (1) footwear design features that have the potential for individualisation; and (2) the literature on the differential responses to footwear design features between selected groups of individuals. These purposes focus exclusively on reducing the risk of overuse injuries. We included studies in the English language on adults that analysed: (1) potential interaction effects between footwear design features and subgroups of runners or covariates (e.g., age, sex) for running-related biomechanical risk factors or injury incidences; (2) footwear comfort perception for a systematically modified footwear design feature. Most of the included articles (n = 107) analysed male runners. Female runners may be more susceptible to footwear-induced changes and overuse injury development; future research should target more heterogonous sampling. Several footwear design features (e.g., midsole characteristics, upper, outsole profile) show potential for individualisation. However, the literature addressing individualised footwear solutions and the potential to reduce biomechanical risk factors is limited. Future studies should leverage more extensive data collections considering relevant covariates and subgroups while systematically modifying isolated footwear design features to inform footwear individualisation.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-023-00760-x.
... Fourth, the mechanical properties of the shoes are unknown. Adult runners were found to modify running patterns to maintain constant external loads as the running shoe cushioning capacity decreases with more miles run in that pair of shoes (Kong et al., 2009). We did not test the mechanical properties of the participants' shoes nor collect the mileage of the running shoes and differences in shoe properties may need to be considered. ...
... Sci. 2023, 13, 8024 2 of 12 brand new footwear [11]. However, it should be noted that the mechanical parameters of a running shoe can also be altered when used in extreme weather conditions [12]. ...
This study’s aim was to examine the effect of non-Newtonian fluid (NN) shoe and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) shoe on human lower limb biomechanics and muscle activation during running in hot temperatures. Thirty-five men utilizing a rearfoot strike ran 5 km at a self-selected tempo at an average summer temperature of 41.7 ± 1.0 °C and relative humidity of 80.7 ± 3.5%. The kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activation of the right leg were monitored from landing until the pedal was off the ground. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to investigate the main effects of the shoe condition, temperature, and interaction effect. Wearing NN at high temperature resulted in increased hip range of motion (ROM) (p = 0.001). The knee torque increased significantly when wearing EVA and NN shoes after the temperature increased (p = 0.006). When wearing EVA and NN, the ground reaction force (GRF) and loading rate (LR) increased significantly after the temperature increased (p = 0.001; p = 0.009). When wearing NN after running for 5 km at a high temperature, the displacement range of center of pressure (COP) was significantly reduced (p < 0.001), while the EVA was significantly increased (p < 0.001). Neither pair of shoes substantially altered muscle activity. After excluding the factor of fatigue, the increase in temperature not only changed the properties of the material inside the shoe, but also changed the parameters of the biomechanics of the human lower limbs. After the temperature increases, the shoes made of non-Newtonian fluid materials can quickly stabilize under the condition of increased shear stress and reduce the displacement of the human body. Thus, it indicated that non-Newtonian fluid shoes may lower the risk of injury when running in extremely hot conditions.
... Prior research shows that the different hardness of shoe soles has a great influence on the ankle joint and the first metatarsophalangeal joint. Increasing the mid-sole hardness of shoes can reduce the maximum ankle dorsiflexion angle [9,10], increase stability and reduce fatigue [11]. When fatigue is produced, the maximum distance that COP moves in the x and y axes increases, and the average or maximum velocity in the x and y axes increases [12]. ...
The purpose of this study was to compare the differences in shooting performance, physical stability, and lower extremity muscle fatigue in high-level shooters wearing shooting shoes and sports shoes, and to determine the causes. Eight high-level 10 m air pistol shooters wore shooting shoes and sports shoes in a simulated shooting qualification experiment (60 rounds in 75 min) and we recorded shooting scores, pressure centers (COP), and median frequency of muscle fatigue index (MDF). All the data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation and are compared using a paired t-test. Athletes in shooting shoes scored higher than those in sports shoes (p < 0.05); COP moved less in the front-to-back and left-to-right directions for athletes wearing shooting shoes rather than sports shoes; and fewer muscles experienced fatigue, with fatigue also occurring later, for athletes wearing shooting shoes rather than sports shoes. Shooting shoes may reduce the sway of athletes’ center of pressure in the anterior–posterior and left–right directions, enhance postural stability, and result in higher shooting scores. In addition, they may make shooters feel more comfortable and relaxed during long training sessions and competitions.
... Running distance or running time and the response to different midsole hardness have been reported by ve studies (34)(35)(36)(37)(38). None of the studies found signi cant footwear by time/distance interaction effects on vertical GRF loading rates, ground contact times, peak rearfoot eversion angles, and knee exion angle at initial contact. ...
Running shoes were categorized either as motion control, cushioned, or minimal footwear in the past. Today, these categories blur and are not as clearly defined. Moreover, with the advances in manufacturing processes, it is possible to create individualized running shoes that incorporate features that meet individual biomechanical and experiential needs. However, specific ways to individualize footwear to reduce individual injury risk are poorly understood. Therefore, the purpose of this scoping review was to provide an overview of (1) footwear design features that have the potential for individualization; (2) human biomechanical variability as a theoretical foundation for individualization; (3) the literature on the differential responses to footwear design features between selected groups of individuals. These purposes focus exclusively on reducing running-related risk factors for overuse injuries. We included studies in the English language on adults that analyzed: (1) potential interaction effects between footwear design features and subgroups of runners or covariates (e.g., age, gender) for running-related biomechanical risk factors or injury incidences; (2) footwear perception for a systematically modified footwear design feature. Most of the included articles (n = 107) analyzed male runners. Several footwear design features (e.g., midsole characteristics, upper, outsole profile) show potential for individualization. However, the overall body of literature addressing individualized footwear solutions and the potential to reduce biomechanical risk factors is limited. Future studies should leverage more extensive data collections considering relevant covariates and subgroups while systematically modifying isolated footwear design features to inform footwear individualization.
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Background:
Running on sand could be a method for the rehabilitation of individuals with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and pronated feet. However, there is a lack of knowledge about the effects of running on sand on running biomechanics and muscle activities.
Research question:
What is the effect of sand training on running mechanics in individuals with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and pronated feet?
Methods:
Twenty-eight adult males with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and pronated feet were divided into two equal groups (intervention and active control groups). Participants were asked to run at a constant speed of ∼3.2 m/s over an 18 m runway, respectively. Ground reaction forces were recorded using a Bertec force plate. Muscle activities were recorded using a surface bipolar electromyography system.
Results:
In intervention group but not control group, post-hoc analysis demonstrated significantly longer time-to-peak of impact vertical ground reaction force at post-test than that pre-test (p = 0.047). In intervention group but not control group, post-hoc analysis demonstrated significant decreases of semitendinosus activities during push-off at post-test compared with the pre-test (p = 0.005).
Significance:
Sand training improved time-to-peak of ground reaction forces (e.g., time-to-peak of peak of impact vertical ground reaction force) and muscle activities (e.g., semitendinosus activities) in adult males with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and pronated feet.
Ground reaction force (GRF) data were collected on twenty adult males during running stance to establish normative standards to aid in assessment of the gait of atypical runners. Subjects ran between 30 and 40 trials across a Kistler 0.6 X 0.9 m force platform at self-selected speeds ranging from 2.5 to 5.5 m s-1. Best fit polynomials for a given descriptor variable were constructed for each subject and the polynomials were evaluated as a function of running speed. Predicted means and standard deviations (based on the polynomials) were calculated and multivariate analyses of variance were performed. The descriptor variables: impact peak, loading rate, thrust maximum, decay rate, average vertical GRF, change in vertical velocity, braking impulse, propulsive impulse and stance time were determined to be running speed dependent (p less than 0.001). Specific patterns associated with the breaking component of the antero-posterior GRF of heel-strikers included single, double and multiple peaks. Three dimensional graphic displays showed that, despite considerable group variability in medial-lateral GRF-time histories, consistency was evident in the patterns of individuals across speeds. Individual right-left asymmetries were clearly shown in these displays.
Man-shoe-surface interaction in running is a complex phenomenon, and its investigation gives specific requirements for the measuring system. This study was designed to make an effort to develop a methodology for measuring the interaction between the first two components (man and shoe) under normal heel running conditions both on the force plate and on an asphalt road. The force plate system consisted of a series of 1.5-m long plates with a total length of 12 m. This allowed recordings of several natural ground contact phases in one run. By repeating the runs several times at constant velocity (3 m X s-1 and 5 m X s-1), altogether 10-30 Fz and Fx force curves could be obtained for further computerized averaging. The running shoes were equipped with special heel and toe contact sensors, which were used for recordings of even more cycles at constant velocity on the road running conditions. Telemetered EMG technique was employed to examine the response of the selected lower extremity muscles on the varying shoe and running velocity conditions. The results indicated preliminarily that the changes in ground reaction forces were more velocity than shoe (hard/soft) dependent and that EMG activation patterns were muscle specific with regard to preinnervation and impact and push-off phases for the gastrocnemius, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and tibialis anterior muscles. Although the actual measurements were not yet designed for comprehensive recording of each parameter, the results obtained suggest that the major leg extensor muscles change their activation patterns with the varying impact load conditions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The change in shock absorption properties of current running shoe models was studied as a function of miles run. A significant reduction was determined regardless of shoe price or manufacturer. The biomechanical implications of these reductions are discussed.
Running is one of the most popular leisure sports activities. Next to its beneficial health effects, negative side effects in terms of sports injuries should also be recognised. Given the limitations of the studies it appears that for the average recreational runner, who is steadily training and who participates in a long distance run every now and then, the overall yearly incidence rate for running injuries varies between 37 and 56%. Depending on the specificity of the group of runners concerned (competitive athletes; average recreational joggers; boys and girls) and on different circumstances these rates vary. If incidence is calculated according to exposure of running time the incidence reported in the literature varies from 2.5 to 12.1 injuries per 1000 hours of running. Most running injuries are lower extremity injuries, with a predominance for the knee. About 50 to 75% of all running injuries appear to be overuse injuries due to the constant repetition of the same movement. Recurrence of running injuries is reported in 20 to 70% of the cases. From the epidemiological studies it can be concluded that running injuries lead to a reduction of training or training cessation in about 30 to 90% of all injuries, about 20 to 70% of all injuries lead to medical consultation or medical treatment and 0 to 5% result in absence from work. Aetiological factors associated with running injuries include previous injury, lack of running experience, running to compete and excessive weekly running distance. The association between running injuries and factors such as warm-up and stretching exercises, body height, malalignment, muscular imbalance, restricted range of motion, running frequency, level of performance, stability of running pattern, shoes and inshoe orthoses and running on 1 side of the road remains unclear or is backed by contradicting or scarce research findings. Significantly not associated with running injuries seem age, gender, body mass index, running hills, running on hard surfaces, participation in other sports, time of the year and time of the day. The prevention of sports injuries should focus on changes of behaviour by health education. Health education on running injuries should primarily focus on the importance of complete rehabilitation and the early recognition of symptoms of overuse, and on the provision of training guidelines.
The enhancement of performance in stretch-shortening exercises has been attributed to the recoil of elastic energy stored during the stretching phase. If the time between stretching and shortening (coupling time) is too long the stored elastic energy can be wasted. In the present study, coupling time was increased by asking ten male subjects to run on a treadmill at different speeds (2.2–5.2 m × s-1) using special soft shoes in addition to normal shoes. The results indicated that running with soft shoes required greater energy consumption than running with normal shoes except at slow speed (2.2 m × s-1). When the running speed was increased the extra energy consumed using soft shoes was parallelly enhanced (0.4 J × kg-1/step at 5.2 m × s-1). It was suggested that the effect of coupling time as limiting factor for recoil of elastic energy was relevant in fast twitch (FT) fibers, which were progressively recruited when the running speed was increased. This is consistent to the fact that cross-bridge life time in FT fibers is very short, and therefore more sensitive to coupling time. At slow running speed (2.2 m ×s s-1) only slow twitch (ST) fibers were recruited and the enhancement of coupling time was not long enough to provocate detachment of cross-bridges of ST fibers, which possess a long cross-bridge life time. It was concluded that the different recruitment of ST and FT fibers influenced the pattern of recoil of elastic energy which was dependent on the running speed.
The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of repeated in vivo loading on shock attenuation and mediolateral stability of running shoes using ground reaction force data. Six healthy subjects were each given a new pair of running shoes and asked to run 140 km between each of four experimental sessions. Ground reaction force data were collected for 10 successful trials/session using an A.M.T.I. force platform system. The mean values for selected ground reaction force parameters were evaluated using a single subject repeated measures design based on a 95% confidence interval. Mean parameter group data were also evaluated. The results support previous findings that material properties of the systems evaluated deteriorated resulting in a loss of shock absorbing capabilities (7.3%) but the magnitudes of the losses were far less than previously reported results (23-40%). The reason for this discrepancy is presumed to be the result of the different loading and evaluation methods used in the present study. The results also suggest that these changes are not totally deleterious since foot control seems to improve as cushioning is lost and foot control accounts for at least half of running shoe related injuries. A further implication of these results is that the initial "feel" or performance characteristics of a shoe may be misleading since reasonable functional changes appear to occur during the initial 300-400 km of wear.J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1988;10(2):47-53.
In a randomized prospective study among 390 recruits, the hypothesis that improved shoe shock attenuation could lessen the incidence of overuse injuries was tested. During the 14 weeks of training, 90% of the recruits sustained overuse injuries. Recruits training in a modified basketball shoe had a statistically significant lower incidence of metatarsal stress fractures and foot overuse injuries, compared with standard infantry boots, but their overall incidence of overuse injuries was not reduced. The effect of improved shoe shock attenuation was limited to those overuse injuries resulting from vertical impact loads.
Running is one of the most popular leisure sports activities. Next to its beneficial health effects, negative side effects in terms of sports injuries should also be recognised. Given the limitations of the studies it appears that for the average recreational runner, who is steadily training and who participates in a long distance run every now and then, the overall yearly incidence rate for running injuries varies between 37 and 56%. Depending on the specificity of the group of runners concerned (competitive athletes; average recreational joggers; boys and girls) and on different circumstances these rates vary. If incidence is calculated according to exposure of running time the incidence reported in the literature varies from 2.5 to 12.1 injuries per 1000 hours of running. Most running injuries are lower extremity injuries, with a predominance for the knee. About 50 to 75% of all running injuries appear to be overuse injuries due to the constant repetition of the same movement. Recurrence of running injuries is reported in 20 to 70% of the cases. From the epidemiological studies it can be concluded that running injuries lead to a reduction of training or training cessation in about 30 to 90% of all injuries, about 20 to 70% of all injuries lead to medical consultation or medical treatment and 0 to 5% result in absence from work. Aetiological factors associated with running injuries include previous injury, lack of running experience, running to compete and excessive weekly running distance. The association between running injuries and factors such as warm-up and stretching exercises, body height, malalignment, muscular imbalance, restricted range of motion, running frequency, level of performance, stability of running pattern, shoes and inshoe orthoses and running on 1 side of the road remains unclear or is backed by contradicting or scarce research findings. Significantly not associated with running injuries seem age, gender, body mass index, running hills, running on hard surfaces, participation in other sports, time of the year and time of the day. The prevention of sports injuries should focus on changes of behaviour by health education. Health education on running injuries should primarily focus on the importance of complete rehabilitation and the early recognition of symptoms of overuse, and on the provision of training guidelines.
