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Ecological Learning Theory
Abstract
Ecological learning theory is an attempt to understand learning not just by analyzing and describing the psychological mechanisms that mediate learned behavior, but also by understanding how these mechanisms might have evolved, what selection pressures might have contributed to this evolution, and what biological function that learning serves. To this extent, learning cannot be fully understood without some knowledge of a range of individual species, their ecological niche and lifestyle—and this is quite different from the concentrated study of single species (such as the laboratory rat) which was practiced by traditional general process theory. . . . Overall there were four main goals to the coverage of this book: (1) a comparative analysis of basic learning processes, (2) an analysis of the biological function of various learning processes, (3) a discussion of the way in which evolutionary processes and selection pressures might have shaped different learning capacities, and (4) description of some of the proximal mechanisms (mainly cognitive) that we believe mediate some forms of learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Nevertheless, while there has been disagreement as to whether anagenetic changes occur within grades or clades (Gottlieb, 1984), whether they apply to changes in parallel or convergent evolutionary processes (Yarczower & Hazlett, 1977), or whether such changes reflect our own anthropocentric views of the universe (Huxley, 1942(Huxley, , 1957, the concept still plays a role in discussions of evolution (e.g., Devillers & Chaline, 1993; Futuyma, 1987;Gould & Eldredge, 1993;Panchen, 1992). Current usage appears to uniformly refer to progressive evolutionary change (Davey, 1989;Panchen, 1992, 1993: Scott-Ram, 1990). ...
... Thus, it seems clear that such comparisons are not absurd but they can be quite useful. Davey (1989) recently suggested that anagenetic analysis by grade provides a solution to the criticisms of Hodos and Campbell (1969) about "capricious" comparisons. Such analysis requires the elucidation of the (subjective) criteria used to identify different grades. ...
... Improved information processing was earlier recognized by Pantin (1951) to be a crucial indicator of evolutionary advance. Davey's (1989) second example is Holldobler and Wilson's (1983) description of progressively improved nest construction by some formacine ants in which higher grades are represented by improved ...
... Accommodating the general learning theory approach to the new findings was not providing a sustainable explanation of the question why animals show such marked differences in learning. A radical rethinking of the principles of the general learning theory was necessary if those "constraints on learning" were to be integrated into any predictive theoretical framework (Davey, 1989;Bolles, 1985). ...
... The theoretical and methodological tools of the comparative approach to learning, based on the concept of anagenesis and on the practice of comparing learning capabilities of closely and distantly related species, encountered criticisms and voices of disapproval (see Davey, 1989). According to the argument put forward in (Hodos and Campbell, 1969), in (Lockard, 1971), and in (Johnston, 1985b) the most evident limit of the comparative approach refers to the fact that those studies were carried out by selecting animals which were not representative of a common evolutionary lineage. ...
... Although probably no comparative psychologist believed in the (impossible) phylogenetic sequence goldfish-rat-cat-monkey-human, some psychologists of the period did write as if such a sequence could serve as the basis for an evolutionary account of learning. (see Johnston, 1985b, p. 448) At the beginning of the eighties, several learning theorists pushed further the assumptions of the biological boundaries approach, and developed the ecological approach to learning (Johnston and Pietrewicz, 1985;Davey, 1989;Shettelworth, 1984;Shettleworth, 1994). Contrary to the assumption of the comparative approach, the ecological approach suggests to treat each instance of learning as a unique species-niche-specific adaptive response shaped by selective pressures to fulfil particular requirements posed by the environment. ...
... In contrast, adaptive-evolutionary accounts of Pavlovian conditioning have emphasized behavior, especially the relation of the conditional response to the form and orientation of naturally occurring functional behavior and relevant underlying structure and processes (e.g., Davey, 1989;Fanselow & Lester, 1988;Gardner & Gardner, 1988;Holland, 1984;Hollis, 1982Hollis, , 1990Konorski, 1967;Rozin & Schull, 1988;Timberlake, 1983b;Timberlake & Lucas, 1989;Timberlake & Silva, in press). In this approach, establishing the perceptual-motor organi-Completion of this manuscript was facilitated by NIMH Grant 37892 and NSF Grant IBN 91 21647. ...
... Learning versus performance. In part because of its concern with the form of responding and lack of focus on associations, there is a tendency to view the behavior systems approach as having to do with performance rather than learning (see, e.g., Davey, 1989). It is true that learning in a behavior system is not defined precisely in terms of a particular set of procedures or an exact number of associations; however, a behavior system both suggests what forms learning may take and serves as a framework for defining learning and relating it to behavior. ...
... Though initially it was generated differently, the behavior systems approach can readily be seen as an extension of Tinbergen's hierarchical model that focuses more on learning and spends more effort separating the priming effects of motivation from the specific temporal and sequential organization ofbehavior (Timberlake & Silva, in press). This approach also shares important assumptions and goals with a number of psychologists interested in combining laboratory and field techniques in the study of naturally occurring learning (Bolles, 1970;Davey, 1989;Garcia & Garcia y Robertson, 1985;Hollis, 1990;Kamil, 1988;Shettleworth, 1993). ...
Associative and behavior systems accounts of Pavlovian conditioning have different emphases. The traditional associative account has focused on the role of the unconditional stimulus (US) in strengthening stimulus associations according to a set of general laws. The behavior systems account has focused on the relation of conditional responding to the preorganized perceptual, motor, and motivational organization engaged by the US. Knowledge of a behavior system enables successful prediction of the form and ease of conditioning as a function of the type of conditional stimulus (CS), US, and the CS-US relation. At the same time, Pavlovian manipulations act as a window on how a behavior system works. Both associative and behavior systems accounts can be criticized as incomplete and idiosyncratic. A comprehensive account of Pavlovian conditioning could profit from their integration.
... In most first-order conditioning studies which have used postconditioning UCS revaluation procedures (both appetitive and aversive) the results have suggested that the animal learns a CS-UCS association, and that the CR is mediated by the animal's evaluation of the UCS (cf. Rescorla, 1980; Dickinson, 1980; Davey 1989a, for reviews of these studies). While implying that animals generally learn CS-UCS associations in simple first-order conditioning procedures (some second-order conditioning procedures may, however, produce more reflexive S-R learning; cf. ...
... The first is by direct experience with the UCS alone, and is one which has been generally used with animals. By direct experiences with the UCS an individual may reassess an aversive UCS more favorably (through, for example, processes of habituation, e.g., Davey & McKenna, 1983), or, alternatively, the aversiveness of the UCS may be inflated by, for instance, experience with a similar UCS of greater intensity (e.g., White & Davey, 1989). A second method involves socially or verbally transmitted information about the UCS. ...
... Analysis of higher order conditioning in animals using postconditioning stimulus revaluation procedures (see above) has revealed that secondorder CRs are less susceptible to revaluation of either the UCS or CSl (Holland & Rescorla, 1975; Rescorla, 1973, 1977; Rizley & Rescorla, 1972). This suggests that, once established, the second-order CR is much more " reflexive " and not mediated by a representation of the UCS (but see Nairne & Rescorla, 1981; Rashotte, Griffin, & Sisk, 1977; Davey, 1989a, pp. 117-120 for more detailed analyses). ...
This paper is an attempt to consider classical conditioning models of human fears and phobias in a contemporary context, and to consider how conditioning models might be of some theoretical help in this area. The paper covers (i) a contemporary review of the basic phenomena of human conditioning, (ii) a comparison of conditioning processes in humans and animals, (iii) a description of a contemporary model of human conditioning designed to accommodate recent research findings, (iv) a re-examination of the traditional criticisms of conditioning accounts of phobias in the light of this contemporary model, (v) a discussion of some of the features of fears and phobias that this model can address, and (vi) a brief discussion of the scope of this model and some implications for the treatment of clinical fears and phobias.
... Similar findings have been reported for hamsters and gerbils (Gormezano and Wasserman 1998). These investigators, however, did not address pattern discrimination, a task that is considered to have greater ecological relevance to most mammals that possess adequate visual capacities (Davey 1989). The sugar glider, Petaurus breviceps, a marsupial pollinator, is found in New Guinea and eastern and northern Australia (Strahan 1995). ...
... In addition, there are no experimental studies on learning for this species. Indeed, few studies on learning and memory exist for marsupials in general (Davey 1989;Gormezano and Wasserman 1998). ...
We studied the effects of prenatal protein malnutrition on visual discrimination learning in males of Petaurus breviceps using a Lashley box. Gliders were malnourished or adequately nourished during the prenatal period when their mothers received diets containing low (8%) or adequate (32%, controls) amounts of a protein (casein) throughout pregnancy. The mean weight of adequately nourished neonates was significantly higher (0.47 g ± 0.05 SE) than malnourished neonates (0.31 ± 0.02 g). Animals were first trained to discriminate between black or white stimulus cards affixed to 2 hinged doors. Second, cards containing horizontal or vertical stripes were presented. Finally, cards containing a circle or a square were presented. Gliders received food if they pushed through the door with the correct stimulus card and jumped onto a vertical platform. Malnourished (low-protein) subjects made significantly more errors on all tasks. Analyses of covariance indicated that differences in performance were not a function of body weight.
... Maze-learning experiments are best suited for animals that exhibit high levels of locomotor activity (Brattstrom 1990;Punzo 2002); in this sense, C. parva is an excellent model. It has been argued that spatial-learning tasks, as exemplified by complex mazes, represent ecologically relevant tasks for cursorial animals (Burghardt 1977;Davey 1989). Results of this study indicate that males of C. parva have the ability to learn this type of spatial task. ...
... The energetic costs associated with finding food, mates, or escape routes can be reduced if more efficient routes can be learned through experience (Able 1991;Punzo 2002). This in turn would allow an animal to invest more energy in reproduction and reduce the probability of encounters with predators, resulting in an overall increase in fitness (Davey 1989;Gormezano and Wasserman 1992;Kimichi and Terkel 2001;Papaj and Lewis 1993;Tillé et al. 1996). Most shrews are known to locate their food primarily by foraging on the ground (or just beneath the surface) in a thorough fashion, using olfactory and tactile cues to detect a variety of invertebrates (Churchfield 1994;Crowcroft 1954). ...
This study examined spatial-learning ability of the least shrew, Cryptotis parva, in a complex maze and the effects of senescence on spatial learning and maximal running speeds. This represents the 1st such study on these parameters for soricids. Shrews from 3 age groups, juvenile (20–23 days old), young but sexually mature (50–54 days), and senescent (20 months), were tested in a maze containing 5 blind alleys. The number of blind-alley errors was recorded during a 10-day training period. On the 1st day of training, there was a significant difference in performance between senescent (123.4 errors ± 14.1 SE) and young (68.9 ± 5.8 errors) shrews and between senescent and juvenile shrews (74.3 ± 7.2 errors). During the 10-day period, there was a significant decrease in mean number of errors: from 74.3 to 3.3 for juvenile shrews, 68.9 to 2.4 for young shrews, and 123.4 to 16.6 for senescent shrews. There was no significant difference in decrease in errors between juvenile and young shrews. Young shrews had significantly higher maximal running speeds (15.3 km/h ± 3.2 SE) in a racetrack as compared with senescent shrews (8.8 ± 2.7 km/ h). These results demonstrate for the 1st time that aging impairs running speed and spatial-learning ability in C. parva and that these 2 parameters may be related.
... Consider a project exploring "learning" across species. In such a project, biologists, ecologists, and psychologists confront the challenge of reconciling their diverse, discipline-specific definitions: biologists may emphasize evolutionary adaptations (e.g., Lorenz, 1969), ecologists may focus on the organism-environment interaction (e.g., Davey, 1989), and psychologists may be primarily concerned with cognitive processes (e.g., Dickinson, 1980). When deciding on the research methodology, there could be disagreements on whether to prioritize observations of natural behaviours in the wild or controlled experiments that manipulate environmental variables to observe behavioural responses (for a discussion on the different levels of analysis in ethology, see Tinbergen, 1963). ...
Big Team Science (BTS) offers immense potential for comparative cognition research, enabling larger and more diverse sample sizes, promoting open science practices, and fostering global collaboration. However, implementing BTS in comparative cognition also presents unique challenges, such as making comparisons “species fair,” dealing with multi-site variation, reaching consensus among researchers from diverse backgrounds, and incentivizing participation in BTS. Here, we explore these challenges and propose potential solutions. These include capitalizing on the collective expertise of a diverse team to facilitate species-fair experimental designs, implementing thorough documentation and data analysis techniques to account for cross-site variability, employing consensus-building strategies to foster collaboration and address theoretical discrepancies, and advocating for the value of BTS contributions in promoting cultural shifts within academia. We conclude that BTS is well-positioned to pave the way for groundbreaking discoveries in comparative cognition research—BTS holds the potential to transform the field by leveraging its collaborative power and addressing long-standing and highly complex questions with unprecedented scope.
... Derivado de lo anterior, es importante estudiar cómo la conducta contribuye a la evolución de las especies. Se ha propuesto que los mecanismos conductuales pueden promover la adaptación a condiciones cambiantes mediante el control, capacidad predictiva y selección de conductas efectivas (Davey, 1989), explotación eficiente de recursos disponibles (Plotkin, 1988), selección y construcción de nichos (Odling-Smee, 1988; ción adaptativa al apego se sustenta o no empíricamente (Carrillo, 2011). ...
Los principios de selección han mostrado su aplicabilidad y muestran una sorprendente capacidad analítica y predictiva de los fenómenos en múltiples niveles. En psicología, Donald Campbell aplicó el concepto de selección natural al aprendizaje (1974), y en forma similar Skinner (1981) argumentó tres niveles de selección: biológica, operante y cultural,
enfatizando la capacidad de la teoría evolutiva de alcanzar múltiples niveles explicativos.
Otros psicólogos como James (1890/1981) y Piaget (1979), han buscado incorporar la teoría de la evolución en la comprensión de la mente y la conducta, con variados grados de éxito y aceptación de sus comunidades académicas. En economía, la distribución de los recursos está en la base de la construcción de la teoría evolutiva de Darwin y la teoría matemática de juegos ha sido un espacio de encuentro entre la teoría evolutiva y esa
disciplina. Sin embargo, recientemente se ha desarrollado un área denominada economía
evolucionista que se plantea problemas importantes sobre la aplicabilidad de los principios evolutivos a los sistemas económicos (Hernández, 2011; Hodgson, 1993). Ninguna de estas disciplinas conductuales carece de teoría; más bien cuentan con un conjunto amplio de teorías que no están integradas y que requieren de una teoría de nivel superior que ofrezca
las bases para entender fenómenos diversos que responden a mecanismos muy relacionados que actúan en niveles diferentes, pero que comparten una organización
que refleja la unidad y estrecha relación que observamos en el universo. Esa teoría es la teoría de la evolución propuesta por Charles Darwin y que se ha constituido en la más revolucionaria de las visiones sobre nuestro mundo, con la capacidad de dar sentido integrativo a la biología, la psicología y, en general, a las ciencias del comportamiento.
... As a means of adaptation, learning provides animals with the ability to adjust to changes in their habitat and exploit novel resources (Davey, 1989). The influence of learning on adaptation (and ultimately on an animal's fitness) is supported by recent discoveries in neuroscience that demonstrate how seeking behaviors activate a global appetitive state and facilitate reward based learning (Alcaro and Panksepp, 2011). ...
Human-carnivore conflict is presently on the rise as human populations continue to grow and carnivore conservation efforts gain precedence. The behaviors exhibited by carnivores that cause conflict are often learned; therefore, reducing learning potential though the use of non-lethal tools is important for coexistence. In this study we measured how prior experience (i.e., conditioning) influenced the motivation and persistence of captive wolves (Canis lupus) seeking a food reward by quantifying latency to first behavior and duration of behavior for two behavior groups: investigative and work behaviors. Latency to first behavior was faster in conditioned wolves for both investigative (11 times faster; P = 0.0491) and work (4 times faster; P = 0.0112) behaviors, indicating prior experience motivated wolves to overcome neophobic behaviors and facilitated learning to access rewards more quickly. We found little difference in duration for both investigative (P = 0.3194) and work behaviors (P = 0.7016), indicating conditioned and non-conditioned wolves will spend similar amounts of time trying to obtain a reward once a behavior is initiated. When wolves were unable to attain food rewards, we found that the duration of both investigative (P = 0.0631) and work (P = 0.0609) behavior declined over the course of three weeks for both non-conditioned (37.3% and 92.6% decline in investigative behaviors and work behaviors, respectively) and conditioned (59.5% and 88.2% decline in investigative behaviors and work behaviors, respectively) wolves, indicating decreased persistence with the application of a secure prevention measure. Overall, our results indicate that the use of non-lethal tools that prevent animals from attaining anthropogenic food can effectively curb learning in carnivores and help reduce human-carnivore conflict.
... Further work concerning a near set approach to adaptive learning will include a study behavioural ecology (see, e.g., Davidson-Hunt, 2003;Davey, 1989;Dieckmann, Law, Metz, 2000;Drayson, 2002;Fiennes, 2002;Wilson, 1990, 1994;Hosler, 2000;Krebs and Davies, 1984;Lansing, 1979;Sloman, Wilson and Balshine, 2006;Tinbergen , 1972). From the work of Selfridge (1984) and Watkins (1989), it is apparent a better understanding of adaptive learning results from observing the behaviour of biological organisms. ...
The problem considered in this chapter is how to use the observed behavior of organisms as a basis for machine learning. The proposed approach for machine learning combines near sets and ethology. It leads to novel forms of Q-learning algorithm that have practical applications in the controlling the behavior of machines, which learn to adapt to changing environments. Both traditional and new forms of adaptive learning theory and applications are considered in this chapter. A complete framework for an ethology-based approximate adaptive learning is established by using near sets.
... Nonetheless, it is important to note that the theoretical perspective on fear conditioning has changed over the past decades. Researchers no longer conceptualize fear conditioning as simple reflex-like stimulus-response learning; instead they consider it to be a process during which individuals learn that one stimulus (the conditioned stimulus [CS]) is likely to predict the occurrence of another stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus [UCS]), which, in turn, will elicit a conditioned response under certain conditions (Davey, 1989;Field, 2006;Mackintosh, 1983). During this process, previous experiences with the CS, as well as the subjective evaluation of the UCS, are considered as important determinants of whether fear conditioning will occur. ...
We review issues associated with the phenomenology, etiology, assessment, and treatment of specific phobias in children and adolescents and provide suggestions for future research and clinical practice. In doing so, we highlight the early case studies of Little Hans and Little Albert and the advances that have been made following the publication of these seminal cases. In recent years, we have witnessed a deeper understanding of the etiology of specific phobias and developed a rich array of evidence-based assessments and treatments with which to address specific phobias in youth. Although much has been accomplished in this area of inquiry, we also note that much remains to be done before we can advance more fully our understanding, assessment, and treatment of specific phobias in youth. It will be important for future work to build more firmly on these developments and to better determine the moderators and mediators of change with our evidence-based treatments and to more vigorously pursue their dissemination in real-word settings.
... The ability to learn is a behavioral capacity whose evolution is usually explained through the action of natural selection (e.g. Staddon, 1983; Marler & Terrace, 1984; Bolles & Beecher, 1988; Davey, 1989; Miller & Todd, 1990). However, a vital component of the learning process is also the environment. ...
Orthodox Darwinism assumes that environments are stable. There is an important difference between breeding (Darwin’s role model of evolution) and evolution itself: while in breeding the final goal is preset and constant, adaptation to varying biotic and abiotic environmental conditions is a moving target and selection can be highly fluctuating. Evolution is a cybernetic process whose Black Box can be understood as learning automaton with separate input and output channels. Cybernetics requires a closed signal loop: action by the system causes some change in its environment and that change is fed to the system via information (feedback) that enables the system to change its behavior. The input signal is given by a complex biotic and abiotic environment. Natural selection is the output/outcome of the learning automaton.
Environments are stochastic. Particularly, density- and frequency-dependent coevolutionary interactions generate chaotic and unpredictable dynamics. Stochastic environments coerce organisms into risky lotteries. Chance favors the prepared. The ‘Law of Requisite Variety’ holds that cybernetic systems must have internal variety that matches their external variety so that they can self-organize to fight variation with variation. Both conservative and diversifying bet-hedging are the risk-avoiding and -spreading insurance strategies in response to environmental uncertainty. The bet-hedging strategy tries to cover all bases in an often unpredictable environment where it does not make sense to “put all eggs into one basket”. In this sense, variation is the bad/worst-case insurance strategy of risk-aversive individuals. Variation is pervasive at every level of biological organization and is created by a multitude of processes: mutagenesis, epimutagenesis, recombination, transposon mobility, repeat instability, gene expression noise, cellular network dynamics, physiology, phenotypic plasticity, behavior, and life history strategy. Importantly, variation is created condition-dependently, when variation is most needed – in organisms under stress. The bet-hedging strategy also manifests in a multitude of life history patterns: turnover of generations, reproductive prudence, iteroparity, polyandry, and sexual reproduction.
Cybernetic systems are complex systems. Complexity is conceived as a system’s potential to assume a large number of states, i.e., variety. Complex systems have both stochastic and deterministic properties and, in fact, generate order from chaos. Non-linearity, criticality, self-organization, emergent properties, scaling, hierarchy and evolvability are features of complex systems. Emergent properties are features of a complex system that are not present at the lower level but arise unexpectedly from interactions among the system’s components. Only within an intermediate level of stochastic variation, somewhere between determined rigidity and literal chaos, local interactions can give rise to complexity. Stochastic environments change the rules of evolution. Lotteries cannot be played and insurance strategies not employed with single individuals. These are emergent population-level processes that exert population-level selection pressures generating variation and diversity at all levels of biological organization. Together with frequency and density-dependent selection, lottery- and insurance-dependent selection act on population-level traits.
The duality of stochasticity and selection is the organizing principle of evolution. Both are interdependent. The feedback between output and input signals inextricably intertwines both stochasticity and natural selection, and the individual- and population-levels of selection. Sexual reproduction with its generation of pre-selected variation is the paradigmatic bet-hedging enterprise and its evolutionary success is the selective signature of stochastic environments.Sexual reproduction is the proof of concept that (epi)genetic variation is no accidental occurrence but a highly regulated process and environmental stochasticity is its evolutionary “raison d’être”.Evolutionary biology is plaqued by a multitude of controversies (e.g. concerning the level of selection issue and sociobiology. Almost miraculously, these controversies can be resolved by the cybernetic model of evolution and its implications.
... Many other learning principles that are well-studied in rats and pigeons have yet to be investigated thoroughly in other species or in naturalistic settings—even, for example, an apparently ubiquitous phenomenon of great practical importance: matching. Some have argued that general process approaches have failed (e.g., Davey, 1989), but this conclusion seems unwarranted. On the physiological side, evolutionarily early mechanisms of learning and their genetic bases may not have been conserved; at the least, these early mechanisms must have been substantially altered. ...
Gottlieb's developmental psychobiology book provides a base for reexamining the place of the experimental analysis of behavior in the life sciences. His experimental program demonstrating the critical function of the environment in the development of a species-typical behavior helped force an acceptance of probabilistic epigenesis, the acknowledgment that the developmental genome-environment system is fully interactional. (Indeed, nature vs. nurture is deader than a doornail.) The repercussions for evolutionary biology and the roles and categorizations of genes, behavior, and environment in behavior-environment relations are explored in light of current knowledge, including specific implications for the experimental analysis of behavior.
... Laboratory maze trials can provide an ecologically relevant way to examine spatial perception and recollection [51]. Least shrews are fossorial animals that inhabit the interface of soil and plant litter in a variety of natural habitats [26]. ...
Geological substrates and air pollution affect the availability of calcium to mammals in many habitats, including the Adirondack Mountain Region (Adirondacks) of the United States. Mammalian insectivores, such as shrews, may be particularly restricted in environments with low calcium. We examined the consequences of calcium restriction on the least shrew (Cryptotis parva) in the laboratory. We maintained one group of shrews (5 F, 5 M) on a mealworm diet with a calcium concentration comparable to beetle larvae collected in the Adirondacks (1.1 ± 0.3 mg/g) and another group (5 F, 3 M) on a mealworm diet with a calcium concentration almost 20 times higher (19.5 ± 5.1 mg/g). Animals were given no access to mineral sources of calcium, such as snail shell or bone. We measured running speed and performance in a complex maze over 10 weeks. Shrews on the high-calcium diet made fewer errors in the maze than shrews on the low-calcium diet (F1,14 = 12.8, p < 0.01). Females made fewer errors than males (F1,14 = 10.6, p < 0.01). Running speeds did not markedly vary between diet groups or sexes, though there was a trend toward faster running by shrews on the high calcium diet (p = 0.087). Shrews in calcium-poor habitats with low availability of mineral sources of calcium may have greater difficulty with cognitive tasks such as navigation and recovery of food hoards.
... Spiders, as small invertebrates, are also presumably limited in their cognitive abilities (Davey 1989). Assessment appears costly cognitively because it requires the ability to categorize individuals, which is a complex cognitive process (Gould & Marler 1987). ...
Fighting is costly. Therefore, it is to an animal's advantage to assess the abilities of its opponent and compete more strongly against weaker competitors and avoid contests with stronger competitors. However, assessment may also be difficult or costly, making it sometimes advantageous for the animal to avoid direct assessment. This study examines male–male contests over access to females in the spider Argyrodes antipodiana. Pairs of naive males in their first contest were more likely to escalate that contest if the pair consisted of large males. Thus large males were inherently more likely to escalate contests than small males. Second, males that had had experience at winning contests were more likely to win subsequent contests against spiders of the same size who had had experience at losing contests. These trained spiders responded differently from the onset of the contest suggesting that their experience had altered their perception of their chance of winning the current contest. These two results suggest means by which direct assessment may be reduced, and yet observed interactions could still follow predictions from game theory models. Mechanisms by which experience may reduce assessment are discussed.
... Spiders, as small invertebrates, are also presumably limited in their cognitive abilities (Davey 1989). Assessment appears costly cognitively because it requires the ability to categorize individuals, which is a complex cognitive process (Gould & Marler 1987). ...
Fighting is costly. Therefore, it is to an animal's advantage to assess the abilities of its opponent and compete more strongly against weaker competitors and avoid contests with stronger competitors. However, assessment may also be difficult or costly, making it sometimes advantageous for the animal to avoid direct assessment. This study examines male–male contests over access to fe-males in the spiderArgyrodes antipodiana. Pairs of naive males in their first contest were more likely to escalate that contest if the pair consisted of large males. Thus large males were inherently more likely to escalate contests than small males. Second, males that had had experience at winning contests were more likely to win subsequent contests against spiders of the same size who had had experience at losing contests. These trained spiders responded differently from the onset of the contest suggesting that their experience had altered their perception of their chance of winning the current contest. These two results suggest means by which direct assessment may be reduced, and yet observed interactions could still follow predictions from game theory models. Mechanisms by which experience may reduce assessment are discussed.
... Previous attempts to resolve the tension between evidence for some forms of species-general learning mechanisms, and the undoubted primacy in animal behavior of what Shettleworth calls "evolved predispositions" include the book by Gallistel 4 , which is frequently referenced, as well as that by Davey. 5 Shettleworth's text is encyclopaedic in scope, measured in its opinions, and written in a more accessible style than either of these predecessors. Its range, recency and reasoned advocacy should be widely welcomed. ...
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... Given the prevalence of learning in the animal kingdom, one may assume that learning occurs because it is evolutionarily adaptive (Pappini, 2002). However, with few exceptions (Davey, 1989), investigators have not spelled out exactly how learning contributes to reproductive fitness. The present study examined whether learning can contribute to reproductive fitness in a particularly challenging situation—when two males compete to fertilize the gametes of a single female. ...
Learning and other common psychological processes presumably evolved because they contribute to reproductivefitness, but reproductive outcomes are rarely measured in psychology experiments. We examined the effects of Pavlovianconditioning onreproductivefitness in a sperm-competition situation. Typically, two males mat- ing with the same female in immediate succession sire similar numbers of offspring. In a study with domesticated quail (Coturnix japonica), we increased paternity success by presenting a Pavlovian signal that permitted one of two competing males to predict copulatory opportunity. Using microsatellite-based DNA fingerprinting, we found that signaled males sired 72% of the offspring when competing with control males, and this effect was independent of copulation order. In the absence of Pavlovian condition- ing, rates of fertilization were not significantly different for two males that copulated with the same female. These findings demonstrate that Pavlovian conditioning con- tributes to reproductive fitness and suggest that individual past experience can bias genetic transmission and the
... If this is true, the best approach to training a new species would be to imitate research with other species (usually the methods used with a rat or a chinchilla). Recent research on learning suggests that there is a need to look at an animal's normal responses to the stimuli and the reinforcer or reward (reviewed in Davey 1989). For example, if the animal is normally a forager for food, it makes sense to give it a task (response) that involves active food seeking. ...
While there are now large bodies of research in both human psychoacoustics (reviewed in Vol 3 of this series) and nonhuman mammalian auditory physiology and anatomy (reviewed in Vols 1 and 2), the understanding of mammalian hearing has been handicapped by a failure to integrate these two areas of research. Many human psychoacoustic papers attempt to account for, and model, human psychophysical performance based on some convenient selection of nonhuman mammalian anatomical and physiological measures of hearing, without determining whether the animals perceive sounds in the same way as the human subjects. Although the mammalian auditory system has several components in common across species, there can be extreme differences when the auditory system is modified due to an animal’s specialized use of sound (see Echteler, Chapter 5). For example, the cochlea of the greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum) departs significantly from that of other species (reviewed in Pollak and Casseday 1989), and estimates of frequency resolution (Long 1977, 1980a,b) and frequency discrimination (Heilmann-Rudolf 1984) from this species reflect these differences. These specializations are related to the use of sound for echolocation. Humans also use sounds in a very sophisticated way in speech perception, and it is probable that the human auditory system is also specialized (especially in the frequency region associated with speech).
... The ability of animals to learn to carry out simple tasks in order to gain a reward, such as food, exemplifies a type of adaptive behaviour referred to as instrumental or operant learning (Skinner 1938; Davey 1989). Thus, self-feeding can be seen as a case of instrumental learning, in which positive reinforcement is achieved by dispensing food each time a trigger is actuated (Alanärä 1996). ...
Among other applications, self-feeding has been used to study food preferences in fish allowing them to
choose between feeders with different food content. Preference tests assume that (i) trigger actuations are motivated by appetite, (ii) fish can learn which feeder contains which food and discriminate between feeders solely on the basis of their content, and (iii) in groups of fish, the triggering preferences is representative for the individuals of the group. We studied individual triggering behaviour in four groups of 14 Atlantic cod (length of 34 ± 2 cm, weight of 424 ± 102 g, mean ± SE, water temperature comprised between 7−8 ◦C) that were first given the choice between two self-feeders with identical content (Period 1 of 14 days) and subsequently with one feeder full and the other empty (Period 2 of 14 days) . In all four groups, one or two individuals performed the majority of the actuations, and in three groups the high triggering fish was a female high-ranked for size and growth rate. Cod displayed a preference for one of the two feeders despite their identical content. When the preferred feeder was emptied, the preference switched after one to eight days but both feeders were still actuated throughout the experiment. In conclusion, the assumption that actuation frequency reflects food preference and is representative for the individuals of the group may not be true, at least for Atlantic cod. If aiming at determining preferences representative for the whole population multiple representative fish should be kept isolated in separate tanks, with self-feeders containing each food option, on each tank.
... Postrelease survival of adult black-footed ferrets might be improved if all young were reared in pens whether they were immediately destined for release or for the captive breeding program. A type of phase-specific learning (Davey, 1989) in which an animal may " imprint " on features of its habitat during a critical period of development has not been investigated for ferrets, but differences in postrelease survival and movements of ferrets as a result of rearing history (Vargas, 1994; Biggins and others, 1998, 1999) arouse suspicion. Even if imprinting is not involved, cultural transmission of important behaviors may be enhanced by a natural environment (Biggins, 2000). ...
A successful captive breeding program for highly endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) has resulted in surplus animals that have been released at multiple sites since 1991. Because reproductive output of captive ferrets declines after several years, many adult ferrets must be removed from captive breeding facilities annually to keep total production high. Adults are routinely released, with young-of-the-year, on prairie dog (Cynomys spp.) colonies. We evaluated postrelease movements and survival rates for 94 radio-tagged young and adult ferrets. Radio-tagged adult ferrets made longer movements than young ferrets during the night of release and had significantly lower survival rates for the first 14 days. Coyotes (Canis latrans) caused the largest number of ferret losses. A larger data set of 623 ferrets represented adults and young that were individually marked with passive integrated transponders but were not radio tagged. Minimum survival rates, calculated primarily from ferrets detected during spotlight searches and identified with tag readers, again were significantly lower for adults than for young ferrets at 30 days postrelease (10.1 percent and 45.5 percent survival, respectively) and at 150 days postrelease (5.7 percent and 25.9 percent). Assessment of known survival time by using linear modeling demonstrated a significant interaction between age and sex, with greater disparity between adults and kits for females than for males. Postrelease survival of adult ferrets might be increased if animals were given earlier and longer exposure to the quasi-natural environments of preconditioning pens.
... There is clear evidence that certain stimulus configurations in animals are naturally fear evoking. Such configurations include rapid jerky movements, speed, looming shadows, staring eyes, rapid movement towards, etc. (cf., Davey, 1989;Russell, 1979). If one or more of these fear-evoking cues is an integral perceptual characteristic of spiders, then it would not be theoretically necessary to identify arbitrary aversive experiences in the anamnesis of spider fears. ...
Study 1 examined the characteristics of spider fear in 118 undergraduate and postgraduate students. Questionnaire data classified Ss depending on their attitude toward spiders and whether it had changed over time. Ss who had at some time been fearful of spiders seemed to possess an integrated set of characteristics that differed fundamentally from characteristics possessed by Ss who had never been frightened of spiders. Questionnaire data collected from 118 undergraduate and postgraduate students in Study 2 show that spider fears were not associated with higher levels of generalized anxiety. Spider fears were associated only with increased fear of other animals, but only those that are normally considered fear- or disgust-evoking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Nevertheless, the hypothesis suffers the same criticisms as traditional preparedness theory itself, not the least of which is the difficulty in identifying the selection pressures involved in the evolution of learning abilities, which consequently makes difficult the identification of fear-relevant or prepared stimuli (cf. Davey, 1989a;Hailman, 1976). ...
Experiments investigating differential unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS) expectancy during fear-relevant (prepared) and fear-irrelevant (unprepared) stimuli revealed that (1) a UCS expectancy bias is apparent before conditioning, (2) initial differential UCS expectancy appears in spite of instructions informing the Ss of no UCS presentations, (3) differential UCS expectancies to fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant stimuli dissipate with continued nonreinforcement, (4) differential UCS expectancies may be translated into differential skin conductance responses (SCRs) under certain conditions, (5) both UCS expectancy and SCR measures show similar patterns of behavior in the traditional preparedness paradigm, and (6) experiencing conditioned stimulus/stimuli (CS)–UCS pairings appears to reinstate a UCS expectancy bias after it has extinguished. These results are discussed as support for an expectancy model of laboratory preparedness effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Because evolution selects only for outcomes, not for mechanisms, convergent similarity may be achieved with di¤erent mechanisms that thereby reveal their functional relevance for the property in question. Properties found to correlate with particular ecological conditions are called 'adaptive profiles' (Dewsbury et al. 1982), indicating that a species must exhibit these attributes for success in a particular ecological niche (Davey 1989). We understand language and language-like communication as part of an adaptive profile. ...
We review the present knowledge of instrumental, developmental, and communicative parallels between birdsong and language. Birdsong and hu-man language turn out to be convergently evolved 'adaptive profiles'. Such convergencies are indispensable for our understanding of why and how these properties came into being at all. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant emphasized in 1803 tradition in birdsong in parallel with human culture. We specify the role of tradition in birds' vocal repertoire, syntax, and se-mantics. Comparing birdsong with human language embeds the hitherto purely anthropocentric approach to language into a causal evolutionary framework and helps to identify the selective forces as well as the ecological factors that forged the evolution of language and language-like communi-cation.
... The suggestion is that different categories of affect are associated with different levels of complexity in the structures and processes that support different classes of mind. Animal psychology and comparative ethology can help here in identifying the broad categories of mind (Davey 1989, Gibson and Ingold 1993, McFarland 1993, Toates 1998). Rolls (1999) provides four broad categories of brain complexity: mechanisms for taxes (for example reward and punishment); mechanisms capable of stimulus response learning via taxes; mechanisms capable of stimulus reinforcement association learning and twofactor learning; and finally explicit systems that guide behaviour through syntactic operations on semantically grounded symbols. ...
What is mind? A straightforward answer is that which decides what to do next. How does a mind decide what to do next? A straightforward answer is by processing, acting and sensing. What does a mind sense? Everything? What is processed? Everything? How is everything processed? In every possible way? What actions are selected? Every action? Ten simple questions and two straightforward if rather mischievous answers. In this article differences in the nature and requirements of biological and synthetic minds is investigated in terms of control: control over what is sensed; control over how that is perceived; control over how those perceptions are processed; and control over how this epistemic flow leads to control over actions. No straightforward answers to any of the questions posed are presented. Rather, different perspectives on how investigations into these questions are used to present the thesis that some means of valencing the mind is necessary. In short this article considers how the economics of thought and action reside in the currency of affect.
... Strong predispositions and constraints on learning, be it learning about kin phenotype, song, local environment features, or site, smell, and color of flowers, have been identified in many different species (see Garcia & Koelling 1966;Wilcoxon et al., 1971;Dukas, 1998;McNeely & Singer, 2001;Papaj & Prokopy, 1989;Craig, 1994). The specificity of the nature of learning (namely, evolved predisposition) led, at the beginning of the 1980s, to the development of the ecological approach to learning, which, although with a few exceptions (see Bitterman, 2000;Macphail, 2001), has gathered a large consensus among learning theorists (see Johnston & Pietrewicz, 1985;Davey, 1989;Johnston & Turvey, 1980). The ecological approach developed around the assumption that each instance of learning must be treated as a specialized capability shaped by selective pressures, and understandable only by reference to the ecology of the animal or its ancestor. ...
We are interested in the construction of ecological models of the evolution of learning behavior using methodological tools developed in the field of evolutionary robotics. In this article, we explore the applicability of integrated (i.e., nonmodular) neural networks with fixed connection weights and simple "leaky-integrator" neurons as controllers for autonomous learning robots. In contrast to Yamauchi and Beer (1994a), we show that such a control system is capable of integrating reactive and learned behaviour without explicitly needing hand-designed modules, dedicated to a particular behavior, or an externally introduced reinforcement signal. In our model, evolutionary and ecological contingencies structure the controller and the behavioral responses of the robot. This allows us to concentrate on examining the conditions under which learning behavior evolves.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of antecedent-based intervention in the ecological assessment process on the maladaptive behaviors of students with intellectual disabilities. The participants were second-grade middle school students with intellectual disabilities who are enrolled in a special school. The subjects' personal, environmental, and teacher-related factors were analyzed using ecological assessment- direct observation, reviews of existing records, interviews, questionnaires, and functional analysis. The antecedent-based intervention was developed based on the results of ecological assessment. There were three types of challenging behaviors: seat breakaway, noise generation, and task interruption. These behaviors were observed and recorded using the partial interval recording method(20-second intervals comprising 17-second observations with 3-second recordings). Multiple-baseline research design, a type of single-subject design, was employed across three participants for baseline, intervention, and maintenance phases. The data were analyzed using six visual analysis methods: level of data, trend, distribution of data, immediacy effect, percentage of non-overlapping data, and persistence of data. These methods were recently suggested by What Works Clearinghouse (Kratochwill et al., 2013) as quality indicators for single-subject research designs. The results showed that antecedent-based intervention in the ecological assessment process significantly decreased the challenging behaviors of students with intellectual disabilities during art class through a comparison of the intervention interval. The mean value of challenging behaviors was significantly less in all subjects, the percentage of non-overlapping data (PND) value was 100%, and Tau-U value was -1.00, indicating that the effects of the intervention were significant. Compared to the baseline value, the PND value between the baseline and maintenance was 100%, indicating that the intervention effects were significantly consistent. These analyses were discussed in terms of educational implications to apply in special education practices.
Classical conditioning has been well studied in social Hymenoptera, exploring how members of a colony gain foraging benefits from learning to associate various stimuli. While some of this work has been extended into Blattodea, learning in eusocial termite societies has not been well documented. Termites mainly rely on chemical cues for feeding; thus, they would be predicted to associate odor with food. In this study, we tested the ability of species Zootermopsis angusticollis to learn via classical conditioning. We used a natural odorant in conjunction with sugar water to attempt to elicit a feeding response. Termites were individually exposed to our unconditioned and conditioned stimuli through a series of trials, after which the response to the conditioned stimulus alone was recorded and compared to controls. We found that those trained exhibited a significantly greater frequency of feeding responses to the conditioned stimulus. Thus, Z. angusticollis can associate a novel odor with food.
In this study, behavioral plasticity in harbor seals was investigated in spatial reversal learning tasks of varying complexities. We started with a classic spatial reversal learning experiment with no more than one reversal per day. The seals quickly learned the task and showed progressive improvement over reversals, one seal even reaching one-trial performance. In a second approach, one seal could complete multiple reversals occurring within a session. Again, a number of reversals were finished with only one error occurring at the beginning of a session as in experiment 1 which provides evidence that the seal adopted a strategy. In a final approach, reversals within a session were marked by an external cue. This way, an errorless performance of the experimental animal was achieved in up to three consecutive reversals. In conclusion, harbor seals master spatial, in contrast to visual, reversal learning experiments with ease. The underlying behavioral flexibility can help to optimize behaviors in fluctuating or changing environments.
The case of the “biological constraints” movement in mid-20th-century psychology provides a reminder of the weight of psychology’s reliance on theory and theory-driven methods. By 1980, a critical mass of demonstrations of the specificity of learning had eroded faith in general-process approaches. A common reaction was to call for a biological orientation. However, this proved not as straightforward as it had seemed, and much of the ostensibly biological research that followed was atheoretical. The successes in this context were due to careful theoretical work by people who appreciated the aims of the involved sciences and the interdependence of the aims with methods. Michael Domjan slowed the field’s haphazard rush into ostensible biological research, and rather urged adoption of principled biological approaches. In 1982, his positive recommendation was for comparative psychology to begin to live up to its name, and adopt principled comparative methods as practised in biology. Although lauded, few followed this recommendation. Indeed, even Domjan’s own subsequent research was mostly not comparative in the way he had described, but rather involved single species, guided by a behaviour systems approach. With reference to two major perspectives associated with Domjan—comparative methods and behaviour systems theory—I present Domjan’s challenge not as being to make our field comparative per se, but to make it theoretical. This challenge remains current.
Urbanization imposes novel challenges for wildlife, but also provides new opportunities for exploitation. Generalist species are commonly found in urban habitats, but the cognitive mechanisms facilitating their successful behavioral adaptations and exploitations are largely under-investigated. Cognitive flexibility is thought to enable generalists to be more plastic in their behavior, thereby increasing their adaptability to a variety of environments, including urban habitats. Yet direct measures of cognitive flexibility across urban wildlife are lacking. We used a classic reversal-learning paradigm to investigate the cogni-tive flexibility of three generalist mesocarnivores commonly found in urban habitats: striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and coyotes (Canis latrans). We developed an automated device and testing protocol that allowed us to administer tests of reversal learning in captivity without extensive training or experimenter involvement. Although most subjects were able to rapidly form and reverse learned associations, we found moderate variation in performance and behavior during trials. Most notably, we observed heightened neophobia and a lack of habituation expressed by coyotes. We discuss the implications of such differences among generalists with regard to urban adaptation and we identify goals for future research. This study is an important step in investigating the relationships between cognition, generalism, and urban adaptation.
Human disturbance of Antarctic penguins is an important aspect of Antarctic conservation. It is a phenomenon which has raised concern for several decades, and has prompted the creation of guidelines for human behaviour which aim to minimise disturbance to these and other Antarctic animals. Disturbance effects of human activities have often been cited as if they were well-understood and self-explanatory; however, little theoretical or empirical research has attempted to establish their true nature, or to clarify such baseline issues as what disturbance means and when it becomes significant. Answers to these questions are offered, based on Nimon and Dalziel's (1992) concept of human-animal interaction, and values espoused in recent documents such as the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. A framework for inquiry in this field is described. The new approach focuses on penguin behaviour, and involves specifying a) what stimulus aspects of human presence affect penguins, b) the changes in behaviour they evoke, and c) the processes by which these changes are produced. This animal behaviour approach is then applied to published reports of human-Antarctic penguin interactions in an attempt to identify the general principles that underlie such interaction. Human disturbance is divided into three categories, the first of which is effects induced by aircraft. The discussion suggests that aircraft may represent a variety of changing stimuli, and that penguin response to human-induced stimuli will be affected by learning and situational variables such as breeding phase. The second category, approach and handling by humans, attempts to resolve contradictory conclusions in the literature, and suggests a model which may identify changing stimulus features evoked during such behaviour. The third category, an examination of effects induced by scientific methods, concludes that both penguin behaviour and welfare may be affected by studies, a finding which has implications not only for the field of disturbance research, but also for our understanding of the natural behaviour of the birds. Based on a literature review, the arguments presented are hypothetical and must be tested. Whether further inquiry supports or rejects these conclusions, this. review encourages awareness and clarifies the issues with which researchers must deal.
The capability of animals to alter their behaviour in response to novel or familiar stimuli, or behavioural flexibility, is strongly associated with their ability to learn in novel environments. Reptiles are capable of learning complex tasks and offer a unique opportunity to study the relationship between visual proficiency and behavioural flexibility. The focus of this study was to investigate the behavioural flexibility of red-footed tortoises and their ability to perform reversal learning. Reversal learning involves learning a particular discrimination task, after which the previously rewarded cue is reversed and then subjects perform the task with new reward contingencies. Red-footed tortoises were required to learn to recognise and approach visual cues within a Y-maze. Once subjects learned the visual discrimination, tortoises were required to successfully learn four reversals. Tortoises required significantly more trials to reach criterion (80% correct) in the first reversal, indicating the difficulty of unlearning the positive stimulus presented during training. Nevertheless, subsequent reversals required a similar number of sessions to the training stage, demonstrating that reversal learning improved up to a point. All subjects tested developed a position bias within the Y-maze that was absent prior to training, but most were able to exhibit reversal learning. Red-footed tortoises primarily adopted a win-stay choice strategy while learning the discrimination without much evidence for a lose-shift choice strategy, which may explain limits to their behavioural flexibility. However, improving performance across reversals while simultaneously overcoming a position bias provides insights into the cognitive abilities of tortoises.
The work of Paul H. Schiller is generally treated in a fragmentary manner. There is no comprehensive overview of his oeuvre. I review the system developed by Schiller and the research related to it and relate both to the work of other researchers. Schiller’s system was organized around innate motor patterns and the manner in which they are integrated into functional patterns of action related to the environment. His diverse studies are cited in various contexts and it is especially interesting to note how a single result can be adapted to different contexts. Although Schiller died in 1949 many aspects of his work are relevant to research in comparative psychology in the 1990s.
While theories of rationality and decision making typically adopt either a single-powertool perspective or a bag-of-tricks mentality, the research program of ecological rationality bridges these with a theoretically-driven account of when different heuristic decision mechanisms will work well. Here we described two ways to study how heuristics match their ecological setting: The bottom-up approach starts with psychologically plausible building blocks that are combined to create simple heuristics that fit specific environments. The top-down approach starts from the statistical problem facing the organism and a set of principles, such as the bias- variance tradeoff, that can explain when and why heuristics work in uncertain environments, and then shows how effective heuristics can be built by biasing and simplifying more complex models. We conclude with challenges these approaches face in developing a psychologically realistic perspective on human rationality.
The aim of the present paper is to evaluate the use of self-feeders in rainbow trout production. The basic idea with self-feeders is that the fish themselves control the feeding level, which is thereby set by their feeding motivation. To determine the limitations of the technique, this work has focused on characterising: (1) how self-feeding activity is related to food demand; and (2) how the self-service food supply is related to growth and feed conversion ratios.For the feeding system to function correctly, rainbow trout must first learn how to operate it. Trout reared in tanks in groups of 100–300 individuals require about 25 days to reach a stable level of self-feeding. Under large-scale rearing conditions (e.g. in cages with group sizes of 1000–2000 ind.), however, learning seems to be of minor importance for the ability of fish to operate the system. When reared in small tanks in groups of up to about 300 ind., self-feeding activity in trout is strongly influenced by the development of dominance hierarchies. Under such situations, a small number of fish will dominate the actuation of the trigger and thereby have a disproportionately greater influence on the food supply of the group as a whole. Any change in temperature is quickly followed by a corresponding change in self-feeding activity up to about 15 °C. Above this temperature, trout lower their activity, indicating that self-feeding activity reaches a maximum at around 15 °C. The reward level (amount of food received in response to one trigger actuation) is the single most important factor requiring proper adjustment in order to optimise growth and feed conversion ratios when using self-feeding systems. The optimal reward is discussed in relation to differences in dietary energy content, number of fish, and water temperature. High-density conditions reduce the self-feeding activity of trout, and the recommended maximum rearing density is about 30 kg m−3. An evaluation of growth and feed conversion data indicates that self-feeders have the potential to function well with rainbow trout under commercial rearing conditions.
Bumblebees are capable of rapidly learning discriminations, but flexibility in bumblebee learning is less well understood. We tested bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) on a serial reversal learning task. A serial reversal task requires learning of an initial discrimination between two differentially rewarded stimuli, followed by multiple reversals of the reward contingency between stimuli. A reduction in errors with repeated reversals in a serial reversal task is an indicator of behavioural flexibility. Bees were housed in a large indoor environment and tested during foraging flights. Testing free-flying bees allowed for large numbers of trials and reversals. All bees were trained to perform a simultaneous discrimination between two colours for a nectar reward, followed by nine reversals of this discrimination. Results showed that bumblebees reduced errors and improved their performance across successive reversals. A reduction in perseverative errors was the major cause of the improvement in performance. Bees showed a slight increase in error rate in their final trials, perhaps as a consequence of increasing proactive interference, but proactive interference may also have contributed to the overall improvement in performance across reversals. Bumblebees are thus capable of behavioural flexibility comparable to that of other animals and may use proactive interference as a mechanism of behavioural flexibility in varying environments.
Food choice by Cherax quadricarinatus was measured from video recordings of the time spent feeding on decayed plant material and zooplankton. Crayfish within the size range 20–75 mm spent a significantly longer time feeding on plant material, whilst crayfish at independent stage 1 (with yolk) did not spend a significantly different time at either of the two food types. Plant material, but not zooplankton, was often picked up to be consumed near or within shelters, which is consistent with ease of handling of plant material and with shelter dependence shown by redclaw crayfish.
This paper addresses the assumption, implicit in many robot and animat models of learning, that learning and unlearning are a pair of symmetrical processes. Unlearning mechanisms supposedly erase or remove existing learning because it is no longer relevant. Whether learning and unlearning result from the operation of symmetrical and antagonistic processes is an issue which has had a long but uneven history in animal and human psychology. This history is briefly recapitulated here. In particular, there is a contrast in the significance of the antagonistic processes model in the area of motivation compared to associative learning which has theoretical significance. For example, animat modelers frequently adopt a generic strengthening and weakening mechanism for all forms of learning and motivation representations without any consideration for its biological and psychological validity. In order to evaluate and question this, we examine the unlearning concept in a number of artefactual models drawn from a range of robotic and artificial life perspectives, and discuss their validity in terms of contemporary models of animal learning and motivation. Finally, we outline an alternative view of learning/unlearning, based on a recent contingency model of causality learning in humans, which does not rely on antagonistic processes and may have applications for artefacts.
Insects process and learn information flexibly to adapt to their
environment. The honeybee Apis mellifera constitutes a traditional model
for studying learning and memory at behavioural, cellular and molecular
levels. Earlier studies focused on elementary associative and
non-associative forms of learning determined by either olfactory
conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex or the learning of visual
stimuli in an operant context. However, research has indicated that bees
are capable of cognitive performances that were thought to occur only in
some vertebrate species. For example, honeybees can interpolate visual
information, exhibit associative recall, categorize visual information
and learn contextual information. Here we show that honeybees can form
`sameness' and `difference' concepts. They learn to solve `delayed
matching-to-sample' tasks, in which they are required to respond to a
matching stimulus, and `delayed non-matching-to-sample' tasks, in which
they are required to respond to a different stimulus; they can also
transfer the learned rules to new stimuli of the same or a different
sensory modality. Thus, not only can bees learn specific objects and
their physical parameters, but they can also master abstract
inter-relationships, such as sameness and difference.
This study was conducted to determine if early feeding experience can affect subsequent prey choice in lynx spiderlings (Oxyopes salticus). After emergence from the egg sac, three groups of 10 spiderlings were each fed exclusively for a one-week period on one of three naturally-occurring prey species (crickets): group 1 fed on nymphs of Oecanthus californicus; group 2 (Neobarrettia spinosa); group 3 (Ceuthophilus conicaudus). Following this, they were tested for subsequent prey preference in choice tests conducted in a plastic arena. Each spiderling was presented simultaneously with one individual of each prey species in a randomized design. Spiderlings exhibited a significant first preference for the original diet. Thus, experience with certain foods encountered by newly hatched spiderlings can affect subsequent prey preference in this species.
Theorists of learning, regulation, and evolution explain behavior using remarkably different concepts because of pressures toward specialization, a focus on testing simple causal theories that underconceptualize the contributions of the organism and its environment, and the absence of a working model capable of surviving in a complex environment. We add suggestions for the development and testing of such a model.
A review of data concerning the uneven distribution of phobias suggests that nonassociative, ethological models can account for most of tile important findings that cannot be attributed to expectancy biases. The origin of a variety of fears that appear in fixed developmental patterns across divergent cultures and species can best be explained by biological models.
Red porgies (Pagrus pagrus) of 20.6±1.5 g mean weight were reared in tanks under four delayed self-feeding conditions (0=control, 7, 30 and 90 s) after rod activation. The time intervals were chosen to simulate the time taken for a commercial pelleted feed to transit the tube linking a surface-mounted feed hopper and the depth at which a cage might be submerged. Daily feeding rate, growth, food conversion index and condition factor were quite similar but fish behaviour differed among conditions. Fish remained close to the feeding point in the first two treatments (0 and 7 s delay) but foraged more widely in the remaining treatments (30 and 90 s delay), only reconsolidating around the feeding point a few seconds before feed was released. Results are discussed in relation to learning capacity and adaptation of fish to feeding behaviour flexibility, in order to develop reliable self-feeding systems suitable for submerged cages.
IntroductionClassical conditioningEmotional learningSpatial cognitionConcluding remarksAcknowledgementsReferences
Temperature changes can be especially threatening for ectotherms, such as Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera: Drosophilidea Meigen, 1830), and in this study we tested whether flies can associate olfactory stimuli with a sudden drop in temperature. Such Pavlovian conditioning would allow them to make appropriate behavioural and/or physiological responses in the future. We found that exposing individual flies to one of two odours in the presence of a sudden drop in temperature resulted in Pavlovian conditioning with flies subsequently avoiding the odour paired with cold. The characteristics of Pavlovian conditioning in flies were comparable to those observed for mammalian species. Specifically, the strength of conditioning increased with increasing intensity of the cold and decreased as the time interval between the olfactory stimulus (CS) and cold (US) was lengthened. Finally, the order in which CS and US were presented affected the strength of conditioning. Learning was observed when the CS preceded US and when the US immediately preceded the CS, but not when the CS preceded the US by 30 s or more. These results provide further evidence for learning in individual flies, and confirm that Pavlovian conditioning is a general mechanism used by organisms to obtain information about their environment.
IntroductionPioneering studiesClassical conditioningEmotional learningSpatial cognitionConclusions
Acknowledgements
Operant conditioning was used to investigate how primates discriminate between odor qualities. Eight artificial food flavors,
selected from either a “Fishy” or “Aroma/Fruity” category, were used. During the presence of one of the two odors S+ or S−,
the monkey was reinforced by pushing a response key when S + was presented. The tufted capuchins discriminated most accurately
when both odors were Aroma. Discrimination was more accurate when S+ was Fruity odor and S− was Fishy odor. When both odors
were Fishy, discrimination could not be acquired in 20 sessions. All of the flavors used, except apple, were novel for the
subjects, which suggests that capuchins can innately discriminate among them. The data also suggest that Aroma odors are more
salient than Fishy odors. The results also suggested an innate aversion to Fishy odors.
Orangutans share many intellectual qualities with African great apes and humans, likely because of their recent common ancestry.
They may also show unique intellectual adaptations because of their long evolutionary divergence from the African lineage.
This paper assesses orangutan intelligence in light of this evolutionary history. Evidence derives from observations of juvenile
ex-captive orangutans reintroduced to free forest life by the Wanariset Orangutan Reintroduction Project, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia. The intellectual qualities shared by great apes and humans point to a distinct “great ape” intelligence with hierarchization
as a pivotal cognitive mechanism. Evolutionary reconstructions jibe with this view and suggest that technically difficult
foods may have been key selection pressures. Orangutans should then show hierarchical intelligence when obtaining difficult
foods. Evidence on ex-captive orangutans' techniques for processing difficult foods concurs. Intellectual qualities distinct
to orangutans may owe to arboreal travel pressures; in particular arboreality may aggravate foraging problems. Evidence confirms
that ex-captive orangutans' techniques for accessing difficult foods located arboreally are intellectually complex—i.e. they
show hierarchization. These findings suggest other factors probably important to understanding great ape and orangutan forms
of intelligence and their evolutionary origins.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.