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Why Aren't More Women in Science? Top Researchers Debate the Evidence
Abstract
Why aren't more women pursuing careers in science, engineering, and math? Is the lack of women in these fields a consequence of societal discouragements, innate differences in ability between the sexes, or differences in aspirations? These questions always spark a host of other questions--and a multiplicity of answers--all of which have important implications for gender equality and for retaining the nation's competitiveness in the technological marketplace. The most reliable and current knowledge about women's participation in science is presented in this collection of 15 essays written by top researchers on gender differences in ability. The contributors were chosen to reflect the diversity and complexity of views on the topic, about which knowledge has been accumulating and evolving for decades. The editors provide an introduction that defines the key issues and embeds them in historical context and a conclusion that synthesizes and integrates the disparate views. Taken together, the book makes a convincing case that sex differences are neither as unambiguous as earlier researchers suggested nor as insubstantial as some current critics claim. Sex differences in career choices are definitely not inevitable, as the past 30 years have documented both a sea change in the gender makeup of various fields and fluctuations in ability-score differences between the sexes. However, as the essays make clear, such changes leave open the possibility of cultural and biological bases for today's sex differences in science, engineering, and math participation. Written to appeal to students and nonspecialists as well as psychologists and other social scientists, the contributors reframe this key controversy and challenge readers' emotional and political biases through solid empirical science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Research suggests that science ranks among the most challenging subjects in schools (Drew, 2011;Dweck, 2006;National Academies of Science, 2011). A sense of competence in teaching science, often referred to as teachers' self-efficacy in the subject, is critical for the success of science teachers (Grindrod et al., 1991;Skamp, 1995). ...
... First, TSI represents a belief that needs to be translated into actionable teaching practice to impact students' behavior and learning outcomes. Second, Science is viewed as one of the more challenging subjects in secondary schools (Drew, 2011;Dweck, 2006;National Academies of Science, 2011). Taking both factors into consideration, the inquiry-based science teaching approach may be too demanding for some students (Halim et al., 2021;Yildiz & Yildiz, 2021). ...
Inquiry-based science teaching has emerged as a prominent trend in science education. Nevertheless, it remains uncertain how teachers' self-efficacy in regard to the teaching of science as inquiry (TSI) affects students' science learning, especially considering the scarcity of research on its impact on students' Science Process Skills (SPSs). To investigate the impact of teachers' TSI on students' SPSs, this study conducted a questionnaire survey involving 539 eighth-grade students and 75 teachers from 7 junior high schools. Our Multilevel Model analysis results revealed a positive correlation between students' creative tendencies and SPSs. The results of the Cross-Level Moderation Models indicated that TSI moderated the relationship between students' creative tendencies and their SPSs, with this relationship strengthening as TSI increased. These study findings carry significant implications for both inquiry-based science education and teacher education.
... Growth Mindset Despite the literature that underscores the important role of endorsing a growth mindset (Dweck, 2007), this finding was only for American Indian and Alaska Native girls in our sample and was associated with being on a STEM pipeline. For the other groups, growth mindset was not a predictive factor. ...
... For instance, a growth mindset has been associated with higher academic achievement and mathematics performance (Blackwell et al., 2007;Yeager & Dweck, 2012). With regard to fixed mindsets, Dweck (2007) found girls more susceptible to underperforming when endorsing a fixed mindset. Perhaps examining task and motivational outcomes would provide insight on the role of racial/ethnic minority girls' growth mindset. ...
Racial/ethnic minority girls have a history of being underrepresented in STEM. Yet, there is a dearth of research that identifies the mathematics experiences that predict being on a STEM pipeline. Analyzing data from the Educational Longitudinal Study (ELS: 2002), we examined the relationship between mathematics attitudes, beliefs, and enrichment activities and being on a STEM pipeline among racial/ethnic minority girls. The findings indicated that for Black and Latinx girls, higher levels of mathematics self-efficacy beliefs were associated with being on a STEM pipeline. For American Indian/Alaska Native girls, endorsing a growth mindset was associated with being on a STEM pipeline. For Asian, Hawaii/Pacific Islander girls, mathematics enjoyment was associated with being on a STEM pipeline. Yet, endorsing higher levels of participation in mathematics enrichment activities and mathematics self-efficacy beliefs was associated with lower endorsements of being on a STEM pipeline for Black and American Indian/Alaska Native girls, respectively. Results build on previous work by highlighting important mathematics experiences that impact being on a STEM pipeline for racial/ethnic minority girls.
... This includes the works of Stoet et al. [26], Henriksen et al. [27], Mainhard et al. [28], and Menacho et al. [29]. Methodologically, some studies relied on qualitative approaches such as an extensive review of the literature and interviews (such as Warsito et al. [30], Martinez et al. [31], and Yu et al. [32]), whereas others deployed quantitative approaches primarily through questionnaires (such as Cesi and Williams [33], Tandrayen-Ragoobur and Gokulsing [34], and Makarova et al. [35]). ...
Gender equality is a concept that is synonymous with debates towards economic and societal advancement, as manifested through the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal 5. This study sets out to identify the key indicators driving gender equality in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education and employment in Jordan. This area is both critical and timely in light of emerging challenges facing technological advancement, progressive economies, and wider societal inclusion strategies within the professional environment. This study predominantly employs a quantitative methodology, utilising a survey to evaluate and rank a comprehensive set of indicators/challenges associated with gender equality in the published literature. Feedback is gathered from both male and female participants. The findings of this study reveal certain categories and indicators that are highly ranked compared with others, with practical aspects such as workplace conditions and professional treatment, societal norms and gender stereotypes, and professional perceptions and underlying gender bias being more predominant in Jordan. This study also revealed differing challenges facing gender equality in employment compared with the ones faced in education. This finding resonates with the historical trajectory of academic progress in STEM fields in Jordan, and its divergence emphasises the need for a nuanced exploration to advance gender equality in STEM effectively.
... Ceci and Williams [7] provide an overall view of the main empirical evidence that currently exists on gender bias in science. An indicative example provided in their book demonstrates one study in which the same curriculum was signed ...
The aim of this study is to present the findings of a qualitative study aiming at capturing key stakeholders’ perceptions with regard to: (a) gender equality in academia and the workplace; (b) challenges, needs, and experiences in academia and workplace with regard to gender. This research captures the current situation of gender equality in the fields of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) and provides a deep understanding of the needs, challenges and experiences both men and women encounter in academia vis-a-vis the industry. Forty-one interviews were conducted in Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Slovenia, and Spain. Data collected demonstrate a variety of challenges faced by all genders in the workplace and in academia, as well as the need for more concrete actions that will allow for a gender-balanced perspective to be heard in the STEM fields. Implications for practitioners, policymakers and researchers are also provided.
... For instance, it is of interest what proportion of prokaryotic names honour a person, and whether this proportion has changed over time, and how these names were formed. Moreover, while the number of women working and participating in science is quite high, the highest and most respected positions are still held by men [12]. However, the proportion of women in senior and managerial positions has steadily increased globally in recent years [13]. ...
The aim of this study is to analyse prokaryotic names which honour persons, eponyms, from a gender perspective. Data were retrieved from the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature. Excluding new combinations, the etymologies of 23 315 unique names at the rank of genus, species and subspecies were analysed. A total of 2018 (8.7 %) names honour persons (eponyms), for which the development of the female share over time was further investigated. Women started to be honoured very recently (1947) compared to men (1823). Moreover, only 14.8 % of all prokaryotic eponyms refer to females. This ratio has hardly improved since 1947, although the number of women whose contributions to microbiology could have been recognized has increased over time. In contrast, about 50 % of prokaryotic names derived from mythological characters refer to females. To reduce this gender gap, we encourage authors proposing new taxon names to honour female scientists who can serve as role models for new generations.
... Women are underrepresented in STEM (Ceci & Williams, 2007;Hill et al., 2010) and it has been an issue especially in higher education (Ong et al., 2011). Around 50% of the U.S. Bachelor's degrees and Master's degrees in mathematics were earned by women in 2014, but only 28.9% of the population of the U.S. doctorate degrees are women (National Science Foundation, 2017). ...
Social Network Analysis is a method to analyze individuals' social accessibility and power. We adapt it to change inequitable issues in STEM postsecondary education. Equity issues in mathematics education, such as underrepresented women and racial disparities, are prevalent. With the social capital perspective, we investigate the demographic characteristics of influential students and their social networks. Seventeen participants are undergraduate students in an inquiry-oriented linear algebra course. The number of nominations on discussion boards as "Shout-out" is data to measure influence and map the social network. By analyzing data with UCINET, we found that (1) the most influential students are non-White males and the principal components of the network are male-dominant, and (2) there is a female-dominant small cluster and female students have reciprocal networks. This study suggests further discussions of (1) how discussion boards position students with the social capital perspective and (2) intersectionality, especially for women of color.
... Finally, research shows that females are underrepresented in the upper performance segments. Although female and male talent share the same learning potential, the former is identified as talented less frequently (Petersen, 2013), and is underrepresented in many fields at top performance levels (Ceci & Williams, 2007;Meyer et al., 2015;Upson & Friedman, 2012) including in STEM (Lincoln et al., 2012;Stoeger et al., 2016). Some data may illustrate the gender gaps in top positions. ...
Purpose In many STEM fields, the intersectionality of gender and excellence is a frequently noted phenomenon, i.e., women are underrepresented in STEM in general and specifically, at the top. Role models presumably play a key part in closing this equity gap. However, these are not available in sufficient numbers. Many researchers have suggested better outreach to female talents by integrating the arts into STEAM. One possibility might be that such an integration would make more female role models available to STEAM talent pools. (82) Design/methodology/approach We explored the availability of potential role models for female talents by analysing the ten most prestigious awards in STEM and the arts over the past 42-plus years using a 2 X 2 X 2 X 10 hierarchical log-linear analysis. Variables were gender (female vs.
... This seems to be explained mainly by women's higher psychological burdens when studying under pressure. This complements earlier research findings that women perform less well under pressure (Dweck 2007;Montolio and Taberner 2021), by emphasising that pressure also increases women's psychological burdens. ...
This paper aims to understand how study conditions impact men and women’s dropout intentions differently. As a first step, we analyse the gendered impact of three aspects of study conditions that were at the centre of the Bologna Process: achievement norms, the structure of the curriculum and practical components in the study programme. As a second step, we aim to understand how individual-level differences between men and women (performance, academic self-efficacy and perceived psychological burdens) mediate this gendered impact of study conditions on dropout intentions. We use the German Student Survey data (2000–2016), which allows for valid measurement of study conditions at the subject group level. Our results show that women’s dropout intentions tend to increase in study contexts with high achievement norms, while men benefit more than women from highly structured study contexts. The practical component, in turn, lowers the dropout intentions of both groups equally.
... Before discussing the themes, it is important to keep in mind that biological differences have no influence on the gender gap. According to Ceci and Williams (2007), modulation, human cognitive development, and human evolution have found no significant biological difference in men's and women's ability to perform in science and mathematics. Blickenstaff (2005) points out that there is no link between brain size and intelligence, as researchers realized that when corrected for overall body mass, men and women have brains of equal size. ...
There has been a prolonged tendency of the gender gap in interest, participation, and achievement in science worldwide. This article explored the gender gap in achievement of science; revisited the possible causes of gender gap in interest, participation and achievement in science; and revisited the suggested remedy measures in a science classroom. The information for the study was collected through a survey of a variety of 48 written sources. The study revealed that there is a significant gender gap in achievement in science in secondary schools in Tanzania. The responsible factors include male-oriented curriculum materials, patterns of classroom interaction, teaching, and evaluation; parents and teachers' lower expectations for girls' achievement in science; and socialisation of girls into dependence, nurturance, and passivity. The recommended solutions include the promotion of gender-responsive curriculum and practice.
... Previous studies have found that teachers hold lower expectations for youth with a disability classification, even when compared to youth with similar behaviors and achievement levels (Allday et al., 2011;Ohan et al., 2011;Shifrer, 2013). Biases related to ability may be especially virulent in math spaces because of the tendency in the United States to perceive math aptitude as something innate rather than something attainable to all through hard work (Archer et al., 2010;Dweck, 2007). Youth with learning disabilities may end high school with poorer math outcomes than adolescents without a learning disability but similar levels of prior achievement (Shifrer, 2016;Shifrer et al., 2013), in part because of their marginalization within math. ...
This study integrates an intersectional framework with data on 15,000 U.S. ninth graders from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 to investigate differences in ninth-grade math course placement at the intersection of adolescents’ learning disability status, race, and socioeconomic status (SES). Descriptive results support an increased liability perspective, with the negative relationship between a learning disability and math course placement larger for adolescents more privileged in terms of their race and/or SES. Adjusted results suggest that the lower math course placements of youth with learning disabilities are due to cumulative disadvantage rather than disability-related inequities in the transition to high school for youth of diverse racial and socioeconomic backgrounds. In addition to demonstrating the importance of intersectional perspectives, this study provides a roadmap for future studies by introducing the new perspective of increased liability to be used in conjunction with the widely employed perspective of multiple marginalization.
... "Entity theorists" think that a trait like science skill is static, unchanging over time, and unable to be influenced (ibd., p. 28). Evidence shows that girls give up faster than boys because we tell girls they are good at an activity rather than that they worked hard (Dweck 2007). Boys more often hear that their effort is the reason for their achievement. ...
Written as if a courtroom drama, the evidence is presented of reasons why women are underrepresented in science. It begins:
JUDGE: Our trial today is to evaluate the case of the overproportion of men in science careers. Are women absent from science because of their individual (micro-level) characteristics, such as a lack of interest or skill, or due to issues on the meso or macro level? To allow maximum evidence to the courtroom, we define science broadly, including all academic fields, with a focus on natural science, mathematics, engineering, and technology where women are especially likely to exit or never join.
I now invite opening statements from the prosecution and defense.
... The researchers found that science, technology, engineering, and mathematics majors who did earned higher grades and were more likely to continue on to the second course in the sequence-especially for minority and first-generation students (Canning et al., 2018;Harackiewicz et al., 2016). In addition, students who understand their intellectual ability as something that can be improved, rather than a static gift, do remarkably better at persisting through academic challenges (Dweck, 2006). ...
Most college courses require a student to read textbooks and other course materials. In addition to the perennial challenge of getting students to read, many instructors and researchers have been interested in the relationship between reading and learning. We assume reading is associated with learning, but there are other variables involved in this relationship. In this teacher-ready research review, we provide a holistic overview of the factors associated with learning through reading. We discuss the role of prior knowledge and reading ability, metacognition, utility value and motivation, and attention capacity in learning from reading. We conclude each section with pragmatic recommendations for instructors to help students read more effectively.
... 18. Это был случайный выбор. 19. Ни по одной из перечисленных причин. ...
Gender imbalance among students in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) is a worldwide problem leading to negative social and economic consequences. Despite the widespread “myth of gender equality” in Russia, this problem is also relevant for our country. The share of male students in most STEM fields in Russian universities significantly exceeds the share of female students, especially in engineering and technical fields. The article is aimed at analyzing the existing experience of combating gender stereotypes in STEM educational programs. It provides an overview of seven types of practices: 1) informing girls about gender stereotypes and their negative consequences; 2) practices aimed at developing “growth mindset”; 3) influence through “role models” and the formation of friendship networks based on interest in STEM; 4) class composition management; 5) organization of active learning; 6) emphasis on the public benefit of career in STEM; 7) creating a positive climate through working with stereotypes of male teachers and students. The article also discusses the applicability of these practices in the Russian educational context.
... 18. Это был случайный выбор. 19. Ни по одной из перечисленных причин. ...
In Russia, as well as in the globe, there is a substantial imbalance in proportions of men and women who choose engineering undergraduate programs. As previous research demonstrated, this phenomenon can be explained by the gender stereotypes about better natural abilities of men to understand mathematical and engineering subjects. The paper is aimed to define the prevalence of gender stereotypes and gender differences in the choice of engineering majors, and explore associations between gender bias and the reasons for major choice. The survey data about undergraduate engineering students collected in one regional Russian university with strong focus on technical science was utilized (N = 1791). According to our results, the most widespread gender stereotypes among engineering students are that men better understand physical phenomena and patterns and have more developed technical and logical reasonings, while women are more neat and diligent. Reasons for engineering program choice do not significantly differ for men and women students. However, men students affected by gender stereotypes more often reported their wish to get a good job after graduation as a reason for major choice. While, women students, affected by gender stereotypes about better natural math abilities of men, more often reported that their major choice was made by the influence of family. Moreover, women are less satisfied with their choice of university and undergraduate program.
... If women who may have selfselected out because they believed they lacked skill sets had participated, our results suggest we still would not have found differences between women and men. Women are less likely to express interest in natural sciences than men (Ceci and Williams, 2007). If we had found gender differences, it might have been accounted for by this difference and, if so, the game may benefit women more than men. ...
We evaluated whether teaching the public about the “critical zone”–the Earth’s outer skin, critical to all life—via a digital serious game can affect adults’ systems thinking about the environment and support policies to protect the environment. An experiment (N = 152) compared the effects of playing “CZ Investigator” versus viewing a static website on systems thinking about the Food-Energy-Water (FEW) nexus and support for relevant public policies. The serious game had the strongest effects on our outcomes of interest for those participants with less past science education. For these individuals, the serious game, relative to the static website, increased perceptions of the strength of interconnections across food, energy, and water systems (p < .01) and support for policies that regulated human impacts on the environment (p < .01). Mediation analysis revealed that increases in systems thinking explain increases in policy support. This group of users also indicated that the game was easier, more enjoyable, and more effective for learning than the website. Mediation analyses also revealed that perceived learning effectiveness was a stronger mediator than ease and enjoyment effects of the game on systems thinking and policy support. These results are valuable for environmental education because understanding interconnections within complex systems is vital for solving environmental problems, particularly for learners with less background in science.
... Our results here are consistent with those reported in Andrews and Aikens (2018) for the original MBVI study, as well as other studies outside biology for both math (Hyde et al., 1990) and CS (Baser, 2013). While women do not differ in ability compared with men (Hyde and Linn, 2006;Williams and Ceci, 2007;Halpern et al., 2007), confidence in their abilities and anxiety levels differ between men and women and seem to drive student achievement and attitudes toward math (Else-Quest and Mineo, 2013;Baser, 2013). ...
Quantitative and computational skills are required of 21st-century biologists. While biology student abilities and attitudes toward math have been studied extensively, less is known about corresponding attitudes toward computer science (CS). It is important to understand how students perceive math and CS subjects and whether those perceptions are linked or operate contradictorily to determine instructional best practices. This study 1) determined biology students' perceptions of math and CS in biological contexts, 2) measured the linkage of those perceptions, and 3) examined additional factors affecting attitudes. Students (N = 272) were surveyed using the original and a CS-adapted version of the Math-Biology Values Instrument to determine interest, perceived utility, and perceived costs toward math and CS in biological contexts. Mixed-effects models were used to determine correlations between task values and investigate effects of exposure to topics and demographic factors. Math and CS values exhibited positive correlations, but utility and cost were more negative for CS, possibly due to less exposure to CS before college, and overall attitudes were influenced by CS background and gender. Given these findings, we make educational recommendations for CS and math exposure early, often, and embedded in the biology curriculum.
... Conceiving intelligence or cognitive abilities as a fixed quality is currently considered to be a fundamental misconception and a serious limitation for applying available cognitive potential. Teachers who subscribe to this theory of intelligence-assuming that a student's level of giftedness cannot be raised incrementally-are inadequately designing their classroom instruction (Blackwell et al., 2007;Dweck, 2006) and do not provide differentiated lessons required for developing the potential of their students (Aljughaiman & Ayoub, 2017;Gallagher, 2019). ...
... This finding was particularly salient among female faculty, who tend to serve as primary caregivers (Barrett & Barrett, 2011;Bosanquet et al., 2017;Nelson-Gray, 2012;Schiebinger & Gilmartin, 2010); they often report feelings of guilt and selfishness as they spend time away from their families (Soto, 2014). In reality, it can negatively effect the likelihood of promotion and tenure, as men are nearly 40% more likely to earn tenure than women after having children (Ceci & Williams, 2007;Handelsman et al., 2005;Rosser, 2004). ...
... Novia, Syamsu y Riandi (2018) indagaron en las diferencias de género en el razonamiento científico relevando que en algunas investigaciones los hombres y mujeres muestran diferentes perfiles de razonamiento científico (Spelke, 2006). Al desarrollar la comparación por género, se muestra que el razonamiento científico resultante y en específico en el ámbito de resolución de problemas que realizan los hombres, presenta un mejor desempeño que en las mujeres. ...
The present study seeks to explore the levels of reasoning among first year higher education students. To measure reasoning and detect the stage of thought development, the Lawson’s test is applied to 2131 first-year university students from two universities in Chile and from one university in Peru. The results show that most students at both the Piura University and the La Serena University present a level of thinking that is located between early transition development and concrete thinking, while the majority of students at Viña del Mar University displayed concrete thinking. The best performance is observed in the item of mass conservation. There is also a consistent difference between men and women on volume conservation and identification and on control of variables. In conclusion, there is evidence of a link between neuroscience and the reasoning levels stated by Piaget, hence their application is recommended, but mainly for first year higher education.
... We could observe significant gender differences for self-efficacy, wherein boys scored significantly higher than girls, which is in line with previous studies [9,34,38]. This could be due to successful male role models in science careers who boys try to imitate [9,72]. The assumption is rooted in the social learning theory [73] and describes how the learning success of a potential role model impacts faith in individually perceived efficiency. ...
... There also may be influences of perceived competence on salary related to scientific fields relying heavily on math and data analytic skills (e.g., economics). Stereotypes of women's inferior abilities in math and science domains linger, and assumptions of men's natural quantitative abilities may contribute to unequal pay in science domains (Ceci and Williams, 2007). ...
There is a national interest in United States women’s underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM); however, gender inequality in the social sciences has not received similar attention. Although women increasingly earn postgraduate degrees in the social sciences, women faculty still experience gender inequities. Consistent gender inequities include slower career advancement, blunted salaries, unequal workloads, work-life conflict, systemic gender biases, underrepresentation in positions of power, and hostile work environments. Cultural biases suggest that once women have achieved parity, gender bias no longer exists. This review challenges that notion by providing evidence from social science domains in which women are well-represented but continue to face systemic gender biases. We examine cultural influences on gender representation and career advancement in psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology. We make interdisciplinary comparisons of career trajectories and salaries using national data, documenting patterns across the social sciences. For example, women economists face gendered standards in publishing, and women political scientists are less likely to have their work cited than men. Furthermore, data show that salaries become stagnant as the representation of women in these fields increases. These disparities reflect cultural biases in perceptions of women’s competence stemming from social role theory. We discuss best practices to address these problems, focusing on the ADVANCE organizational change programs funded by the National Science Foundation that target (a) improving academic climate, (b) providing professional development, and (c) fostering social networking. Federally supported interventions can reveal systemic gender biases in academia and reduce gender disparities for women academics in the social sciences.
... The study of sex differences in psychological variables dates back over 100 years (Hedges & Nowell, 1995;Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974;Woolley, 1914). 1 Research findings are sometimes misunderstood. Generalizations from those findings are provocative (Ceci & Williams, 2007). Because most effect sizes used to quantify mean sex differences in psychological variables are described as either non-existent or "small," the Gender Similarities Hypothesis has been promoted to replace a "differences" hypothesis (GSH; Hyde, 2005Hyde, , 2014. 2 The GSH applies to intelligence and academic achievement variables, broadly speaking. ...
Reliable and meaningful sex differences exist in specific cognitive abilities despite no reliable or meaningful sex difference in general intelligence. Here we use Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory to highlight research findings related to sex differences in intelligence, with a focus on studies of test scores from comprehensive intelligence measures that were obtained from large and representative samples of children and adolescents. Female advantages in latent processing speed and male advantages in latent visual processing are the most meaningful and consistently reported sex differences regarding CHC broad cognitive abilities. Differences have been reported in narrow and specific ability constructs such as mental rotation and object memory location. In academic achievement, the largest and most consistent findings are female advantages in writing, whereas male advantages at higher math ability levels are also found. Empirical descriptions of sex differences should consider the breadth of the construct under study and incorporate analysis beyond simple mean differences. Score analysis methods that utilize multiple-group confirmatory factor models and multiple-indicator multiple cause models are useful to address the former, and analysis methods such as quantile regression and male-female ratio calculations along score distributions are useful to address the latter. An understanding of why specific ability differences exist in combination and in the presence of similarities will improve researchers' understanding of human cognition and educational achievements.
... Why aren't more women in science? is the title of a 2007-published book (Ceci & Williams 2007), in which distinguished social scientists, primarily psychologists, discussed some major and uneasy questions regarding what has become a burning problem in western societies: the underrepresentation of women in science. Underrepresentation denotes that compared with the roughly even male-female ratio in the population, substantially less than 50% of the people entering STEM domains (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) are women (OECD 2018). ...
What leads less women to pursue STEM careers? What does research find about differences in girls’ and boys’ educational trajectories? Students and faculty may have heard about gender bias, the leaky pipeline, gender stereotypes, or gender differences in the brain, but it is often difficult to grasp the underlying complexity of these topics. As social scientists in a technical university, we think that learning more closely about research in this field is helpful in developing a balanced and critical perspective. We have thus developed a course on gender issues in education and STEM for students in the teacher education program at ETH Zurich. In this paper, we first introduce some of the main issues in the context of gender and STEM, around which our course is designed. We then describe the pillars of our course. The course is interactive, with students presenting and critically discussing psychological and educational research. We walk students through the various controversies in the field: the nature-nurture question, gender differences vs. similarities, biases vs. interests, gender stereotypes and potential interventions. In a final assignment, students in small groups integrate several papers into a blog-post. Finally, we describe how students respond to our course, and discuss the challenges we as lecturers experience throughout.
... For example, Crawley and Coe (1990) found the relative contributions of ninth grade students' reported attitudes and normative beliefs on their intention to enroll in a science course varied depending on their perceived ability and other individual characteristics (i.e., gender & race). In light of concerns about the underrepresentation of females in science (Ceci & Williams, 2007), researchers have offered gender-based explanations to interpret students' choices to continue studying science at school, linking differences in participation between males and females in advanced course selection (Chavatzia, 2017). The influence of family and other important individuals on students' attitudes and career aspirations continues to be explored as a mediating variable (e.g., Jones et al., 2021). ...
Many students have the opportunity to enroll in elective courses during secondary school and the choices they make about pursuing specific electives may foreshadow future outcomes. The present study utilized a sequential, mixed methods design to investigate the association between students’ attitudes toward science, their declared intentions to engage with science in the future, and their eventual decision to enroll in an elective science course. Students in grades 9 through 11 completed a 30‐item survey rooted in the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior, which provided self‐report data about their attitudes, intentions, and related variables (N = 698). Course enrollment data were obtained during the following academic year for a sub‐sample of Grade 12 students who previously completed the survey. Pathway analysis supported the theoretical model and explained a majority of the variance between students’ reported intentions and their actual course enrollment. Other factors that students considered when making their decisions were investigated through group interviews. Based on interviews conducted, students that enrolled in an elective science course generally saw science as a part of their post‐secondary plans.
... Policy Futures in Education" (Murphy at al., 2018), "Makerspace in STEM for girls: A physical space to develop twenty-first-century skills" (Sheffield at al., 2017), "The Effect of STEM Project Based Learning on Self-Efficacy among High-School Physics Students" (Samsudin at al., 2020). In the context of the given research topic, we should refer to the work of Ceci & Williams (2007), in which the authors discuss the ambiguity of gender differences, especially in the last 30 years, when there have been gender changes in many industries. The authors believe that different fields of science are not gender neutral, so girls and boys differently evaluate their abilities in technical and humanities. ...
Враховуючи важливість подолання дефіциту кадрів на ринку STEM, це дослідження має на меті представити аналіз гендерних характеристик, які впливають на вибір професії старшокласниками. Соціологічне опитування проводилось за допомогою онлайн-методу - опитування з використанням сервісу Google Forms. Вибірка дослідження складалася з 431 респондента –учня 11 класу (з яких 230 дівчат та 201 хлопець), які навчалися в експериментальних загальноосвітніх закладах Дніпропетровської області. Методологія охоплює такі аспекти, як знання учнів з математики та природничих наук; кар’єрні інтереси в контексті мотивації учнів до вивчення дисциплін STEM; знання старшокласників вимог до кар’єри STEM. Порівняння відповідей респондентів чоловічої та жіночої статі, уможливило проведення паралелей щодо гендерних відмінностей у галузі професійних уподобань опитаних учнів старших класів у контексті STEM-освіти. Таким чином, після проведення дослідження гендерних особливостей, що впливають на вибір професії в сферах STEM старшокласниками, можна говорити про наступне. Отримані результати показують, що між дівчатами та хлопцями існують незначні відмінності у зацікавленості природничо-математичними науками та технологічної освіти з перевагою на користь хлопчиків. Результати свідчать про те, що на вибір професії старшокласниками у галузі STEM впливає усвідомлення перспектив майбутньої кар’єри та впевненість у собі, що пов’язано з академічними успіхами учнів у математичній, науково-технічній освіті. Проведене дослідження є одним із пілотних в Україні. Для подальшого заглиблення у поставлену проблему потрібне проведення регресійного аналізу за кількома змінними, зокрема, дослідження взаємозв’язку між плануванням кар’єри у сфері STEM та типом проживанням учнів (мегаполіс, місто, селище, ОТГ) та аналізу STEM-преференцій, у прив’язці до академічної успішності хлопців та дівчат.
... To date, most research on mindset has focused on the student directly, underexploring the possible effects that peers or mentors may have on mindset development (Dweck, 2007;Dweck, Davidson, Nelson, & Enna, 1978;Haimovitz & Dweck, 2016;Rattan et al., 2015;Sisk et al., 2018). Interestingly, research has found that messages conveyed by teachers affect their students' academic performance (Dweck et al., 1978;Jampol & Zayas, 2020;Pishghadam, Naji Meidani, & Khajavy, 2015), which may be particularly important during transitions, such as from elementary to middle, or primary to secondary education (Evans, Borriello, & Field, 2018;Spernes, 2020). ...
Are teachers' growth mindsets associated with the development of growth mindsets in their students? We know that teacher growth mindset (TGM) shapes the attributions teachers make about their students' abilities and can lead to assumptions about the role that perceived stable traits play in students' performance; however, to date, research has not focused on the relationship between TGM and the development of student growth mindset. This study fills a gap in our knowledge by testing this association over time. Findings from an analytic sample of 57 teachers and 1957 intervention students reveal that teachers with growth mindsets have a mild positive and statistically significant association with the development of their students' growth mindsets, particularly for boys. Implications for teacher education, practice, and future research are discussed.
... Despite the empirical evidence, the pipeline phenomenon -which identifies unequal practices throughout one's working life and follows the female career at every level, gradually increasing the probability that women, more often than men, will leave the job market -still persists in the countries of the EU (Melkas & Anker 2001, Ceci & Williams 2007, Weyer 2007, Lippa, Preston & Penner 2014). ...
... Following the social learning theory [51], the success of a role model similar to ourselves, in regard to learning science, seems to be transferred to the belief in someone's own capabilities. A gender specific self-efficacy may therefore result, as male role models in science are presumed to be the 'successful gender' [52]. Other explanations in this context employ parents' acknowledgement and support of their children's academic success often underestimating a daughter's competence in science [53]. ...
Science education and environmental education are important gates to prepare the next generation for our society’s current and upcoming challenges. While in the informal sector, environmental education acts independently, on the formal side, science education hosts environmental issues within its interdisciplinary context. As both educational efforts traditionally bear different emphases, the question may arise of whether formal science classes can act as an appropriate host. Against the background of the declining motivation to learn science in secondary school, possible synergies between both educational efforts may have vanished. For an investigation of such linkages between science motivation and environmental perception, we monitored adolescents’ motivation to learn sciences and their environmental values. By analyzing data from 429 Irish secondary school students, we reconfirmed existing scales by using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and investigated potential relations via SEM. Besides gender differences, we identified a significant relationship between positive ‘green’ attitude sets and the individual motivation to learn science—positive environmental preferences predict a high science motivation, primarily intrinsic motivation. Taking advantage of this relationship, individual motivation may find support from environmental educational initiatives with the focus on green values. Especially girls, who evidentially tend to have a lower motivation in science learning, may be addressed in that way.
The Nobel Prize is an annual honor awarded to the researchers who have made the greatest contribution to humanity with their work in the year in question. Nobel Prizes for physiology or medicine and chemistry most often have direct or indirect pharmacological relevance. In this study, we performed a bibliometric analysis of Nobel Prize laureates from 2006 to 2022. The parameters include the nationalities and age of the laureates, age at their productivity peaks, the research locations, the H-index, the age-adjusted H-index, and the number of citations and publications, and, for each parameter, a comparison of female and male award laureates. Men were much more often awarded the Nobel Prize than women. Surprisingly, women were younger than their male colleagues at the time of the award although the productivity peak was similar. There was a correlation between all publications and the H-index, which was slightly stronger for women than for men. The age-adjusted H-index showed no difference among genders. The USA were the country with the highest number of Nobel Prize laureates, both male and female. Overall, the bibliometric characteristics of male and female Nobel Prize laureates are similar, indicating that among the group of Nobel Prize laureates, there is no bias against women. Rather, the achievements of women are recognized earlier than those of men. The major difference is that the number of women becoming Nobel Prize laureates is much smaller than the number of men. This study provides a starting for future studies with larger populations of scientists to analyze disparities.
Informal science education researchers have become increasingly interested in how out-of-school spaces that offer STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) programs inform learners’ STEM achievement, interests, and affective outcomes. Studies have found that these spaces can offer critical learning and developmental opportunities for underrepresented racially minoritized (URM) students (Black, Latinx, low socioeconomic status) in STEM subjects. Shifting away from the leaky STEM pipeline analogy, researchers have posited contemporary understandings to explain why the minoritization of URM girls persists. Informal learning environments such as STEM summer camps are being studied to assess how URM girls experience and interact with STEM in novel ways. These environments can inform the research field about how URM girls’ perceptions of their STEM identities, abilities, efficacy, and belonging in STEM develop as they engage in those spaces. This mixed-method study used a multiple-case-study approach to examine how aspects of URM middle school girls’ STEM identities positively changed after participating in a one-week, sleep-away, single-gender STEM summer camp held at a university in the Southwestern U.S. Drawing on intersectionality and STEM identity, we used ecological systems theory to design our research study, examining how URM middle school girls narrate their STEM identities in this informal learning environment. Using quantitative analyses and deductive coding methods, we explored how elements of girls’ STEM identities were shaped during and after their participation in the STEM summer camp. Findings from our study highlight (1) quantitative changes in girl participants’ STEM identities, sense of belonging in STEM, and perceived STEM ability belief, (2) qualitative results supporting our quantitative findings, and (3) how the intersectionality of participants’ race and gender played a role in their STEM identities. This study points to the potential of STEM informal learning camps as a way of developing and fostering URM girls’ STEM identities.
El título completo de esta investigación es “La ciencia avanza, ¿avanzan sus científicas?: barreras y oportunidades para la participación de la investigación científica en mujeres miembros de los grupos de investigación de ingeniería mecánica, mecatrónica e informática de la PUCP”. Tiene como objetivo principal analizar las barreras y oportunidades de las mujeres miembros de los grupos de investigación de ingeniería mecánica, mecatrónica e informática de la PUCP en su formación como profesionales e investigadoras de ingeniería. El valor agregado de esta investigación reside en brindar evidencia que permita dar cuenta de las barreras y oportunidades que enfrentan las mujeres para incorporarse y participar activamente en la producción científica en ingeniería. Así, se buscó identificar de qué forma un espacio de transición como los GI ayuda a fomentar la formación de mujeres profesionales en el ámbito de investigación. Además, se profundiza sobre las distintas etapas de socialización en las cuales se gesta el interés por la CTIM durante la infancia, en la familia o en la escuela.
Güncel feminist bilim felsefesinin güncel bilim pratiğinin günümüzdeki hali ile ilgili kuşkuları vardır. Feminist bilim felsefesinin temel iddiası kabaca şu şekilde ortaya konulabilir: Güncel bilim pratiği ve onun ürünleri erkek egemen değerler tarafından tahakküm edilmekte ve bu tahakküm ilişkisi de bilimin rasyonel ve evrensel olması iddialarına gölge düşürmektedir. Bilim felsefesi tarihinde önemli bir yer tutan Viyana Çevresi, özellikle bazı üyelerinin yaklaşımları ve kavram setleriyle feminist bilim felsefesi tarafından eleştirilen noktaların analizinde ve daha iyi hale getirilmesinde rol oynayabilir. Viyana Çevresi tarafından benimsenen dünyanın bilimsel kavranışı günlük hayatın, bilimin ve aydınlanmacı değerlerin eşliğinde reforme edilmesi için modernist politikaların belirlenmesinde rehber görevi görür. Bu bağlamda Viyana Çevresi’nin aydınlanmacı amaçlarına erişmek için kurguladıkları ve kullandıkları felsefi kavramlar ve çerçeveler güncel feminist bilim felsefesi tarafından dile getirilen iddialar ile ilgili önemli olanaklar ve ilişkiler barındırmaktadır. Örneğin Rudolf Carnap’ın kavram mühendisliği ile ilgili çalışmaları Sally Haslanger’in iyileştirilebilir kavramlar yaklaşımı için tamamlayıcıdır. Benzer şekilde, Otto Neurath’ın bütünselciliği, anti-temelciliği ve yardımcı güdüler yaklaşımı ampirik açıdan benzer yeterlilikte olan teorilerin tercihi üzerine düşünmemiz için yardımcı olmaktadır. Bu anlamda Viyana Çevresi’nin en azından bazı üyeleri güncel feminist bilim felsefesinin bilim pratiği ile ilgili dile getirdiği problemlerin tartışılmasında potansiyel faydalar barındırmaktadır. Öte yandan Viyana Çevresi’nin Carnap ve Neurath ile birlikte feminist bilim felsefesi tartışmalarında dile getirilen bütün problemleri çözebileceğini iddia etmeyeceğim. Daha ziyade, onların bilim pratiğine yaklaşımlarının ve bazı kavramsal araçlarının feminist bilim felsefesi programı ile yakın benzerlikler taşıdığını göstermeyi amaçlıyorum.
The study compared the differences among gifted students of different grades and genders concerning perfectionism, cognitive mindset, constructive thinking, and emotional intelligence. The study included 908 gifted primary-school students from third to sixth grade. The study used the t-test and analysis of variance methods, and four scales. Furthermore, the following were the conclusions. Firstly, gifted pupils of different grades and genders scored considerably differently on some perfectionism subscales. Second, there were notable differences in the cognitive mindset of gifted pupils in different grades. Lastly, there was a substantial difference between gifted pupils in different grades in the distrust-of-others subscale in the constructive-thinking scale. Finally, there was a substantial difference in introversion, interpersonal relationships, and mood among gifted students of different genders.
Due to the paucity of research that focuses on the digital and STEAM literacy practices of Black students and youth and their families in home and community spaces, this article acts as a call for awareness to understand the already‐existing digital practices that acknowledges and honors their racial, cultural, and social lives. Lewis Ellison addresses four primary questions that K‐12 teachers must be aware of concerning Black parents, students and youth in digital and STEM spaces: Why are Black Students’/ Youth and Families’ Digital Literacy Practices important? What can we learn from Black Parents’ Narratives about their Children's Digital and STEAM Literacies? What do Black Students/Youth Wish their Teachers Knew about Them? What Should Digital and STEM Literacy Practices Look Like for Black Students/Youth? These questions are important when thinking about Black students’ and youth's digital literacy learning and proficiencies because as the education and political world keeps changing, they need digital literacy skills for every area of their lives. Once we understand the roles we play in centering their lives and practices, then we can advance teacher education, and then we can begin a discussion to normalize Black students and their families’ digital and STEAM literacies and practices.
Teachers’ beliefs can have powerful consequences on instructional decisions and student learning. However, little research focuses on how teachers’ beliefs about the role of race and gender in mathematics teaching and learning influence educational equity within classrooms. This gap is partly due to the lack of studies focused on variation within classrooms, which in turn is hampered by the lack of instruments designed to measure mathematics-specific equity beliefs. In this study of 313 preservice and practicing elementary teachers, we report evidence of construct validity for the Attributions of Mathematical Excellence Scale. Factor analyses provide support for a four-factor structure, including genetic, social, personal, and educational attributions. The findings suggest that the same system of attribution beliefs underlies both racial and gender prejudice among elementary mathematics teachers. The Attributions of Mathematical Excellence Scale has the potential to provide a useful outcome measure for equity-focused interventions in teacher education and professional development.
Full Topic Research. Published in: Frontiers in Education, Frontiers in Sociology and Frontiers in Psychology / Ortega-Sánchez, D., Sanz De La Cal, E., Ibáñez Quintana, J., Borghi, B., eds. (2022). Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Education. Lausanne: Frontiers Media SA. doi: 10.3389/978-2-88974-506-7
Mindsets have been shown to greatly influence individuals’ efforts and subsequent success in the endeavors they attempt. This is particularly true of mathematical endeavors where mindset impacts the ways in which individuals approach and persevere in learning. This exploratory study investigated the mathematical mindsets held by 242 prospective teachers in undergraduate mathematics content courses for PreK‐8 teachers as well as examined the relationships between mindset, depth of learning, challenge seeking choices, and course grades. A strong predictive nature was found to exist among these variables. Recommendations are identified for future research to investigate prospective teachers’ mindsets and depth of learning.
This research explores whether environmental scientists perceive their male and female peers differently when making statements in the media including policy advocacy. Environmental scientists in the United Kingdom were provided with a media statement by a fictitious scientist containing a mixture of scientific information and advocacy, and asked to rate the statement against various attributes. Attributes were designed to represent stereotypes associated with male and female tendencies, and with science (impartial objectivity) and the media (dramatic narrative). The statements were randomly assigned to one of two male and two female scientists. Where the statements were attributed to a female scientist, male environmental scientists rated the fictitious scientist as significantly more 'dramatic' and 'biased' than their female counterparts did. These gendered attributes are typically held as contrary to the norms of science, suggesting an implicit bias among male scientists when reviewing their female peers' media statements.
This work presents the results of research on over 5,000 students aged 14–15 that focuses on their attitudes towards school subjects with special regard to physics. It describes the mathematical relationships between an interest in physics and students’ school grades, their plans to choose a profession in which knowledge in physics is needed, an opinion on the usefulness of physics for society and an assessment of the usefulness of the most important formulas from the school curriculum. The average declared interest in school physics, the assessment of its social usefulness and the willingness to choose a profession relating to physics were relatively low. Of the 16 most important formulas taught in physics during the last three years of learning, only 3 formulas were considered useful by the students. The work also presents the ranking of the persons in the history of physics with the greatest impact on the fate of humanity, according to students.
Guided by the theoretical frameworks of sense of belonging and spiritual activism, this study examines the experiences of first-generation Latina community college students who navigated the choice to major in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and their experiences as they prepared to transfer to a 4-year college from two Hispanic-serving community colleges. Informed by semi-structured interviews with eight Latina students, the study found that participants chose to major in a specific STEM field only after they had explored other options. After choosing a STEM major, the participants experienced academic and interpersonal invalidations, which made them question whether they belonged in STEM. However, they had access to multiple institutional resources, including scholarship funds, a supportive peer group, and validating faculty, which supported healing from previous invalidations and contributed to their sense of belonging. As individuals who encountered both inequities and microaggressions, spiritual activism reinforced a sense of belonging in STEM for Latina students.
У статті наводяться результати емпі-
ричного дослідження щодо можливостей
доступу жінок до найвищих адміністра-
тивних посад в українських університетах.
Використано метод глибинного інтерв’ю,
проведеного з представницями найвищих
адміністративних посад у закладах вищої
освіти. З’ясовано, що якості, необхідні для
кар’єрного успіху, є гендерно нейтраль-
ними. Це працелюбність, виконавська дис-
ципліна, вміння спілкуватися, красномов-
ство, любов до своєї роботи. Визначено
труднощі, які заважають жінкам у процесі
їхнього кар’єрного заростання: гендерні
стереотипи, репродуктивна функція
жінок, а також виконання сімейних ролей.
Чоловіки не стикаються із цими перепо-
нами, тому їм кар’єру зробити легше.
Проаналізовано вплив сімейного статусу
на можливості посадового зростання. Він
є двозначним: виконання сімейних ролей
ускладнює кар’єру; підтримка з боку чоло-
віків відіграла важливу роль у питаннях
кар’єрного зростання респонденток.
Зроблено спробу пояснити феномен
«зникнення жіночої обдарованості». Серед
причин зазначено завищені вимоги до
себе, відсутність необхідного середо-
вища, специфічне гендерне виховання,
переобтяженість сімейними обов’язками.
Сучасні молоді жінки змінюють життєву
стратегію, відтерміновуючи створення
сім’ї та надаючи перевагу кар’єрному зрос-
танню в молодому віці.
З’ясовано, що більшість респонденток
стикалася у своїй професійній діяльно-
сті з існуванням гендерних стереотипів.
Виявлено суперечність між такою оцінкою
наявності гендерної дискримінації в їх ото-
ченні та оцінкою наявності дискримінації
в політичній, фінансовій сферах та сімей-
ному житті. Виявлено відсутність гендер-
них відмінностей в оплаті праці в системі
вищої освіти України.
Ключові слова: гендер, заклади вищої
освіти, гендерна дискримінація, «скляна
стеля», феномен «зникнення жіночої обда-
рованості», глибинне інтерв’ю
The current study extends previous work on gendered workplace attitudes by manipulating the workplace gender composition (CEO gender, employee gender) of traditional male and female employment sectors. Participants reported general financial investment interest in purported male-role congruent (science laboratory) and female-role congruent (daycare) start-up companies, where CEO gender and employee gender were orthogonally manipulated. Participants had more favorable investment attitudes toward daycares when the CEO was a woman, and especially favorable investment attitudes when both the CEO and employees were women. These findings were stronger for participants higher in hostile sexism. For science laboratories, participants reported equivalent investment attitudes, regardless of CEO gender, as long as the employee gender composition matched the CEO gender (i.e., female CEO + female employees). These findings suggest that social role expectations influence investment attitudes in predictable ways for traditional female employment sectors, but in more nuanced ways for traditional male employment sectors.
The purpose of the chapter is to introduce changing roles of women over time, both in the settings of household and professional settings. As analyzed through the perspective of a Chinese-American professional, the chapter is to illustrate the challenges faced by women globally but also from Asian-American women in particular. In this chapter, the concerns of professional women have not only concerned women in general, but also minority women, especially in the United States. The questions of minority women in the workplace have raised critical concerns of professional integration and assimilation. In other words, minority women in general have struggled to seek professional careers with upward mobility. The question of how minority women choose careers and seek stability within their work places are being asked and explored within the current literature. The current literature explores how our psychological has and sociological changes in the society have affected how women understand their places and positions in their workplaces.
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