Duk-Rodkin, A. & Barendregt, R.W. 2011 “The Glacial History of Northwestern Canada. In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. & Hughes, P,D. (eds.), Quaternary Glaciations -- Extent and Chronology. Part IV: A Closer Look, Amsterdam, Elsevier. Ch. 49, p 661-698.

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From: Alejandra Duk-Rodkin and René W. Barendregt, Stratigraphical Record of
Glacials/Interglacials in Northwest Canada. In J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard and P.D. Hughes,
editors: Developments in Quaternary Science, Vol. 15, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, 2011, pp. 661-698. ISBN: 978-0-444-53447-7.
© Copyright 2011 Elsevier B.V.
Elsevier.

Chapter 49
Stratigraphical Record of G lacials/
Interglacials in Northw est Canada
Alejandra Duk-Rodkin
1,
* and Rene´ W. Barendregt
2
1
Geological Survey of Canada, 3303-33rd St. NW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2L 2A7
2
Department of Geography, The University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada T1K 3M4
*Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Alejandra Duk-Rodkin E-mail: Alejandra.Duk-Rodkin@NRCan-RNCan.gc.ca
49.1. INTRODUCTION
The glacial record of north-western (NW) North America is
one of the most extensive of any preserved worldwide. This
record was left by Cordilleran, montane, continental and
plateau glaciers. The oldest glacial sediments deposited
by Cordilleran glaciations are found near the Yukon/Alaska
border (Canad a/USA). Regional scale glaciations (Cordil-
leran and continental) commenced in NW Canada and east
central Alaska between 2.9 and 2.6 million years ago (Ma).
Multiple glaciations have been recorded in the mountains
(Cordilleran and montane ice) and in the interior plains
(ice caps and continental ice sheets) of northern Canada.
Cordilleran and plateau ice cap glaciations occurred repeat-
edly throughout the Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene.
Local montane glaciers were widespread throughout glacial
periods; however, they were more susceptible to local
changes of climate and moisture supply. They often
extended only relatively short distances from their source,
leaving only loess deposits beyond their terminus. Only
during the Late Pleistocene is a continental (Laurentide)
ice sheet record documented in NW Canada.
New data are presented here to complement the record of
glaciations (Duk-Rodkin et al., 2004).
The summa
ry of
northwestern Canadian glacial history is presented here with
more detailed stratigraphical descriptions and some addi-
tional data from the Fort Selkirk (Yukon), Smoking Hills
(northern Interior Plains), Mount Edziza (northern British
Columbia) and Merritt (southern British Columbia) areas.
The wide variety of surficial deposits exposed across the
northern
Canadian
mainland provides a record of glacia-
tions which span the Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocen e. Gla-
cial tills were deposited across the northern Canadian
Shield and northern Interior Plains during a succession of
plateau glaciations and a single continental glaciation
(Figs. 49.1 and 49.2).
Retreats
of these ice sheets were
accompanied by the development of large glacial lakes
and deposition of glac io-lacustrine silts and clays across
large areas within the northern Interior Plains.
Post-glacial erosion and downcutting of streams, in part
relat
ed to
post-glacial isostatic rebound, removed surficial
deposits from large areas of the Canadian Shield in Nunavut
and the Northwest Territories. Glacial deposits are absent
across most of northern and west-central Yukon Territory
because this area remained unglaciated (Fig. 49.2).
Old
Crow Basin
occurs within this unglaciated region and
was the depositional centre for extensive glacio-lacustrine
sediments resulting from damming of rivers to the east by
the Late Pleistocene continental (Laurentide) glaciation.
TherecordofCordilleranglaciations is mostly foundin the
Yu
kon
Territory, whilecontinental and plateau glacial records
are found in the Northwest Territories (NWT) and Banks
Island (Fig. 49.1).
Before the development of the first Cordil-
lera
n glaciation in NW Canada, tidewater glaciers are thought
to have formed as early as the Late Miocene in southeastern
Alaska (Denton and Armstrong, 1969; Lagoe et al.,1993).
Stratigraphical sequences described for Cordilleran and/or
montane glaciations in the central Yukon indicate that glacia-
tion commenced there only in the Late Pliocene. The record of
the first Cordilleran glaciation in the Latest Pliocene (late
Gauss) between 2.7 and 2.8 Ma (Marine Isotope Stage
(MIS) G10–G6) in the Yukon is reported in Duk-Rodkin
and Barendregt (1997), Froese et al. (2000) and Duk-Rodkin
et al. (2001, 2004); and is summarised in the stratigraphical
correlations of Fig. 49.3. Multiple glaciations spanning the
Matuyama Reversed Chron (2.58–078 Ma) and Brunhes Nor-
mal Chron (0.78 Ma–present) were deposited after this first
glaciation and are documented in the magnetostratigraphy
of tills, outwash and loess deposits. The most complete record
is found in the Tintina Trench of central Yukon. However,
other sites such as those in the Klondike Plateau, Fort Selkirk
and Mackenzie Mountains (NWT) provide records which are
complementary to those of the Tintina Trench (Figs. 49.1
and 49.3).
Developments in Quaternary Science. Vol. 15, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53447-7.00049-0
ISSN: 1571-0866,
#
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 661
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Northern Interior Plains ice was present in northwest
Canada, but the available record is neither as complete
nor as well defined as that of the Cordilleran. In the conti-
nental Arctic, older diamicts have been reported from the
Taglu and Kumak cores in the Mackenzie Delta (Fig. 49.3;
Dallimore and Matthews, 1997). In the Smoking Hills area,
there are as many as four tills of local plateau (Horton Pla-
teau) origin separated by up to four silty clay beds (Fig. 49.3;
Duk-Rodkin and Barendregt, unpublished field notes,
2004). The palaeomagnetic measurements of these tills
and intertill beds indicate a sequence of glacial events
within the Matuyama Chron (Early Pleistocene). The low-
est till overlies reversely magnetised preglacial sands and
gravels (presumably the late Beaufort Formation) contain-
ing large ice-wedge casts. Evidence of continental glacia-
tion extending back to the Early Late Pleistocene is
found on Banks Island at 1.6 Ma (Vincent et al., 1984; Bare-
ndregt and Vincent, 1990; Vincent, 1990; Fyles et al., 1994;
Barendregt et al., 1998). Based on the Banks Island data, the
first Keewatin-centred glaciation postdates Cordilleran gla-
ciation in the Yukon by about 1 Ma.
49.2. WEST-CENTRAL YUKON (TINTINA
TRENCH, KLONDIKE PLATEAU, FORT
SELKIRK)
49.2.1. Tintina Trench
A long stratigraphical record extending from Late Creta-
ceous to Middle Pleistocene has been preserved along the
walls of the Tintina Trench where it is exposed in modern
landslide scars or along slopes (Duk-Rodkin et al., 2001,
2004). Stratigraphical sites are located on both sides of
the trench along a distance of approximately 100 km near
the Yukon/Alaska border (Figs. 49.1 and 49.2). At the
Trench sites (sites 1–3; Figs. 49.1–49.6), tills and/or out-
wash gravels conformably overlie Pliocene preglacial
gravels, which are unconformably underlain by faulted allu-
vial fan deposi ts of Miocene age (Duk-Rodkin et al., 2001).
Sections in the Trench show well-exposed beds below
and above the Pliocene/Miocene unconf ormity at all three
sites. Strata beneath the unconformity are composed of
faulted alluvial fan deposits and have been grouped into
FIGURE 49.1 Relief map of NW North America and locations of sites described in text.
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two parts: a lower recessive succession of claystone and
very coarse grained, pebbly sandstone with coal beds
(Eocene–Cretaceous age) and an upper succession of inter-
bedded conglomerate, sandstone and organics (peat) with in
most places indurated silt beds at the top of the strata (Mio-
cene age; Duk-Rodkin et al., 2001).
During the glaciations recorded in the trench, Cordille-
ran ice advanced along the trench to the west, merging with
local glaciers in the Southern Ogilvie Mountains and trans-
porting erratic pebbles from both Cordilleran (continental
divide: Selwyn/Wernecke mountains) and Ogilvie Moun-
tain (local) sources. Depending on the locality within the
Trench, glacial clast lithologies may be either entirely local
in origin or of both local and mixed provenance, but in all
cases, sites reve al similar stratigraphical sequences of
tills with palaeosols, outwash and loess. Collectively
they record seven pre-Middle Pleistocene glacial events
(Fig. 49.3). These sections have a normal–reverse–normal–
reverse–normal–reverse–normal palaeomagnetic sequence
extending from late Gauss to late Middle Pleistocene
(Barendregt et al., 2010; Duk-Rodkin et al., 2010).
1. Rock Creek site (RC site 1, Figs. 49.1–49.4 ) in the Tin-
tina Trench reveals beds above the unconform ity which
contain records of both Cordilleran and local glaciations
(Duk-Rodkin et al., 2010). This site exposes preglacial
gravels consisting of a debris flow deposit (unit 1a)
overlain by a thin lacustrine bed (unit 1b). The shallow
lacustrine deposit contains Polemonium sp. pollen and is
normally magnetised. Polemonium sp. first appears in
the upper Miocene (Mul ler, 1981) and is present in this
region today. It is present in the Lost Chicken beds (ca.
2.9 Ma) of the Yukon and Alaska (White et al., 1999)
which are thought to be correlative with this unit. Preg-
lacial sediments are capped by outwash gravels (unit 2)
and sand, deposited by glaciers associated with the first
regional glaciation (Figs. 49.2–49.4). These deposits
and the underlying unit 1 are normally magnet ised. Out-
wash deposits only document this first glaciation at this
site in the Tintina Trench and in the Klondike Plateau to
the south. The outwash is overlain by a reversely mag-
netised till (unit 3) with a luvisolic palaeosol developed
at its upper contact. This palaeosol is similar to soils
FIGURE 49.2 Maximum extent of glaciations in Northwest Canada. The maximum extent of Cordilleran ice occurred during the Late Pliocene, MIS G6,
while the maximum ice extent of continental ice occurred during the Late Pleistocene (MIS 2).
Chapter 49 Stratigraphical Record of Glacials/Interglacials in Northwest Canada
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associated with the southern limit of boreal forest veg-
etation today. The pebble lithologies of the till are of
mixed origin (Cordilleran and local). The age of this
deposit has been bracketed between 1.97 and 2.6 Ma
(Early Pleistocene, Matuyama Reversed Chron). Unit
4 is a very coarse deposit enriched in clay content as
a result of a prolonged period of moderate weathering
and translocation of surface clays. It is a thick glacial
mudflow deposit for which no polarity was dete rmined;
however, it is overlain by a normally magnetised out-
wash so must fall within the early Matuyama Chron
(Figs. 49.3 and 49.4). Unit 5 consists of an outwash
and a till. The till has a weathering horizon developed
at its surface suggesting that it may represent the lower-
most part of a truncat ed luvisol. There is no weathering
horizon between the outwash and the till and therefore
both are considered to be part of the same glacial event.
A normal polarity was obtained from the outwash, indi-
cating an Olduvai age based on its stratigraphical posi-
tion (Figs. 49.3 and 49.4). Unit 6 is reversely magnetised
outwash gravel assigned to the middle Matuyama, based
on its stratigraphical position between the Olduvai and
Jaramillo subchrons. Unit 7 comprises crude to well-
stratified outwash gravels. Silty sand beds have normal
polarity and are assigned to the Jaramillo normal sub-
chron. They occur between reversely magnetised units
above and below, assigned to the late Matuyama Chron.
Unit 8 sediments are outwash sands and silts containing
pockets of deformed material. Silts have reversed polar-
ity and are underlain by normally magnetised outwash
deposits (Jaramillo) and overlain by normal sediments
(Brunhes Chron), and can therefore be assigned to the
latest Matuyama Chron. Unit 9 is the uppermost glacial
outwash at RC site and has a luvisolic palaeosol devel-
oped at its surface (comparable to a Wounded Moose
palaeosol; Smith et al., 1986). Unit 9 is overlain by loess
(unit 11, described below) and underlain by outwash
(unit 8). Clasts within the soil exhibit clay skin coatings.
The normal polarity recorded in fine-grained sand
lenses is assigned to the Brunhes Normal Chron. Unit
(
(
)
)
(
(
(
(
)
)
))
()
et al
et al
et al
FIGURE 49.3 (Continued)
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11 forms the uppermost loess unit (< 20 cm) at RC.
This regionally extensive unoxidised surface loess
lacks structure, suggesting little or no reworking. It is
normally magnetised and overlies Reid till (MIS 6/8;
Westgate et al., 2008), and is therefore younger
than 126 ka, probably of McConnell age (< 23 ka,
MIS 2).
2. Fifteenmile River (EFR
site 2
, Figs. 49.1–49.3 and 49.5)
stratigraphy outcrops in a Holocene landslide scar on the
north side of the Tintina Trench, 4.0 km east of Fifteen-
mile River (Figs. 49.3 and 49.5). The EFR outcrops
expose a package of Plio–Pleistocene preglacial
and glacial sediments separated unconformably from
the underlying tilted Miocene beds. The latter are
predominantly alluvial deposits laid down following
extensional faulting in the trench. Glaciers from the
continental divide area did not reach this portion of
the trench, and only deposits of local provenance (Ogil-
vie Mountains) are present. Unit 1 exposes preglacial
alluvial sand and gravel deposits that overlie tilted allu-
vial Miocene deposits. These preglacial sediments con-
tain a palaeosol (feragleysol) at its upper contact. The
palaeosol is partially truncated and deformed (Fig. 49.5,
unit 1b) and in places incorporated into the overlying
till, forming a wavy upper contact. Fine-grained beds
are normally magnetised and correlated to the Gauss
Normal Chron. Unit 1b overlies the Miocene/Pliocene
unconformity and reveals the same polarity (and palaeo-
magnetic directions) as the overlying (unit 2) glacial
deposits. This relationship is also seen at RC site. Unit
2 is a till with an interbed of silty fine sand, which is nor-
mally magnetised and is correlated to the latest Gauss
FIGURE 49.3 Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene stratigraphical correlations of Cordilleran and Northern Interior Plains sites in Northwest Canada. Light
blue colour band identifies Reversed Matuyama Chron stratigraphy, while Normal Gauss and Normal Brunhes Chron strata lie below and above,
respectively.
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Normal Chron (2.7–2.58 Ma) based on its stratigraphi-
cal location above alluvial deposits of unit 1 and its
comparable polarity and palaeomagnetic directions
(Barendregt et al., 2010). The weathering horizon at
the top of the unit has characteristics of a truncated luvi-
sol. Unit 3 is interpreted as a till with a well-developed
luvisol at its surface, and has a reversed polarity
assigned to the early Matuyama Chron (2.58–
1.97 Ma). It occurs between the Gauss Normal Chron
(unit 2) and the Olduvai subchron (unit 5) and is strati-
graphically similar to unit 3 at RC site. Unit 5 is a till,
with a gleysolic palaeosol developed in the top of the
till. It forms a sharp contact with lacustrine unit 6 above.
The base and upper parts of the unit 5 till have normal
polarity, and because it occurs between reversely mag-
netised sediments of the early Matuyama (unit 3) and a
pre-Jaramillo reversed till (unit 6), is assigned to the
Olduvai subchron (1.97–1.78 Ma). Unit 6 comprises a
basal lacustrine clay subunit, overlain by till with melt-
out characteristics. The top of the unit exhibits a gleyso-
lic weathering horizon that formed under poorly drained
conditions and is highly disturbed, probably due to cryo-
turbation. The lacustrine subunit and till are reversely
magnetised, and unit 6 is assigned to the early late
Matuyama Chron (1.78–1.05 Ma; pre-Jaramillo)
because it lies stratigraphically between sediments
assigned to the Olduvai and Jaramillo subchrons
(Figs. 49.3 and 49.5). Unit 8 is a silt and fine sand
deposit with mottled appearance. The lower contact is
sharp. Samples collected for palaeomagnetic measure-
ments were also used for pollen identification. Only
one sample yielded some identifiable pollen grains at
FIGURE 49.4 Stratigraphy of Rock Creek (RC) site, Tintina Trench, Yukon. Stratigraphy extends from Late Pliocene (Gauss Normal Polarity Chron)
preglacial and glacial deposits to Late Pleistocene loess cover at top of sections. The RC stratigraphy is a composite of three sites which lie in close prox-
imity to each other. Unit numbers in the text correspond to numbers on left of stratigraphical column. Note hydrothermally altered preglacial sediments at
base of strata.
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the transition to unit 9. There were 51 grains identified
revealing the following: Ambrosia-type 33%, Betula
29%, Pinus 20%, Alnus 6%, Salix 6%, Picea 4% and
Botrychium 2%. Unit 8 is reversely magnetised loess
and is assigned to the latest Matuyama. This assignment
is based on its stratigraphical position between Jarmillo
and Brunhes age deposits, and comparable palaeomag-
netic directions for unit 8 at RC and WFM sites
(Barendregt et al., 2010). Unit 9 is a silt and fine sand
deposit with mottled appearance and minor stratifica-
tion marked by fine clay beds. Unit 9 is normal ly mag-
netised loess, assigned to the early Brunhes based on
stratigraphical position (Fig. 49.5) and similarities to
the record found at WFR (Barendregt et al., 2010). It
is reasonable to suppose that the boundary between units
8 and 9 at the EFR and WFR sites is correlative with the
boundary between units 1 and 2 at Midnight Dome
(MD) in the Klondike area (Froese et al., 2000) and that
this stratigraphical contact marks the Brunhes–
Matuyama (B/M) boundary. The Brunhes/Matuyama
boundary (0.78 Ma) falls within marine oxygen isotope
stage (MIS) 19, an interglacial period (Fig. 49.5). Pollen
obtained from the base of unit 9 reveals Pinus, Ambro-
sia-type, Betula , Alnus, Salix, and Picea and suggests
deposition during an interglacial. Unit 10 is a diamicton
(till) with a silty-clay matrix and 20% clasts up to 15 cm
in size. It forms a sharp contact with underlying unit 9.
Unit 10 has a normal polarity, is assumed to have been
deposited by the Reid glaciation and is correlated with
unit 10 at WFR (Fig. 49.5). Unit 11 is a 0.2-m-thick,
massive silt and fine sand bed loess which corresponds
to the regionally extensive unoxidised surface loess that
discontinuously covers much of the western Yukon. Its
massive characteristic sugges ts little or no reworking.
FIGURE 49.5 Stratigraphy of Fifteenmile River, east side (EFM), Tintina Trench. Stratigraphy extends over a similar span of time as that seen at RC, but
includes an MIS 8/6 till near the top. It is a composite of two sites located about 100 m apart. Note deformation and incorporation of unit 1b into the
overlying till.
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It is normally magnetised, overlies unit 10 at EFR and
WFR sites, and is therefore considered to be the Late
Pleistocene (< 23 ka) McConnell loess.
3. Fifteenmile River (WFR site 3, Figs. 49.1–49.3 and
49.6) stratigraphy outcrops along a 1-km long Holoce ne
landslide scar reactivated within an older landslide, and
is located on the north side of the Tintina Trench,
approximately 1.0 km west of the river (Figs. 49.2
and 49.6). The exposure reveals several older landslid-
ing events, also seen at many other localities, and may
relate to extensional faulting along the trench in the Late
Miocene. Beds within the landslide have undergone
minor rotation and lowering but have remained intact.
The WFR stratigraphy exposes a 14 m sequence of tilted
Miocene alluvial deposits, overlain by 26 m of conform-
able and horizontally stratified glacia l deposits
described at two sites (Fig. 49.6). The contact betwee n
these two depositional sequences forms an angular
unconformity which is clearly visible along all landslide
scars in the Trench. Approximately 200 m of partially
exposed and poorly preserved Tertiary (and older) strata
extend to creek level. The stratigraphy above the uncon-
formity at WFR site consists of Pliocene preglacial
gravel and laminated sand, overlain by till and loess
units. This stratigraphical sequence is less comp lete than
that seen at EFR site but is equivalent to the lower units
at RC and EFR. Unit 1 has preglacial gravel and sand
with minor laminated clay beds which overlie tilted allu-
vial Miocene deposits and are overlain by the first till
(Fig. 49.6). A silty fine sand bed near the unconformity
is reversely magnetised and probably belo ngs to either
the Kaena (3.12–3.05 Ma) or the Mammoth (3.33–
3.22 Ma) reversed subchrons within the Gauss Normal
Chron (Late Pliocene). This age assignment is supported
by the presence of Polemonium, Polygonum and persi-
caria-type pollen which is generally thought to have a
maximum age of Late Miocene, and by recently
dated sediments in the Klondike Plateau which are
FIGURE 49.6 Stratigraphy of Fifteenmile River, west side (WFM), Tintina Trench. It is exposed in a major landslide scar and extends over a similar time
span as that of EFR. The contacts between units 3 and 6 were not studied due to the steep terrain and were observed only through field glasses. WFM is a
composite of two transects located about 70 m apart. Note blocks of preglacial sediments incorporated in the lowermost till.
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thought to be equivalent, and contain the Quartz Creek
tephra (3.00  0.33 Ma; Sandhu et al., 2000). The pol-
len indicates a cool/cold alpine climate. Unit 2 is
exposed in a 16-m vertical outcrop where study was
limited to the basal portion. The exposure may contain
sediments from other glaciations, and additional polar-
ity histories may also be present. Unit 2 is a till, which
in places has incorporated blocks of underlying preg-
lacial sediments. The fine sand and silty -clay beds at
the base may be outwash deposits. The till appears
to be capped by a palaeosol which is discontinuously
preserved. The normal polarity is assigned to the upper
Normal Gauss Chron based on stratigraphical position
and polarities recorded in units above and below
(Figs. 49.3 and 49.6). Units 7–9 are loess deposits
recording three polarities (N–R–N), suggesting a con-
siderable time span. They are assigned (from bottom to
top), to the Jaramillo subchron (N), latest Matuyama
Chron (R) and early Brunhes Chron (N) and are cor-
related with units 8 and 9 at EFM and at RC. At
EFR and WFR, these units are overlain by the middle
Brunhes Reid till (MIS 8 or 6). The extensive loess
sequence at WFR indicates that glac iers from the Ogil-
vie Mountains most likely did not reach this part of the
Tintina Trench. The upper part of unit 9 exhibits cryo-
turbation indicating periglacial activity during this
time. Unit 10 is a till with a basal glacio-lacustrine
component. Both till and lacustrine sediments are nor-
mally magnetised and are assigned to the Brunhes
Normal Chron. This till is most probably the late Mid-
dle Pleistocene (Reid age) till (MIS 6 or 8) and is cor-
related with the uppermost till at EFM. Unit 11 is a 40-
cm-thick unoxidised regional loess cover, which lacks
structure, suggesting little or no reworking. It is nor-
mally magnetised, overli es the assumed Reid age till,
and is thought to be Late Pleistocene (< 23 ka, (MIS)
2) McConnell loess.
49.2.2. Klondike Gold Fields
The Lower Klondike River Valley has yielded an extensive
late Neogene stratigraphy and chron ology. Two sites (MD
and Jackson Hill (JH), sites 4 and 5; Figs. 49.1–49.3, 49.7
and
49.8)
have preserved a stratigraphical record that com-
plements most of the late Neogene geologic record in the
Tintina Trench (Duk-Rodkin et al., 2010).
1. JH (site
4, Figs. 49.3
and 49.7) records upper preglacial
gravels (White Channel) and outwash gravels related to
the first glaciation in west-central Yukon which
occurred in the Late Pliocene (ca. 2.65 Ma; Froese
et al., 2000). The White Channel Gravels are of local
provenance (Klondike Plateau gold fields; Fig. 49.1),
while the glacial outwas h gravels are of Cordilleran
origin. The lower part of the White Channel Gravels
reveals a reversed/normal/reversed/norm al magnetic
polarity sequence assi gned to the Gilbert/Gauss Epochs
(4.18–3.05 Ma; Figs. 49.3 and 49.7). The upper
reversed/normal sequence within the White Channel
Gravels contains ice-wedge casts which provide clear
evidence for the onset of a cold climate (Fig. 49.7).
The upper White Channel Gravels interfinger with Cor-
dilleran outwash, and sediments are normally magne-
tised throughout this zone of mixed sedimentation
(Fig. 49.7). Elsewhere in the gold fields, two tephras
were obtained from this strata (Dago Hill and Quartz
Creek) which have fission-t rack ages of 3.18 and
2.97 Ma, respectively (Sandhu et al., 2000; Westgate
et al., 2002).
2. MD (site
5; Figs. 49
.3 and 49.8) preserves Middle–Early
Pleistocene basal fluvial gravels, outwash gravels, and
loess deposits along the north side of the lower Klondike
River Valley. The loess sequence has a reversed/normal/
reversed/normal magnetisation which intermittently
spans the late Matuyama and Brunhes Chrons
(1.45 Ma–present) and includes the Jaramillo normal
subchron (0.99–1.05). This sequence contains two
tephras, one in the lower reversed loess which was
deposited during a warm interval (1.4 Ma Mosquito
Gulch tephra) and the other in the upper part of the same
reversed unit deposited during a cold event (1.09 Ma,
MD tephra; Froese et al., 2000; Froese and Westgate,
2001). This loess sequence reveals a short interval at
its base containing pine pollen, followed by cold and
very cold (glacial) conditions (colluviated loess, or
yedoma).
49.2.3. Fort Selkirk
Fort Selkirk sites in the west-central Yukon preserve an
extensive late Neogene record of volcanic, glacial and inter-
glacial events (Figs. 49.1–49.3)
. T
he stratigraphy outcrops
along the Yukon River (Fig. 49.1) and is depicted in four
composite sites (Figs. 49.9–49.12) labelled (from older to
younger): (1) Wolverine sequence (Ne Ch’e Ddhawa north
andNeCh’eDdhawatuya,Fig. 49.9); (2) Fort Selkirk Vol-
canic Complex: Lower Mushroom site (Fig. 49.10); (3) Fort
Selkirk Volcanic Complex: composite of Mushroom, Cave
and Fossil sites (Fig. 49.11) and (4) Fort Selkirk Volcanic
Complex: Black Creek flows (Tip, Angel and Pillow Point
sites, Fig. 49.12). In total, five glacial events are recorded
from sediments which are only locally preserved beneath,
within and above lava flows and hyaloclastite complexes.
Four of these glaciations fall within the Matuyama Reversed
Chron and one within the Brunhes Normal Chron. The ages
of these events span from 1.83 to 0.30 Ma. The deposits have
been dated by K–Ar, Ar–Ar, fission-track, palaeomagnetism
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and fossil evidence. In addition, geomorphological evidence
of glaciations, such as striae on lava beds, exotic glacial
pebbles within lavas, and the presence of pillow lavas as
indicators of eruption through ice, have also been used
(Jackson et al., 1996; Huscroft et al., 2004; Nelson et al.,
2009).
Wolverine sequence (Ne Ch’e Ddhawa north and Ne
Ch’e Ddhawa tuya, Figs. 49.3 and 49.9) is composed of three
basalts flow (total thickness  60 m). The lower flow
(4.34 0.06 Ma) is reversely magnetised and falls within
the Upper Gilbert, the middle flow (3.21 0.07 Ma) is also
reversed and falls within the Mammoth subchron of the early
Gauss, while the third flow (3.05  0.07 Ma) is reversed and
falls within the Kaena subchron of the early Gauss. The upper
flow is overlain by a reversely magnetised till (Forks Glaci-
ation, Jackson et al., 2010) considered to be of late
FIGURE 49.7 Stratigraphy of Jackson Hill is exposed in a large placer mine outcrop near Dawson townsite in the Klondike Valley. The stratigraphy
reveals preglacial White Channel gravels which interfinger with the Klondike outwash near the upper contact (MIS G10). Both preglacial gravels and
outwash have sand and gravel ice-wedge casts developed at various palaeo-surfaces.
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Matuyama age (Fig. 49.3). Stratigraphically above, and some
300 m to the south of Ne Ch’e Ddhawa north is the Ne Ch’e
Ddhawa tuya site (Figs. 49.3 and 49.9). The tuya is the prod-
uct of subglacial eruption and contains blocks of exotic gla-
cial diamicts (Fig. 49.9). The upper part of the Tuya has an
age of 2.08 0.05 Ma and is reversely magnetised, and
therefore this glaciation falls within the early Matuyama
(Jackson et al., 2008; Nelson et al.,2009).
Fort Selkirk Volcanic Complex: Lower Mushroom site
(Figs. 49.3 and 49.10) consists of a basalt flow underlain
by outwash gravel. Two Ar/Ar ages for the reversely mag-
netised basalt (2.32  0.13 and 1.83  0.3 Ma) provide a
minimum age for the underlying outwash. This glaciation
may correspond to the one which produced the NCD Tuya,
or may be an earlier glaciation.
Fort Selkirk Volcanic Complex: Composite of Mush-
room, Cave and Fossil sites (Figs. 49.3 and 49.11)isa
sedimentary and volcanic sequence occurring between
two glacial events (Fort Selkirk Glaciation and an
unnamed glaciation). The Fort Selkirk Glaciation
consists of till overlain by outwash, both reversely
magnetised, and both considered to belong to the same
glaciation, based on their nearly identical palaeomagnetic
directions. Reversely magnetised interglacial deposits over-
lie the outwash and contain a tephra (1.48  0.11 Ma,
also reversed), and a short interval of normally magnetised
silt (Gilsa subchron, Froese and Westgate, 2001). A 14-m-
thick basalt (1.33  0.07 Ma) overlies the interglacial
deposits, reveals striations at its upper surface, and is over-
lain by discontinuous drift of a younger glaciation
(< 1.33 Ma), perhaps equivalent to the Forks Glaciation
at NCD North.
Fort Selkirk Volcanic Complex: Black Creek flows (Tip,
Angel and Pillow Point sites; Figs. 49.3 and 49.12) consist
FIGURE 49.8 Stratigraphy of Midnight Dome (MD) is exposed in a placer mine outcrop near Dawson townsite in the Klondike Valley. Late Matuyama
to early Brunhes age deposits are exposed at MD. The stratigraphy reveals loesses developed under both glacial and interglacial conditions, and contains
organic rich silt horizons (palaeosols) and ice-wedge casts.
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FIGURE 49.9 Composite stratigraphy of the Wolverine sequence is described at two sites: NCD Tuya and NCD North. NCD Tuya exposes diamictites
(till) incorporated into lava during a subglacial eruption and provides an accurate age for this glaciation (2.14 0.14 Ma). NCD North exposes a till (latest
Matuyama) overlying a 3.05  0.07 Ma basalt.
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of a series of five lava flows exposed along the Yukon River
downstream from Fort Selkirk and are discontinuously
overlain by outwash and loess. The uppermost basalt has
an Ar/Ar age of 0.311  0.005 Ma, and all flows are nor-
mally magnet ised. The outwash deposit is assumed to be
the late Middle Pleistocene Reid glaciation (MIS 8/6) and
is overlain by loess of the latest Pleistocene (McConnell
Glaciation, MIS 2; Huscroft, 2002; Huscroft et al., 2004;
Nelson et al., 2009).
49.3. NORTHWEST TERRITORIES
49.3.1. Mackenzie Mountains
Katherine Creek (KC) section (Fig. 49.13) consists of five
montane tills, capped by one Laurentide till. These tills
overlie 8 m of colluvium developed above a bedrock pedi-
ment. It is difficult to differentiate between the colluvium
and the lowest montane till because the till clasts are sub-
angular and glaciers travelled only short distances from
FIGURE 49.10 Lower Mushroom site (Fort Selkirk volcanic complex) exposes a basalt (1.83  0.3 and 2.32 0.13 Ma) overlying outwash (?) gravels
which were deposited during the Gauss (G10) or earliest Matuyama (MIS 100) Chrons.
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FIGURE 49.11 Cave, upper Mushroom and Fossil sites of the Fort Selkirk volcanic complex expose glacial and interglacial deposits underlying a
reversed basalt (1.33  0.07 Ma). The basalt has been overridden by ice, as evidenced by glacial striae and residual erratics. Reversed till and outwash
deposits at the base of the exposure are post-Olduvai (< 1.78 Ma) but younger that the Gilsa subchron (1.6–1.55 Ma). Interglacial deposits above the till
and outwash contain a reversed–normal–reversed polarity sequence and a tephra (1.48  0.11 Ma). The normal sediments are assigned to the Gilsa sub-
chron and are overlain by reversely magnetised sediments containing Blancan fossils.
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FIGURE 49.12 Black Creek outcrop (Fort Selkirk volcanic complex) exposes five basalt flows, and the upper flow (0.311  0.005 Ma) is overlain by
outwash of the Reid glaciation (MIS 6/8).
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their mountain sources. This colluvial unit is also present at
the Little Bear (LB) site where it reaches thickne sses of over
20 m. In Duk-Rodkin et al. (1996), this first deposit overly-
ing the bedrock pediment was considered to be a colluvium.
At both the KC and LB sections, this lowest unit is normally
magnetised, and if this unit is in fact a till it may correlate
with the earliest glacial deposits in the Yukon, which are
also normally magnetised, and assi gned to the latest Gauss
Normal Chron. Above the normally magnetised colluvial
unit are two reversed tills (pre-Olduvai), thought to be laid
down by a single glaciation, as there is no sharp contact or
palaeosol between the two. A luvisol is developed on the
upper reversed till. The overlying till is normally magne-
tised and assigned to the Olduvai (1.95–175 Ma). It con-
tains ice cast pseudomorphs developed at its surface, as
well as a luvisolic B horizon. Two normally magnetised tills
were deposited above the Olduvai till, and these are
assigned to the Brunhes Normal Chron (< 0.78 Ma; MIS
16?, 12? or 8?). The surface till is continental (Laurentide)
and considered to be Late Pleistocene (MIS 2). Chlorine 36
ages of 28–26 ka obtained from boulders near LB site indi-
cate that the glacier had receded from its maximum position
by that time ( Duk-Rodkin et al., 1996).
LB River section (Fig. 49.14) comprises five montane
tills overlying a colluvial deposit. The entire sequence is
overlain by a till of Laurentide origin (Fig. 49.14). As in
the KC section, three tills (normal/reversed/normal polar-
ity) in the lower half of the outcrop span the late Gauss
(2.70–2.58 Ma) to early Matuyama (2.58–1.98 Ma). The
three overlying montane tills are coarse-textured, and only
the last till provided a (normal) polarity. The tills are
assigned to the Brunhes Normal Chron, and the uppermost
Montane till is assumed to have been deposited by a Reid
equivalent MIS 8/6 glaciation. The palaeosols at LB indi-
cate a progressive deterioration of climate. The palaeosol
developed on the lower most colluvium exhibits a thick
weathering horizon, while at the top of the section, a thin
Eutric Bruni sol is identified (Fig. 49.14).
FIGURE 49.13 Katherine Creek (KC) site exposes a series of montane (local) tills of both Matuyama and Brunhes age. These tills are underlain by
normally magnetised colluvium over bedrock and are overlain by a Late Wisconsin (Laurentide) glacial till at the surface.
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FIGURE 49.14 Little Bear (LB) and Inlin Brook (IB) are two exposures near the KC site and reveal a similar stratigraphy to that of KC.
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Inlin Brook (IB) section (Fig. 49.14) has a less complete
stratigraphy than the KC and LB sites and is considered as a
complimentary section. It consists of a preglacial gravel
deposit of Tertiary age at the base, overlain by tills and out-
wash deposits capped by a single continental (Laurentide)
till. Th ere are five distinctive glacial units (Fig. 49.14), four
of which have a pala eosol developed at their upper contact
(detailed stud y of the palaeosols has not been carried out at
this locality). Two tills and outwash at the base of the sec-
tion are reversely magnetised and are assigned to the early
Matuyama (2.58–1.98 Ma). These are overlain by a till and
palaeosol of normal polarity (Olduvai 1.95–177 Ma), which
in turn are overlain by two tills and palaeosols for which no
polarity was obtained. However, they are assumed to be
correlative with the Brunhes age tills at the KC and LB sites.
The three sections were correlated on the basis of lithology,
palaeomagnetism and palaeosol properties. For the younger
strata, chlorine dates obtained from surface boulder erratics
were used in the correlation. A formal stratigraphical
nomenclature has been developed for the deposits of this
region (Duk-Rodkin et al., 1996). The sequence of glacial
tills and palaeosols marks a long record of glacial–intergla-
cial cycles, while soil properties for the two oldest palaeo-
sols point to climatic conditions much warmer and wetter
than today.
49.3.2. Mackenzie Delta
Glacial and non-glacial deposits have been recorded in the
Mackenzie Delta area from the Taglu, Kumak and Unipkat
boreholes, which extend to 450, 250 and 95 m depth,
respectively (Figs. 49.3 and 49.15).
Only the
Taglu and
Kumak boreholes contain diamictons thought to be of glacial
origin and fall within the early Matuyama Reversed Chron
(Dallimore and Matthews, 1997). The cores represent mostly
fluvial, glaciofluvial and marine deposits consisting of inter-
calated sands/silts/clays and lesser amounts of gravels.
Cross-beds and foresets are common, indicating deltaic
deposition. The diamictons are located at the base of the
cores and are non-glacial in origin below the Gauss/
Matuyama boundary (2.58 Ma), and Pleistocene in age
above the boundary, based on the presence of Artemisia
(Dallimore and Matthews, 1997). Detailed palaeomagnetic
measurements of all three cores were carried out by Wang
and Evans (1997). Pollen analysis of the Kumak borecore
was carried out by Jette, and macrofossils were studied by
Matthewsandarereportedin Dallimoreand Matthews(1997).
The Taglu borecore (Fig. 49.15)
reveals a sequence of
35 m
(450–415 m) of interbedded clay and silt with occa-
sional gravel zones interbedded with silty sand beds. It is
overlain by a diamicton of about 25 m thickness, with some
core gaps above and below the diamicton. The diamicton
extends from 415 to 390 m depth and is normally
magnetised (Gauss) (Dallimore, 1992). The samples are
rich in rework ed pollen, indicating floral characteristics
of a climate warmer than today. However, one sample con-
tains pollen which suggests a climate as cold as today. The
diamicton also contains reworked pollen which was derived
from Eocene to Jurassic bedrock. This diamicton is clearly
associated with non-glacial conditions. Abov e this diamic-
ton is a 15 m (390–375 m) thick silty/clay bed containing
recycled pollen from Eocene to Jurassic rocks. It is
reversely magnetised and assigned to the Kaena or Mam-
moth subchron. This silty/clay bed is overlain by a 35-m-
thick diamicton and sand unit with normal polarity (Gauss)
at its base, and reve rsed polarity (earliest Matuyama) at the
top of the unit. This diamicton extends from 375 to 340 m
with the reversely magnetised sediments extending from
351 to 360.5 m. These sediments contain no plant macro-
fossils but do contain shells. This second diamicton, which
spans the Gauss–Matuyama boundary, contains a great
admixture of pollen types revealing herbaceous-shrub tun-
dra vegetation. This mix suggests cold (glacial?) conditions
for the second diamicton (Dallimore and Matthews, 1997).
Both diamicton units are predominantly clay-textured, with
varying amounts of granules and pebbles. No Shield erratics
were found in the diamicton. This second diamicton
(reversed) is underlain and overlain by normally magne-
tised sediments which are assigned to the Gauss Normal
Chron and the Olduvai normal subchron, respectively
(Fig. 49.15). Overlying this second diamicton are 80 m
(340–260 m) of conglomerate with silty sand beds and
sandy gravel beds containing organic debris, wood and
occasional shells (to the top). Several oxidised horizons
in the upper segment of this core interval may represent
palaeowater table levels. Polarity for this interval
indicates a reversed/normal/reversed/norm al/reversed
sequence, where the normal intervals are assigned to the
Reunion and Olduvai, respectively (Fig. 49.15). This inter-
val is overlain by about 115 m (260–145) of sandy/silt to
silty/sand beds some with organic detritus, wood and occa-
sional shells. This core interval records, from bottom to top,
an R–N–R polarity sequence which is assigned to the late
Matuyama (post-Olduvai), Jaramillo and latest Matuyama,
respectively. The overlying sediments (145–0 m) are all
normally magnetised (Brunhes Normal Chron) and from
bottom to top consist of massive sand with organic detritus,
silty beds grading to sand with minor laminations, clayey
silt and ice-rich organic silt of terrestrial and marine origin
to the top of the core.
The Kumak borecore,
at its
base, reveals a normally
magnetised diamicton (262–225 m) consisting of massive
pebbly/silty/clay (Fig. 49.15).
This lowest
segment of the
core (Late Pliocene) contains abundant pine, spruce, fir
and hemlock pollen (Dallimore and Matthews, 1997) which
is typical of Pliocene deposits in this region and points to a
climate warmer than present. A sharp contact separates this
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FIGURE 49.15 Taglu (450 m) and Kumak (260 m) cores collected from the Mackenzie Delta expose a continuous sequence of sediments which span the
late Gauss, Matuyama and Brunhes Chrons and include most, if not all, of the subchrons. While the sedimentology of the cores has not been fully studied, a
rich pollen assemblage has been obtained, which suggests that the Mackenzie Delta may have been impacted by early glaciations only (earliest Matuyama
to Gilsa; 2.58–1.6 Ma). Sandy pebbly diamicts and reworked pollen near the base of the cores are thought to mark glacial conditions.
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lower normally magnetised (Gauss age) diamict from the
pebbly reversely magnetised (earliest Matuyama) upper
diamict. The pebbly diamicton changes to sand interbedded
with clayey silt beds containing little or no organic detritus
(250–225 m) and reworked pollen. This pollen mix derived
from the upper diamicton contains a high percentage of
spruce and Polypodiaceae, a good indicator of poorly pre-
served, rebedded pollen. The low quantity of pollen and
organics detritus in addition to the sedimentological charac-
teristics of the diamicton suggests glacial conditions or the
initial sta ges of a cooling episode (earliest Matuyama, MIS
100?) (Dallimore and Matthews, 1997). Pebble litholog ies
were not available, precluding an estimate of the prove-
nance of the diamicts. The next core segment (225–
215 m) reveals silt interbedded with sand and clay, and
has no record of organic detritus. The pollen record near
the base of this core segment shows a decrease of spruce
and alder with fluctuations of Cupressaceae (juniper,
Thuya, etc.), Abies (fir), and pine, a low percentage of herbs,
and an increase of grasses and sedges. Further up the core
segment, pollen indicates a change to colder climate, with
increasing spruce, grasses, sedges and birch, and a decrease
of pine pollen. The lower part of the core (262–215 m)
records an N–R–N polarity sequence assigned to the late
Gauss, early Matuyama and Olduvai (Late Pliocene to Early
Pleistocene), respectively. The core segment between 215
and 174 m is predominantly reversely magnetised but con-
tains a short interval of normally magnetised sediments
assigned to the Gilsa subchron (1.5–1.55 Ma). This core
segment consists of sand with laminations and gravel at
the base. At a depth of 183 m, these sediments are high
in Picea (spruce) pollen but contain low amounts of pollen
from shrubs and herbs, indicating generally cool conditions,
with temperatures similar to today. The next core segment
(175–149 m) consists of reversely magnetised massive
sands, which have a generally low pollen count, and contain
three oxidised horizons which may indicate palaeowater
table conditions. Above these horizons, a sample rich in
pollen (Picea , Abies, Sambucus) indicates conditions
warmer that today. The core segment extending from 149
to 99 m consists of sandy/silt deposits with laminations,
rip-up clasts and wood detritus at the base, organic silt beds
increasing to the top containing reworked pollen. The sed-
iments reveal a reversed/nor mal (Jaramillo)/reversed/nor-
mal polarity sequence (assigned to the late Matuyama,
Jaramillo, latest Matuyama and early Brunhes). Between
99 and 74 m, the core sediments are composed of massive
sand with wood detritus and an oxidised horizon changing
to clayey sandy/silt with organics. They are normally mag-
netised (Brunhes). Pollen here consists of a high percentage
of Picea, little Pinus, and some reworked Cupressaceae.
From 75 to 49 m, sediments are clayey sandy silt, and con-
tain organics. They are normally magnetised (Brunhes) and
contain mos tly spruce pollen, very little pine, and about
10% Betula, and Alnus. The uppermost part of the Kumak
core (49–0 m) consists of silty clay to clayey silt with some
massive sandy beds containing wood detritus and shells,
and abundant spruce pollen.
49.3.3. Smoking Hills
An exposure along the West River, a tributary to the Horton
River near the coast of the northern mainland (Figs. 49.1–
49.3, 49.16), reveals
a sequence of multiple tills separated
by silty clay deposits, some of which contain organic mate-
rial. The surface till was deposited by continental (Lauren-
tide) ice, and a lag of boulders and cobbles of Canadian
Shield (Keewatin) provenance litter the landscape. The
Laurentide till is covered discontinuously by massive loess
(Duk-Rodkin and Barendregt, field notes 2004; Fig. 49.16).
The glacial sequence overlies preglacial sands and gravels
probably correlative with the Late Tertiary (Pliocene)
Beaufort Formation or the Olduvai age Worth Point Forma-
tion (Vincent, 1990). The preglacial deposits are underlain
by Upper Cretaceous shales. The glacial sequence consists
of three reversely magnetised tills separated by two silty
clay deposits (also reversed). The tills contain predomi-
nantly chert and quartzite pebble lithologies and minor con-
glomerate (< 1%). The silty/clay deposits may be remnants
of interglacial deposits. Pollen analysis is currently being
carried out for these units. The upper reversed till is trun-
cated by two silty/clay to clayey/silt and minor sand
deposits and is overlain by a thin lacustrine unit containing
minor mudflow lenses and minor organics. The lacustrine
unit has a palaeosol developed at its surface which is over-
lain by overbank deposits containing organic and wood
detritus. The units above the upper reversed till are all nor-
mally magnetised. A 13-cm diameter log (Larix sp.) was
found within the upper unit, suggesting that climatic condi-
tions at the time of deposition of this unit were similar to
those presently seen some 500 km to the south. Overlying
the organic rich interglacial deposit s is a till which is nor-
mally magnetised and contains pebble lithologies of a much
greater variety than lower units. These include dolomite,
siltstone, sandstone, chert, quartzite and gneiss. The till is
overlain by cryoturbated aeolian sand and loess with a
well-developed soil and scattered Laurentide glacial
erratics. Pebble lithologies of all the subsurface tills are
of local origin only, supporting the hypothesis that the
Horton ice cap (Duk-Rodkin et al., 2004; Barendregt and
Duk-Rodkin, 2011) was restricted to the local uplands only.
The normally magnetised till exhibits a larger variety
of lithologies which may indicate ice provenance from a
greater region, including perhaps Banks Island. It is impor-
tant to note that no shield lithologies were found in any of
the subsurface tills.
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FIGURE 49.16 West River (tributary of Horton River) in the Smoking Hills provides an extensive exposure of Matuyama and Brunhes age glacial and
interglacial deposits, overlying reversely magnetised preglacial deposits which may be late Beaufort Formation or younger (possibly Worth Point equiv-
alent?). The preglacial sediments contain ice-wedge casts suggesting cold conditions, and these were preserved by a glacial till which was deposited shortly
after their formation. Only the surface till (Late Wisconsin) contains Shield erratics. Pollen analysis of interglacial deposits is currently in progress.
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49.3.4. Banks Island
Evidence of older glacial deposits is recorded in sections
along the southern, western and eastern coasts of Banks
Island (Figs. 49.3 and 49.17–49.20). These deposits extend
back to the Early Pleistocene (Vincent et al., 1984;
Barendregt and Vincent, 1990; Vincent, 1990; Barendregt
and Irving, 1998). Preglacial (Worth Point Formation) sed-
iments are found above the Beaufort Formation which
occurs at the base of two sections (Figs. 49.17 and 49.18)
and are assigned to the Olduvai Subchron (1.95–
1.77 Ma). These fluvial, aeolian and colluvial deposits con-
tain buried peat and a palynological record indicating open
larch-dominated forest-tundra vegetation (Matthews et al.,
1986; Vincent, 1990). Overlying the preglacial Worth Point
Formation is a series of tills, collectively ref erred to the
Banks Glaciation(s), which may represent as many as four
separate glaciations during the interval 1.77–1.05 Ma. They
are overlain by interglacial deposits, including peat and soil,
which contain the Jaramillo Subchron (1.05–0.99 Ma at the
Morgan Bluffs Site; Fig. 49.19). These deposits in turn are
overlain by a reversely magnetised till of late Matuyama
age (unnamed glaciation), and interglacial silt deposits
and soil developed during the Brunhes/Matuyama transi-
tion. The Early Pleistocene glacial limit is marked by
deposits of the Banks Glaciation(s), which covered most
of the terrain except for the NW part of the island (Vincent,
1983). During this time, the Bernard and Plateau Tills of
northeastern Banks Island were also deposited. During
the Matuyam a Reversed Chron, sediments on Banks Island
provide a record of at least two and probably as many as five
glaciations and two interglaciations.
Evidence for two middle Pleistocene glaciations is found
on Banks Island, an unnamed glaciation, and the Thomsen
Glaciation, separated by an extensive suite of interglacial
sediments (unnamed interglaciation). These two glaciations
occurred between the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary
(0.78 Ma) and 0.13 Ma (Vincent, 1983; Barendregt et al.,
1998). They are underlain by deposits of an unnamed inter-
glacial which spans the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary
(Fig. 49.3), and is overlain by marine transgressive sedi-
ments and organic beds of the interglacial Cape Collinson
Formation (Vincent, 1992). These glacio-marine sediments
contain in situ shells which yielded dates of > 37 ka (GS C-
3698) and a U/Th age estimate of 85.9–130.0  11.9 ka
(UQT-143) (Vincent, 1992). These deposits are therefore
FIGURE 49.17 Composite stratigraphy at Duck Hawk Bluffs sections indicates preglacial (Olduvai) sediments overlain by a sequence of two reversed
tills and one normal till, as well as glacio-marine and interglacial deposits.
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FIGURE 49.18 Worth Point stratigraphy exposes (at its base) an extensive sequence of reversely magnetised preglacial sediments which contain the
Olduvai subchron (1.97–1.78 Ma) which is overlain by a Brunhes age till and marine deposits.
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FIGURE 49.19 Nelson River Bluffs expose an extensive sequence of reversely magnetised tills overlain by normally magnetised interglacial deposits
and three tills.
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considered to be of Sangamonian age (80–130 ka) and the
underlying till of the Thomsen Glaciation is pre-Sangamo-
nian, and most likely of Middle Pleistocene age (250 ka
(MIS) 8?). Apart from the stratigraphy, there is no geomor-
phological evidence for these two Middle Pleistocene glaci-
ations. However, it is thought that the Thomsen Glaciation
marks the northern extent of Middle Pleistocene-ice in
NW Canada. It reached the south-central part of the island
and must have travelled along the eastern coast, cutting
across the north-e ast of the island, and bordered along the
Plateau Hills to the west, south and east. Thomsen Glaciation
deposits were over-ridden along their middle-eastern extent
by Late Pleistocene ice (Early Wisconsinan Amundsen Gla-
ciation; Vincent, 1983). This limit was considered to be of
Late Wisconsinan age by variou s authors, and this age has
recently been verified by England et al., 2009.
1. Duck Hawk Bluffs. These sites contain 11 lithostratigra-
phical units (Figs. 49.3 and 49.17; Matthews et al ., 1986;
Vincent, 1990 ). Reversely magnetised aeolian sedi-
ments and associated pond deposits assigned to the
Worth Point Formation overlie fluvial facies of the
Pliocene (Gauss Normal Chron) Beaufort Formation.
These are overlain by marine sediments, and two
tills (pre-Jaramillo age Banks Glaciations), all of which
are reversed. Above these deposits are reversely
magnetised interglacial colluvial, fluvial and aeolian
deposits (Late Matuyama) (Vincent, 1992). These
are overlain by marin e and woody peat deposits which
record periglacial and interglacial conditions, and
at their base record the Brunhes/Matuyama boundar y,
and at their upper contact are overlain by Late
Pleistocene till (Amundson Glaciation) and Holocene
deposits.
2. Worth Point Bluffs. At Worth Point (Figs. 49.3 and
49.18), three units occur above Pliocene fluvial coastal
plain sediments of the Beaufort Formation. The lowest
unit is composed of preglacial colluvium and paludal
deposits which contain a rich palaeoflora and fauna
(Matthews et al., 1986; Vincent, 1990), indicating that
climatic conditions were sufficiently warm to allow
conifer growth. The unit is reversely magnetised, except
FIGURE 49.20 The composite stratigraphy at
Morgan Bluffs exposes a long sequence of
marine and paludal sediments and three tills
(all reversed). A short normal interval occurs
near the middle of the section and is assigned
to the Jaramillo. The two upper tills are normally
magnetised and assigned to the Brunhes.
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for a 2-m-thick subunit comprising paludal (pond)
deposits, which is normally magnetised and assigned
to the Olduvai subchron, based on an extensive
sequence of reversely magnetised sediments which
overlie this unit at other localities, and the generally
warmer than modern conditions which prevailed during
the Early Pleistocene. This unit is overlain by perigla-
cially reworked till (normal), which in turn is overlain
by sands and gravels (normal) laid down during a
marine transgression associated with the pre-Sangamon
Thomsen Glaciation.
3. Nelson River Bluffs. The
Nelson River
Bluffs
(Fig. 49.19) expose 13 lithostratigraphical units which
are assigned
to the Matuyama (post-Olduvai) and
Brunhes Chrons (Barendregt et al., 1998). At their base,
the sequence consists of two reversed tills and a marine
boulder lag, which in turn is overlain by two additional
reversed tills. The four tills were deposited by the Banks
Glaciations, and all are post-Olduvai–pre-Jaramillo in
age. These tills are overlain by a Brunhes sequence,
comprising a till, marine sands, thick interglacial
sediments, and in situ peat units interbedded in a peri-
marine delta sequence. It is overlain by two tills (Thom-
sen Glaciation) separated by a silt bed containing
organics (interglacial). Overlying these tills are a few
metres of rythmites and deltaic sands and gravels asso-
ciated with deglaciation, which in turn are overlain by
the Amundsen till of Latest Pleistocene age (Late
Wisconsinan).
4. Morgan Bluffs Site (composite). At
these bluffs,
13
lithostratigraphic units have been recognised from out-
crops at many sections (Fig. 49.20).
The first five units
record
the first glaciation(s) (Banks Glaciations includ-
ing the Bernard Till) and associated high and low sea-
stand deposits. They are reversely magnetised and pre-
date the Jaramillo (1.05–0.99 Ma). These units are over-
lain by interglacial deposits, which are also reversely
magnetised, but contain a normally magnetised large
ice-wedge cast near its up per contact, which is assigned
to the Jaramil lo (Barendregt et al., 1998). These units
are in turn overlain by reversely magnetised till and
associated high and low sea-stand deposits (post-Jara-
millo, Latest Matuyama). The three upper units are nor-
mally magnetised tills associated with the Thomsen and
Amundsen Glaciations.
49.4. NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
1. Sezill Creek. This site is located in a Plio–Pleistocene vol-
canic complex (Fig. 49.21). A ba
salt unit forming the
base of this section is dated between 6.1 and 7.1 Ma. It
is overlain by a diamicton (till?) and sandy sediments
which have a reversed polarity (Gilbert–Gauss? early
Matuyama?). These are overlain by a boulder lag, fol-
lowed by a diamict and overlying rythmites. Up section
is a coarse to medium diamict (MIS 34?) containing
striated clasts (intrusive and metamorphic megaclasts),
and isolated pockets of openwork gravels (till). The gla-
cial event that deposited this till was regional in scope,
based on clast lithologies. Continuing up section, two tills
are preserved between three basalt flows bracketed
between a 1.1 Ma (Pyramid Formation) and a 1.0 Ma
(Ice Peak Formation(s); Souther, 1992; Spooner et al.,
1995). The lower till contains exotic megaclasts,
rare pyroclastic debris, and several erosional contacts
which may represent several glacial events. The upper
till (MIS 30) interfingers with lacustrine tuff at a
section approximately 5 km to the east of Sezill
Creek section, indicating that the Pyramid Formation
basalt is coeval with the glacial event that deposited this
lower till. The top of the section is covered by a thick
colluvial unit which is overlain by a reversed (post-Jara-
millo) basalt.
2. Tahltan/Stikine River. T
he se
diments recorded at the
Tahltan Canyon and Stikine River sites are glacial
and non-glacial in origin. They overlie bedrock of
Triassic age. A composite stratigraphy of the two sites
is presented in Fig. 49.22.
The deposits have been pre-
serv
ed beneath Pleistocene basalt flows from Mount
Edziza and have yielded normal polarity (Brunhes
Chron) (Spooner et al.,1996). These sediments record
a regional glaciation from the Coast Mountains of
British Columbia. The initial ice blocked the Stikine
River, forming a glacial lake and glaciofluvial
delta. Basalts were deposited on fluvial as well as gla-
ciofluvial sediments. The basalt flow (K–Ar age of
0.30 0.03 Ma) at the top of the section contains hyalo-
clastic/palagonite minerals indicating that it was depos-
ited in water, or in association with ice. The deposits
beneath the basalt consist of horizontally bedded,
cross-bedded, massive and laminated sands interbedded
with thin diamictons.
49.5. SOUTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
49.5.1. Merritt Sections (Composite)
Deposits exposed along Lily Lake Road, and the Cold-
water River in the vicinity of Merritt, Bri tish Columbia
(Fulton et al., 1992),
contains
evidence of five glaciations
and six interglaciations (Fig. 49.23). At the base of the-
sequence, proglacial lacustrine sedim ents and overlying
glacio-lacustrine sediments are separated by a Cherno-
zemic palaeosol and are reversely magnetised. The
intervening soil indicates that these lacustrine sediments
represent two separate glaciations. These units are
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unconforma b ly overlai n by interglacia l sediment s con-
taining a tephra (> 670 ka) at its base and a palaeosol near
the top. The Brunhes/Matuyama boundary occurs directly
above the palaeosol. The palaeosol and underlying
sediments are reversely magnetised, while the uppermost
interglacial sediments are normally magnetised. The lat-
ter are overlain by a suite of glacial deposits and are nor-
mally magnetised. The age of these glacial deposits
cannot be further constrained at this time, but it is possible
that this glaciation occurred relat ively soon after the erup-
tion of a 0.6  0.4Manormallymagnetisedvalleybasaltin
the Merritt basin because the boulder lag (Fig. 49.23)is
made up of material derived from this basalt, and the basalt
is striated. The basalt was deposited during an interglacial
period. The suite of glacial sediments containing the
basalt boulder lag was succeeded by at least two additional
glaciations, a penultimate glaciat ion, and the Late Pleisto-
cene (Wisconsin) Fras er Glaci ation.
49.6. REGIONAL CORRELATIONS
The NW Canadian glacial/interglacial record of the
Late Cenozoic is preserved in a large number of sites which
have been studied by various authors. The most complete
stratigraphical record has been obtained from sites in the
Yukon, northern Interior Plains and British Columbia. These
sites (Fig. 49.1, sites 1–5 and 8–10) record multiple Cordil-
leran and/or montane glaciations, as well as periods of soil
formation and loess deposition. The glacial/interglacial
deposits overlie a preglacial stratigraphy, which in most
cases is marked by a regional unconformity. Other sites
record multiple plateau and/or continental glacial deposits
overlying preglacial fluvial stratigraphy, and these records
are less extensive than that seen in the cordillera (Fig. 49.1,
sites 11–17). A third group of sites (Fig. 49.1, sites 6, 7,
18–20) provides a record of glaciations (tills) preserved
between lava flows.
FIGURE 49.21 Sezill Creek section near Mount Edziza,
northern B.C. exposes a sequence of basalts and interbedded
glacial sediments. The base of the section exposes a normally
magnetised basalt (6.1–7.1 Ma) overlain by three tills sepa-
rated by glaciofluvial and glacio-lacustrine deposits. These
sequences are overlain by four basalts units and interbedded
tills spanning the Jaramillo and latest Matuyama.
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Sites within the Tintina Trench (Figs. 49.3–49.6) con-
tain the most complete Late Cenozoic stratigraphy, and
other study sites are compared to this group. The Tintina
Trench sites provide a robust magnetostratigraphy with
clear polarity chron s and subchrons which can be
reliably correlated with the global Geomagnetic Polarity
Timescale (Fig. 49.24). Other sites provide radiometric
ages (tephra, basalt, organics) and exposure dates (
36
Cl) that
have further refined the ages of these deposits. When this
magnetostratigraphy is combined with sites throughout
NW Canada, an extensive lithostratigraphy is developed
which can be correlated with the marine isotope record
and provides mappable evidence of the extent and timing
of glaciations.
In the Tintina Trench, 10 glacial units and seven non-
glacial units span a substantial portion of the Quaternary
record, and this record is evidently more extensive than
those found at other sites in NW Canada. Data from the
Mackenzie Mountains and Banks Island in the NWT
reveals two additional glaciations within the Brunhes Chron
which are not found elsewhere (Fig. 49.3; Duk- Rodkin and
Barendregt, 2004).
49.7. LATE PLIOCENE PREGLACIAL
SEDIMENTS AND THE FIRST GLACIATION
(MIS G6)
49.7.1. The Cordillera
Pliocene and older Tertiary unconsolidated preglacial sed-
iments are found in many sectio ns in the Northern Cordil-
lera, but few of these sediments have been dated. Along the
Tintina Trench and on the northern slopes of the Klondike
Plateau (upper White Channel Gravels), excellent
exposures of preglacial gravels occur. They are largely
composed of sands and gravels deposited as alluvial
fans, and locally occur as mudflow deposits and
FIGURE 49.22 The composite of the Tahltan and Stikine
sections reveals a sequence of Brunhes age glacial sedi-
ments: glacio-lacustrine and glaciofluvial beds and a till.
In addition, one basalt (0.30 Ma) bed occurs between out-
wash units near the surface of the outcrop.
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FIGURE 49.23 The composite of the sections near Merritt, in southern B.C. expose from bottom to top, a sequence of reversely magnetised glacio-
lacustrine and interglacial sediments containing a tephra (> 0.670 Ma) and palaeosol. Above these deposits is a normal basalt (0.60  0.4 Ma) which
is overlain by outwash deposits and two tills (all normal) representing up to three glaciations.
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ponded silts, clays and minor sands. In the Tintina Trench,
they occur above a major Miocene–Pliocene unconformity
which separates tilted Miocene sands and conglomerates
from horizontal Pliocene preglacial fluvial deposits.
The tilted beds contain Pterocarya and Tsuga pollen
grains which argues for a Miocene and older age for the sed-
iments and indicates warm climatic conditions
(Duk-Rodkin et al., 2001) while the preglacial conformable
FIGURE 49.24 Zones of low amplitude oscillation in the LR04 composite d
18
O record during the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene are considered to be
periods of regional denudation and pediment formation, and are compared to the glacial/interglacial record of NW Canada. Geomagnetic polarity time-
scale is based on (Cande and Kent, 1995; Gradstein et al., 2004) and composite d
18
O LR04 marine isotopic record (relative palaeotemperature) is
obtained from multiple deep ocean cores (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). The base of the Pleistocene (2.58 Ma) and new subdivisions of the Pliocene
and Pleistocene follow the recently ratified convention described in Gibbard et al. (2010). Black and white areas are normal and reversed polarity,
respectively. Marine Isotope Stages (MISs) are labelled on LR04 (even numbers represent colder (glacial) and odd numbers warmer (interglacial) con-
ditions). MIS numbering scheme follows Ruddiman et al. (1986, 1989), Raymo et al. (1989) and Raymo (1992) from present to MIS 104, and Shackleton
et al. (1995) in the Gauss Chron. Vertical line marks Holocene mean d
18
O(Raymo 1992). Suggested correlation of glacial deposits to cold stages in the
marine isotopic record (blue squares) is shown to the right of Geomagnetic Polarity Timescale. There are three types of glacial regimes shown (Cor-
dilleran/montane, Plateau and Keewatin glaciations). Suggested correlation of soil forming periods to warm stages in the marine isotopic record is shown
with red squares. G18 (2.97 Ma)—First Cordilleran glaciation in Yukon; *G10—Worldwide cooling commences; **G6—First global glacial event coin-
cides with final closure of Panama Isthmus, start of Chinese loess/palaeosol sequences, and appearance of genus Homo; MIS 25–21—Marks onset of
pronounced glacial/interglacial cyclicity.
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beds above have an assemblage with Polemonium pollen
grains indicative of cooler conditions. The preglacial
deposits in the Tintina Trench have been assigned to MIS
G19 because the Polemonium asse mblage argues for a cool
climate, and after stage G19 the isotopic record reveals a
strong cooling trend leading to the first glaciation (G18)
in the area (Fig. 49.3). These deposits are correlated with
the nearby Klondike Wash stratigraphy (22 km to the south)
reported by Froese et al. (2000) who provided evidence for
the interfingering of White Channel gravels and the first
glacial outwash in the region (Klondike Wash) during the
late Gauss. These beds are considered to be equivalent to
the preglacial White Channel grave ls based on the
presence there of the 3.0  0.33 Ma Quartz Creek tephra
(Sandhu et al., 2000), pollen (late Miocene or younger)
and normal pola rity sedimen ts (of probable Gauss age, Fro-
ese et al., 2000; Duk-Rodkin et al., 2001).
In the absence of tephra dates in the Tintina Trench, the
reversed
polarity
of unit 1a at WFR cannot be assigned with
confidence to Kaena, Mammoth or Gilbert, but may be
equivalent to the Kaena age upper White Channel gravels
reported in Froese et al. (2000).
The
sediments are older
than 3.18 Ma (base of upper Gauss normal) and older than
the preglacially ponded deposits at RC which contain Pol-
emonium pollen and a normal Gauss polarity and therefore
are broadly correlative to the upper White Channel gravels.
At the Fort Selkirk volcanic complex, the Lower Mush-
room
site contain
s gravels which may be associated with the
first glaciation and is overlain by basalt dated at
2.32  0.13 Ma (Westgate et al.,
2001). Th
is gravel deposit
is thought to be glacial in origin, based on clast lithologies,
although this cannot be said with certainty. If it is glacia l in
origin, then this first glaciation in the area likely occurred
around or before 2.3 Ma (Fig. 49.10).
In the Mackenzie Mountains, preglacial deposits are
found
at the
KC and LB sections (Figs. 49.3, 49.13 and
49.14). At thes
e sites, the preglacial deposits are mostly
coarse subangular gravel with minor fine sand and silt
developed on bedrock pediments (Duk-Rodkin et al.,
1996). These deposits (colluvium/diamicton/till?) have a
weathering horizon at its upper contact and are normally
magnetised (Gauss Normal Chron) and may be equivalent
to the preglacial sediments at the base of RC (unit 1b).
Alternatively, it may be correlated to the till at RC (RC unit
2). At the IB section, the preglacial gravels are thick alluvial
fan deposits (Palaeocene, Summit Creek Formation) which
overlie bedrock.
49.7.2. Northern Interior Plains
In the northern Interior Plains of Canada, three separate
regions, each with multiple sites, record glacial deposits
laid down by local ice caps. The glacial history of the
Mackenzie Delta region is characterised on the basis of
two long cores (Taglu and Kumak). In the Taglu core, silty
sand sediments (normal) at the base of the core are consid-
ered to be preglacial fluvial deposits. They are followed by
a sequence of mudflow, lacustrine, fluvial sand and diamic-
ton deposits. This diamict is non-glacial in origin and is nor-
mally magnetised (Gauss Chron). At the base of the Kumak
core, normally magnetised silty cla y diamicton (mudflow)
contains pollen of warmer/preglacial conditions, and is
therefore assigned to the late Gauss Chron. This non-glacial
diamicton grades to a glacial diamicton at the Gauss/
Matuyama boundary ( Fig. 49.15).
In sharp contrast to the Late Pliocene preglacial sedi-
men
ts descr
ibed for the Mackenzie Delta cores and the
Smoking Hills, the Banks Island record reveals an Early
Pleistocene age for the preglacial sediments underlying
the first till (Worth Point, Fig. 49.18),
based on
a suite of
normally magnetised paludal deposits contained within a
much more extensive silt, sand and aeolian sequence, which
is reversed. The first glaciation on Banks Island (Barendregt
et al., 1998) is post-Olduvai (late Matuyama, MIS 58?).
49.8. EARLIEST MATUYAMA GLACIATIONS
(2.2–2.6 MA, MIS 100 OR 98 OR 96)
49.8.1. The Cordillera
At the Tintina Trench RC and EFR sites, a reversely magne-
tised till (unit 3) represents an early Matuyama glaciation
(the second glaciation to affect this region). Morphologic
evidence of this early Matuyama glaciation is recorded on
two terrace outwash remnants in the lower Klondike Valley
which are loess covered, and these loesses are reversely mag-
netised (Froese et al.,
2000) (see
Dawson map, Duk-Rodkin,
1996). The till of this second glaciation is overlain by thin
beds of fine sands and silts and a well-developed luvisol from
which palaeomagnetic samples were collected. Like the till
parent material below, the soil yielded a reversed polarity.
The soil forming period has been tentatively correlated with
the Bigbendian marine transgression (Fig. 49.24) in Alaska,
and with isotope stage 97. At the WFR section, unit 3 may or
may not be present. The extensive vertical outcrop precluded
detailed assessment.
This early Matuyama glaciation may or may not be pre-
sent
in the
Mackenzie Mountains as there is only one pre-
Olduvai reversed till recorded there (Figs. 49.3, 49.13 and
49.14).
Deposits
of this glaciation may also be present at the
base of Sezill Creek section in northern British Columbia,
but this cannot be stated with certainty (Figs. 49.3 and
49.21).
49.8.2. Northern Interior Plains
In the northern Interior Plains (Fig. 49.3), evidence for an
early Matuyama glaciation is found in the Mackenzie Delta
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(reversely magnetised diamicts in the lower part of the
Taglu and Kumak cores, below the Reunion normal sub-
chron, Fig. 49.15). In the Mackenzie Delta cores, the dia-
micton marking the first glaciation in this region extends
across the Gauss/Matuyama boundary, changing its charac-
teristics from non-glacial to glacial, and from normal to
reversed polarity. In the Smoking Hills area, along the West
River, one of the three exposures described in Duk-Rodkin
et al. (2004) has yielded much additional information. The
West River exposure reveals preglacial gravels with wood
detritus and other organic debris at the base. These gravels
may be the Late Pliocene Beaufort, or may be considerably
younger (Worth Point equivalent). The gravels yield a
reversed polarity, most likely the Mammoth or Kaena sub-
chron within the Gauss Chron. This preglacial deposit con-
tains sand-wedges developed at its upper contact indicating
cold (periglacial/c ryogenic) conditions following deposi-
tion of the host sediments. The same ice-wedges are, in
places, fill ed with diamicton (till) (Fig. 49.16) which is
reversely magnetised. The preservation of the underlying
ice-wedge cast argues for till deposition fairly soon after
the formation of the ice wedge, which otherwise would
probably have been destroyed by subaerial processes. This
event likely records the first glaciation on the northwest
continental Arctic coast. This event may be correlative with
the first glacial event in the Mackenzie Delta cores, and
with sediments of the second glaciation in the Cordilleran
stratigraphy (MIS 10 0?, Fig. 49.3). It is unlikely that ice
from the Horton Plateau Icecap (Smoking Hills; Duk-
Rodkin et al., 2004) reached the Mackenzie Delta because
of the distance between the two sites (> 400 km) and the
very low ice gradient which would have existed. Further,
the presence of the Horton Plateau Ice cap would preclude
continental (Laurentide) ice from reaching the Mackenzie
Delta region, and therefore the glacial diamicts at the bot-
tom of Taglu and Kumak cores are almost certainly of local
origin. The only possible loca l source would be the Aklavi k
Range, where geomorphologic evidence suggests the pres-
ence of pre-L ate Pleist ocene piedmont glaciers (Duk-
Rodkin and Hughes, 1992).
49.9. EARLY MATUYAMA GLACIATION
(1.98–2.15 MA, MIS 78)
49.9.1. The Cordillera
At the Tintina Trench RC site, an extensive mudflow
deposit of glacial origin (unit 4; Fig. 49.4) overlies deposits
of two
older glaciations. The mudflow has a silty clay
matrix and was further enriched in clays as a result of a pro-
longed period of moderate weathering and translocation of
surface clays from a > 2-m-thick regosolic soil developed at
its surface. No pola rity was obtained from these sediments,
but it is overlain by a normally magnetised outwash
(Olduvai subchron, unit 5) and underlain by a reversely
magnetised (early Matuyama) till/luvisolic palaeosol
(unit 3, MIS 100 and Bigbendian marine transgression).
The mudflow (unit 4) is tentatively correlated with the Fish-
creekian marine transgression in Alaska (MIS 78). This unit
may be equivalent to the pre-Olduvai reversely magnetised
till present at any of the Mackenzie Mountains sites: KC,
LB, IB.
49.9.2. Northern Interior Plains
The early Matuyama glaciation is represe nted in the Taglu
core by reversely magnetised sediments composed predom-
inantly of coarse gravel congl omerate (outwash?) which are
underlain by normally magnetised sediments assigned to
the Reunion normal subchron. In the Kumak core, this unit
is a diamicton occurring between normally magnetised sed-
iments of the Reunion and Olduvai. There were no macro-
fossils recovered from this core interval, and it was not
possible to determine whether these sediments are glacial
or non-glacial in nature.
At the Smoking Hills section, this unit may be equiva-
lent to one of the upper two reversely magnetised tills
(Fig. 49.16).
49.10. OLDUVAI GLACIATION
(1.75–1.98 MA, MIS 70?)
49.10.1. The Cordillera
At the Tintina Trench RC and EFR sites, a suite of normally
magnetised glacial sediments and overlyin g palaeosol
(unit 5) occur between the underlying glacial mudflow
(unit 4) and an overlying outwash (unit 6) which is reversely
magnetised and thus limits the age of unit 5 to the Olduvai
subchron. Unit 5 consists of an outwash overlain by a till on
which a weathering horizon was developed. The sharp
unconformity between the weathering horizon and the over-
lying outwash may suggest truncation of what was at one
time a fully developed palaeosol. Evidence also exists in
the Mackenzie Mountains for a probable Olduvai age
glaciation (Duk-Rodkin et al., 1996)
on
which a well-
developed luvisol is found; both till and soil are normally
magnetised.
49.10.2. Northern Interior Plains
In the Mackenzie Delta cores, deposits of Olduvai age
include fluvial sediments (Taglu core) and marine clays
(Kumak core) indicating interglacial conditions. In the
Smoking Hills, normally magnetised interglacial lacustrine
deposits with a palaeosol overlain reversed tills may be of
Olduvai age. Likewise, paludal (preglacial Worth Point)
deposits on Banks Island (Fig. 49.18)
are
normally
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magnetisedand assigned to the Olduvai subchron(Barendregt
etal.,1998).Macrofossils and pollen ofthesedeposits indicate
non-glacial conditions. The first glaciation to affect Banks
Island developed shortly after the end of the Olduvai normal
subchron.
49.11. LATE MATUYAMA GLACIATIONS
(1.06–1.78 MA, MIS 58, 34)
49.11.1. The Cordillera
Reversely magnetised outwash and diamicton (till) deposits
occurring between the Olduvai and Jaramillo subchrons are
found at the RC and EFR sites, respectively (unit 6;
Figs. 49.3–49.6).
The palaeoso
l developed on the till at
EFR is a gleysol and is also reversely magnetised. Both
units are post-Olduvai in age. The age between 1.78 and
1.06 Ma represents one of the MISs in the range of 60–58
or 38–34. The most likely candidate is MIS 58 because
the till in all likelihood correlates with a reversely magne-
tised till and outwash at Fort Selkirk occurring directly
below the Gilsa subchron (an interglacial, falling some-
where between MIS 55 and 51; Fig. 49.11).
At the MD site on the Klondike Plateau, the upper
Matuyama
is represe
nted by an extensive loess stratigraphy
deposited under both glacial and interglacial conditions (at
least three separate interglaciations; Fig. 49.8).
The lower
part of
the exposure contains reversely magnetised loess
with interg lacial pollen, the Mosquito Gulch tephra
(1.45 Ma), loesses deposited under glacial conditions
(MIS 34?), another tephra (MD, 1.09 Ma), and ice-wedge
casts in which a palaeosol (cryosol) is developed. In the
upper half of the MD section is a unit of normally magne-
tised loess (Jaramillo, MIS 29?) in which a luvisol is devel-
oped, and is overlain by reversed loess, normal loess (B/M
boundary marked by colluvial organic silt or yedoma), and
finally by colluviated loess (yedoma) at the top (normal,
Brunhes age) (Froese et al., 2000).
At Fort Selkirk Cave, Mushroom and Fossil sites
reversely
magnetised
outwash and till (Fig. 49.11) were
deposited during
MIS 58, and overlying reversely magne-
tised interglacial deposits (MIS 57) contain the Fort Selkirk
tephra (1.48  0.11 Ma) which in turn are overlain by nor-
mally magnetised silts (Gilsa subchron, 1.58–1.60 Ma), in
turn overlain by reversely magnetised post-G ilsa intergla-
cial paludal deposits containing fossils (MIS 55?) (Jackson
et al., 1996; Nelson et al., 2009).
At the Sezill Creek site (Mount Edziza, B.C., Fig. 49.20),
reversely
magnetised
glacial deposits at the base of the
exposure are underlain by a diamicton (till?), which in turn
is underlain by 6.1–7.1 Ma basalt. The glacial deposits and
diamict are overlain by a series of undated deposit s (glacio-
lacustrine, outwash gravels, diamicton (till?), glacio-lacus-
trine and two further diamicts (tills?)). This sequence is
capped by a reversely magnetised basalt (1.0 Ma), and three
interbedded tills and basalts for which only polarity data is
available. Each basalt and till pair is assumed to be of sim-
ilar age, and the pairs are assigned to MIS 32, 30 and 26,
respectively. At the Sezill Creek site, there are two addi-
tional glacial packages beneath the reversely magnetised
basalt (1.0 Ma) and above the lowermost till. There are
no records of more than two glaciations between the Oldu-
vai and Jaramillo subchrons in the stratigraphy of northwest
Canada, possibly due to the low amplitude and uniform
fluctuation of climate duri ng the time interval between
MIS 56–37 (Fig. 49.24), and therefore these two glaciations
probably occurred after MIS 37 (1.22 Ma) and before
1.0 Ma and are most likely MIS 36 and 34 cold events.
The lower most diamicton (till?) at the Sezill Creek section
may be correlative to MIS 58 or may correspond to a much
older (pre-Olduvai) glacia l event.
Finally, at the Merritt section in British Columbia
(Fig. 49.23),
there are two sets of glacio-lacustrine deposits
separated
by a pala eosol (all reversed) which may be Late
Matuyama, based on a minimum age of 0.670 Ma on an
overlying tephra, and may therefore have been deposited
by glaciations which occurred between the Olduvai and
Jaramillo (MIS 78?, 70?, 58?, 34?).
49.11.2. Interior Plains
Post-Olduvai–pre-Jaramillo age sediments are present in
the cores of the Mackenzie Delta (Fig. 49.15). However,
it
is not possible to determine with certainty whether these
sediments are glacial or non-glacial in nature. The bulk of
the evidence would suggest that the sediments are non-gla-
cial. In the Smoking Hills, two reversed upper tills under-
lain by reversed glacio-lacustrine (?) sediments and
overlain by a normal polarity sequence may correspond
to MIS 58 and/or MIS 34 (Fig. 49.15).
On Banks Island, reversely magnetised preglacial palu-
dal
deposits
containing the Olduvai subchron (Worth Point
Formation at the Worth Point site, Fig. 49.18) are assigned
to the
late Matuyama. One of the two reversed tills at Duck
Hawk Bluffs, one of the four reversed tills at Nelson River
and one of the two reversed tills at Morgan Bluffs may cor-
respond to MIS 58 and/or 34 (Fig. 49.3).
49.12. JARAMILLO SUBCHRON
GLACIATION (0.99–1.05 MA, MIS 30)
49.12.1. The Cordillera
At the Tintina Trench RC site, a normally magnetised out-
wash (unit 7; Fig. 49.4) is underlain by reversely magne-
tised sediments
. The upper contact of the outwash forms
an unconformity with blocks of sediment that are reversed
Chapter 49 Stratigraphical Record of Glacials/Interglacials in Northwest Canada
693
Author's personal copy

(unit 8). At WFR, this period of time is represented by loess
(unit 7) which is not found at EFR.
Normally magnetised loess deposits of Jaramillo age
occur
in the
Klondike Plateau at the MD site (Fig. 49.8).
The loess deposits
contain pollen and a palaeosol (luvisol)
in the middle part of the loess unit. They are overlain by a
diamict containing reworked pockets of the palaeosol and
are also considered to be of Jara millo age. Both loess and
diamict are thought to have been deposited during interg la-
cial conditions (MIS 31?). Above the diamict is a massive
loess, which is reversely magnetised (Froese et al., 2000).
Within the Fort Selkirk Volcanic complex, Ca ve, Mush-
room
and Fossi
l sites contain glacial erratics and striae over
a basalt surface (1.33  0.07 Ma). It is assumed that the gla-
cial event that left the erratics and the striae on this surface
basalt corresponds to one of MIS 36, 34, 30?
At the Mount Edziza Sezill Creek site (Fig. 49.20),
Jaramil
lo age
deposits are thought to be represented by a
diamicton (till?) (MIS 30?) overlain by a normal basalt
(undated) occurring within a sequence of reversed basalts
and interbedded diamictons (tills?).
49.12.2. Interior Plains
The Jaramillo subchron occurs in interglacial massive sand
and silt with reworked organics, wood detritus and shells, in
the Taglu and Kumak cores in the Mackenzie Delta.
The West River site in the Smoking Hills has several
metres of interglacial sediments separated by a palaeosol,
all of which are normal ly magnetised. It is not certain
whether this normal interval is of Jaramillo age or is entirely
within the Brunhes Normal Chron. Pollen analysis of this
unit is still ongoing.
On Banks Island, Jaramillo age deposits occur only at the
Morgan Bluffs Sites (Barendregt et al.,
1998) whe
re normal
sediments occur within ice-wedge casts. The cryog enic poly-
gons formed in reversely magnetised interglacial sediments
deposited immediately before the Jaramillo (MIS 32) and the
infilling occurred during the Jaramillo (MIS 31).
49.13. LATEST MATUYAMA GLACIATION
(0.99–0.78 MA, MIS 20 OR 22)
49.13.1. The Cordillera
At the Tintina Trench RC site, post-Jaramillo outwash
gravels (unit 8) and loess at both EFR and WFR (unit 8)
are reversely magnetised and are overlain by normally mag-
netised (Brunhes) loess (unit 9) containing pollen. At RC,
unit 8 is a remnant of glacial deposits (pockets of outwash
sediment) preserved intermittently along an erosional and
discontinuous contact. On the Klondike Plateau at the
MD site, reversely magnetised sediments overlie Jaramillo
age interglacial deposits (Froese et al.,2
00
0). These
deposits are discontinuous organic silts and diamicts with
interbedded organics. They are interglacial and were prob-
ably deposited during (MIS 21?).
At the Sezill Creek site near Mount Edziza, post-Jara-
millo reversed
basalt and interbedded diamicton (till?)
extend to the top of the section.
Atthe Merritt sitesinsouthern British Columbia,there are
reversely magnetised proglacial lacustrine and glacio-lacus-
trine deposits separated by a palaeosol (Chernozem). They
are stratigraphically below reversely magnetised interglacial
sediments containing a tephra dated at > 0.67 Ma. These
interglacial deposits have a palaeosol at their upper contact
which is also reversed, and are overlain by normally magne-
tised interglacial deposits marking the Brunhes/Matuyama
boundary. The reversely magnetised interglacial sediments
are thought to be latest Matuyama, while the age of the under-
lying reversely magnetised glacio-lacustrine deposits are
less well constrained.
49.13.2. Interior Plains
In the Mackenzie Delta cores, the latest Matuyama is repre-
sented by silty sand in the Taglu core and by organic rich silt
interbedded with clay laminations in the Kumak core
(Fig. 49.15).
The West River site in the Smoking Hills contains
three
reversed
tills which could be assigned to any of the gla-
cial intervals within the Matuyama Chron (Fig. 49.16),
and it
may be
that the top reversed till is late Matuyama in age.
On Banks Island, the Morgan Bluffs Sit es are the only
sites
with Jaramil
lo age deposits and als o reveal post-
Jaramillo (reversed) glacial sediments which can confi-
dently be assigned to the latest Matuyama. This latest
Matuyama sequence contains a till which is underlain
and overlain by glacio-marine sediments (all reversed).
The till was most probably deposited during MIS 22 or 20?
49.14. EARLY BRUNHES GLACIATIONS
(0.78–0.40 MA, MIS 18, 16 AND 12?)
49.14.1. The Cordillera
The Brunhes–Matuyama boundary is present in most strat-
igraphical records in NW Canada. In the Tintina Trench at
the RC site, the top normally magnetised outwash (unit 9,
Fig. 49.4 )
unconformably overlies reversely magnetised
outwash
(latest Matuyama). Loess of equivalent age occurs
at EFR and WFR sections. Significant cold periods are
recorded worldwide for MIS 16 and 12, and it is likely that
the outwash and loess was deposited at this time. The loess
deposits of unit 9 do not reveal any clear sedimentary break
with unit 8. Polarity changes which are not accompanied by
stratigraphical boundaries are commonly reported for loess.
Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology694
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Stratigraphically, these early Brunhes deposits (unit 9)
are bracketed between two interglacials, a lower one which
is represented by the pollen assemblage found at EFR site
and an upper one which is represented by a palaeosol
(“Wounded Moose” type luvisol). The lower contact occurs
at MIS 19 (the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary) and the upper
contact falls somewhere in the range of MIS 17–11 (strong
warm spikes in the oceanic dO
18
record). The 1.2-m-thick
luvisol which was developed on the outwash at RC is a typ-
ical Wounded Moose type palaeosol described by Tarnoc ai
and
Schweger
(1991). The pollen record in unit 9 reflects
interglacial conditions (MIS 19; Fig. 49.5). The assemblage
includes Ambr osia -type, Betula, Pinus, Alnus, Salix, Picea
and Botrychium.
The Brunhes/Matuyama boundary (MIS 19) thus occurs
within
a thick
loess sequence at both the EFR and WFR sites,
while at RC site, the boundary is marked by an unconformity
which presumably indicates that interglacial conditions pre-
vailed here, as elsewhere. The Brunhes/Matuyama boundary
occurs worldwide at MIS 19, an interglacial period.
At the MD site in the Klondike Plateau, the Brunhes/
Matuyama boundary occurs within colluviated organic silt
(Froese et al.,
2000).
In the
Mackenzie Mountains, several normally magne-
tised tills may
represent glaciations during MIS 18 or 16.
At the Merritt site in British Columbia, normally mag-
netised proglacial lacustrine and outwash sediments, and a
boulder lag composed of the same lithology as the underly-
ing flo w (0.6  0.4 Ma) suggest that at least one early
Brunhes glaciation may be present.
49.14.2. Interior Plains
In the Mackenzie Delta cores, the early Brunhes is marked
by fluvial deposits containing much organic detritus
(Fig. 49.15).
At West River site in the Smoking Hills, the normally
magnetise
d u
pper suite of sediments awaits further pollen
analysis. On Banks Island, the Brunhes/Matuyama bound-
ary occurs in interglacial deposits, while at the Nelson River
site, this boundary is marked by an unconformity between
two till units.
49.15. LATE BRUNHES GLACIATIONS
(0.40–0.015 MA, MIS 10–2)
The normal ly magnetised surface till at the EFR and WFR
sites (unit 10) forms a generally thin veneer and is of local
provenance. During the Reid Glaciation (MIS 6 or 8) and
subsequent glaciations, neither local nor Cordilleran ice
reached the RC area. The normally magnetised palaeosol
(brunisol) developed on this till is thinner than that seen
at the Reid type locality, and also thinner than the underly-
ing palaeosols at these sections. The Reid glaciation was as
extensive as the first local glaciation in the area, and in both
cases these glaciers extended from the Fifteenmile Valley
and reached the Yukon River, blocking it and forming a gla-
cial lake (Duk-Rodkin, 1996; Fig.
49.4). The
Late Pleisto-
cene glaciations (MIS 2) in this area were not as extensive
as earlier glaciations, and did not reac h the Tintina Trench.
Recent exposure dating in the Aishek map area (Ward
et
al.
, 2008) has yielded ca. 50 ka ages for glacial erratics
that were previously estimated to be “pre-Reid” (pre-Mid-
dle Pleistocene). This opens the possibility that a “Reid”
designation may include more than a single glaciation.
These young ages suggest a later advance of local ice.
Therefore, while the Tintina Trench unit 10 (Rei d) glacia-
tion is assigned to MIS 8/6, some of the so-called Reid
deposits may be as young as MIS 4 (Ward et al., 2008).
At the Fort Selkirk Volcanic complex, the Black Creek
flo
ws compri
se a series of five basalt flows for which the
upper flow has a date of 0.311  0.005 Ma. They are over-
lain by Reid Glaciation outwash (MIS 6 or 8) and Latest
Pleistocene loess.
Equivalents to the MIS 6 or 8 glaciations are almost cer-
tainly present in the Mackenzie Mountains, where up to 3
normal tills occur benea th the Late Pleistocene Laurentide
glacial deposits at the surface.
At the Mount Edziza, Tahltan/Stikine sites, a sequence
of normally magnetised glacial sediments are overlain by
basalt dated by Ar–Ar at 0.30 Ma. The till has been assigned
to MIS 10 (Spooner et al.,1
99
6).
At the Merritt site, a normally magnetised till and pro-
glacial lac
ustrine sediment sequence has tentatively been
interpreted as being MIS 6 or 8 (Fulton et al., 1992).
These
deposits are overlain by glacial deposits of the Late Pleis-
tocene (Wisconsin) Fraser glaciation.
49.15.1. Interior Plains
In the West River site, in the Smokin g Hills, there is one
normally magnetised till beneath the Late Pleistocen e (Wis-
consin) Laurentide till (Fig. 49.15). At the
Banks Island
sites up to two tills occur beneath the Late Pleistocene
deposits (Fig. 49.3).
49.16. LATEST BRUNHES GLACIATIONS
(32–12 KA, MIS 2)
49.16.1. The Cordillera
Late Pleistocene loess deposits are found at the Tintina
Trench sites, Klondike Plateau sites and Fort Selkirk sites
(Fig. 49.3).
The Mackenzie Mountain sites are all capped
by Late
Wisconsin continental (Laurentide) tills containing
glacial erratics transported from the Shield terrain of
Canada.
Chapter 49 Stratigraphical Record of Glacials/Interglacials in Northwest Canada
695
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49.16.2. Interior Plains
The Smoking Hills are covered by a discontinuous lag of
pebbles, cobbles and boulders of Shield origin, as well as
by loess (Late Wisconsin). All glacial sediments beneath
the late Wisconsin loess in the Smoking Hills are of local ori-
gin, indicating that only the Latest Pleistocene Laurentide
Ice Sheet reached the northern Interior Plains. The Late
Pleistocene (Wisconsin) Laurentide Ice Sheet had a very
profound effect upon the Canadian landscape, including
the reversal of flow of major rivers and/or the rerouting of
many of the major rivers and their tributaries during retreat
of the ice sheet (Duk-Rodkin and Hughes, 1992, 1994;
Duk-R
odkin et
al., 2004).
49.17. CONCLUSIONS
The Tintina Trench stratigraphy (RC, EFR and WFR) con-
tains one of the most extensive records of preglacial, gla-
cial and interglacial sediments in northwest Canada.
Perhaps its most notable attribute is the large number of
glaciations which occurred within the Latest Pliocene
and Early Pleistocene. Seven of the eight glaciations docu-
mented here fall within the Matuyama Reversed Chron and
provide a snapshot of deteriorating Late Pliocene climate
conditions and the series of regional glaciations which fol-
lowed. In additio n to the nine glaciations and six intergla-
ciations defined for the Tintina Trench sites, the trench
contains an overlying till and loess sequence which are
assigned to the late Brunhes. Other Cordilleran sites (sites
4–10, 18–20, Fig. 49.1)
exposing a less complete Plio–
Pleistocene
stratigraphical record have been correlated to
the sites described in the Tintina Trench. The large mois-
ture supply from the north Pacific and Arctic Ocean and
the onset of global cooling around 3.0 Ma (Figs. 49.1,
49.2 and 49.24) were key elements in the formation of
the largest Cordilleran ice sheets in early Late Pliocene,
in the Tintina Trenc h and Klondike areas, as well as in
parts of Alaska. During cold conditions (glacial periods),
the region experienced the build-up of both local and
regional ice sheets and saw the deposition of extensive
loess sheets beyond glacier margins. The extent of regional
and local ice varied temporally and spatially. During
warmer conditions (interglacial periods) fluvial, alluvial
and colluvial processes predominated, and weathering of
landscape surfaces produced a variet y of soils which today
are preserved as palaeosols (G10, Fig. 49.24).
In the topographically lower regions of NW Canada, the
first
glaciations appea
r to have occurred somewhat later.
Rising sea level led to the opening of the Bering Strait
around about 3.0–3.5 Ma (Dowsett et al.,
1994; Robins
on,
2009), and heat transfer across the Bering Strait and into the
Arctic Ocean may have warmed and moderated the climate
along the continental Arctic and southern Arctic Islands.
The build-u p of ice on the ocean surface was probably quite
restricted and seasonal (Dowsett et al., 1994 ). Recent work
(Spielhagen et al., 1997; Marincovich, 2000; Gusev et al.,
2009) has suggested a relatively warm and largely ice-free
Arctic in the earliest Pleistocene and this probably accounts
for the somewhat later development of ice in the Mackenzie
Delta and Mackenzie Mountains (< 2.6 Ma) as well as in
the Smoking Hills (< 2.6–1.6? Ma). Initiation of glaciation
appears to have been considerably later (< 1.8 Ma, post -
Olduvai) on Banks Island.
Magnetostratigraphy has been used extensively to estab-
li
sh a
correlation both within and between study sites
reported here. Chronological data obtained from tephrochro-
nology, Ar/Ar, K/Ar,
14
Cand
36
Cl, as well as fossils, pollen
and palaeosols, have been used where available. This has
greatly facilitated the assignment of glacial and interglacial
sedimentary units found at the 20 major study sites (Fig. 49.1)
to
the
Geomagnetic Polarity Timescale and, where possible,
to the d
18
O marine isotopic record. In this manner, a system-
atic comparison was made with records from the Cordilleran
(Klondike Plateau, Fort Selkirk, Mackenzie Mountains, Brit-
ish Columbia) and Northern Interior Plains sites (Mackenzie
Delta, Smoking Hills and Banks Island).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful for the thorough review provided by James N.
White and the Elsevier series editors. Useful comments and photo-
graphs were supplied by authors of previous work and have been
incorporated in this stratigraphic correlation project (R. Fulton, L.E.
Jackson, Jr. D.G. Froese, I. Spooner and C. Huscroft).
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