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The State of Cultivation
Abstract
Cultivation analysis investigates television's contributions to viewers'
conceptions of social reality. Developed by George Gerbner in the 1960s,
cultivation research continues to expand in numerous directions, with
over 125 new studies published since 2000. This article reviews the
history of cultivation theory and takes stock of recent trends in the
field. We argue that cultivation has taken on certain paradigmatic
qualities, and we consider the future prospects for cultivation research
in the context of the changing media environment.
... Television fiction was for long seen as the main source of cultivation messages, but alongside the transition to a more scattered and heterogeneous high-choice media environment, cultivation research began to turn the attention to cultivation effects from a variety of genres, such as news (Hermann et al., 2021;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Numerous studies showed significant relationships between news consumption-television news in particular-and negative crime perceptions, as well as fear of being personally victimized (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). ...
... Television fiction was for long seen as the main source of cultivation messages, but alongside the transition to a more scattered and heterogeneous high-choice media environment, cultivation research began to turn the attention to cultivation effects from a variety of genres, such as news (Hermann et al., 2021;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Numerous studies showed significant relationships between news consumption-television news in particular-and negative crime perceptions, as well as fear of being personally victimized (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Cultivation research related to other issues than crime or violence was, and still is, much less prevalent. ...
... Although the negative bias pertaining much contemporary news reporting can draw audience attention (Soroka & McAdams, 2015;Soroka et al., 2019), it also comes with the risk of several undesirable consequences, such as biased perceptions of reality (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010), lower mental well-being (Boukes & Vliegenthart, 2017), and news avoidance (Toff & Nielsen, 2022). For these reasons, audiences' emotional responses to news have gained increasing attention in media and communication research in recent years. ...
... The Cultural Indicators project gathers data on how television represents the world and uses "cultivation theory" to explore television's impacts on public perceptions (Morgan et al., 2009). Cultivation theory essentially states that heavier viewers of television will be more likely to hold conceptions of the world that are consistent with TV portrayals than lighter viewers (Besley & Shanahan, 2004;Good, 2009;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010. In revisiting and revising the work on environmental issues from a Cultural Indicators perspective, we first review the original findings and then discuss some new findings about cultivation theory and media attention in relation to the environment. ...
... Narratives are stories that portray a timed sequence of events ( Jones & McBeth, 2010); the stories that we are exposed to, over time, combine to create a cultural gestalt that both guides and reflects our norms, roles, and customs (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010;Howard-Williams, 2011). The idea that a message "system" (one based on stories) plays an important role in a culture -especially one that incorporates mass communication -was at the heart of the original Cultural Indicators research (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). ...
... Findings concerning the overall amount of exposure to such cultural products and the effects of such exposure on policy interpretations are informed by cultivation theory. The theory looks at how exposure contributes to cultural stability through shaping and maintaining the worldviews of viewers (Gerbner & Gross, 1976;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). The theory was among the first to explicitly examine how media narratives affect the political environment, and it continues to be highly cited in studies of mass communication (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010Mutz & Nir, 2010). ...
In 2013, the American public ranked climate change at the very bottom of 21 policy issues that they believed the President and Congress should deal with. Yet by 2021, the climate issue was at the forefront of most policy agendas and was a much more salient concern in terms of public opinion. This chapter looks at the role of television, especially entertainment viewing, to environmental concern. Does what television says about the environment have anything to do with what we think about its problems and solutions? We look, from the cultivation perspective, at how television viewing often depressed environmental concern among heavy viewers. Along with consideration of other theoretical perspectives (agenda-setting, issue cycles), we consider whether growth in environmental concern is in spite of or because of media attention to the issue.
... First, building on the basic principles of cultivation theory (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010), the main focus of this study is to explore the relationship between watching horror and belief in the paranormal and the occult. Second, the study will add to the discussion on genre-specific effects in cultivation theory by differentiating how exposure to several subgenres of horror are related to paranormal beliefs. ...
... The way media may shape a person's worldview is most often studied in the context of cultivation theory (Bryant & Miron, 2004;Gerbner, 1998;Gerbner & Gross, 1976;Shrum, 2017). The basic premise of the cultivation theory is that the more television people watch, the more likely they are to internalize the televised social realities and accept them as true reality (Gerbner & Gross, 1976;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010;Shrum, 2017). The way this works can be explained by the accessibility model (Shrum, 2009) and the online processing model of cultivation effects (Shrum et al., 2011). ...
... There is extensive debate on the question whether cultivation theory should take a genre-specific or an overall exposure perspective GEUSENS 2 (Hermann et al., 2021;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Traditionally, overall television viewing is deemed more important than exposure to specific genres, but the reformist approach to cultivation argues that exposure to specific genres is important as well (Hermann et al., 2021;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). ...
This study aimed to add a nuanced understanding of how viewing different subgenres of paranormal horror can cultivate beliefs in the paranormal. I collected cross-sectional survey data among 601 adults aged 18–56 (M = 24.06, SD = 4.16), with a relatively even gender distribution (40.6% males, 59.4% females). Using a linear regression model, I found that more frequent exposure to paranormal horror was related to paranormal beliefs, but only if the paranormal horror subgenre claimed to depict reality (i.e., based on true events reenactments and paranormal reality TV). Neither paranormal subgenres that did not include a truth claim (e.g., found footage) nor nonparanormal horror subgenres (e.g., slasher) were related to paranormal beliefs. I conclude that it is possible that truth claims lead viewers to process the depicted events as fact, instead of fiction, thus resulting in a shift in real-world beliefs. However, considering the cross-cultural nature of the data, it is also possible that those who already believe in the paranormal are more likely to seek out this content.
... Shaping Political Perceptions: In the political context, cultivation theory suggests that exposure to media, including news coverage and political advertisements, can influence individuals' perceptions of political issues, candidates, and parties (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Through repeated exposure to certain messages, individuals may adopt attitudes and beliefs consistent with the dominant themes presented in the media. ...
... If widely disseminated, deepfake videos can potentially influence public opinion and undermine trust in political institutions. Cultivation theory further suggests that media exposure can influence political behaviour, including voting decisions and participation in political activities (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Deepfake portrayals that manipulate political figures or disseminate false information can impact voter perceptions and contribute to polarisation and mistrust in the political process (Boidman, 2020). ...
Background of the study: The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into communication systems has sparked interest across various sectors, including marketing, journalism, and diplomacy. While AI presents opportunities for enhancing information analysis and dissemination, concerns about job displacement and the spread of disinformation via deepfake technology have arisen with deep seated concern on the consequence of its ,misuse in the global system.
... A few studies looked at how the controversy stoked long-growing concerns about social media's potential to affect audiences' perceptions and conduct instantly and directly. Traditional media still has a significant impact, but social media may have an even greater impact [23][24][25][26][27][28] . ...
... The concept of cultivation theory posits that the portrayal of a particular subject matter in the media can exert a significant influence on individuals, leading them to perceive the issue as more prevalent and representative of the actual world at large. This theory recognizes the dynamic nature of media's impact, as it has the potential to shape and cultivate viewers' perceptions and beliefs about various societal concerns [27,[29][30][31][32] . In cultivation studies, children who engage in extensive television viewing may internalize the notion that boys are inherently inclined towards exhibiting characteristics of dominance, assertiveness, and power. ...
Cultivation of gender-based humor in social media encourages contrarian language to gender mainstreaming. Gender-based humor posed threat on how to deliver equitable gender mainstreaming campaigns through online. The goal of this study was to determine how gender-based humor impact gender mainstreaming campaign in sociolinguistic sense. There were 14 participants in the focus group discussion providing collective narratives on proliferation of gender-based humors in social media. The participants were language teachers, Gender and Development (GAD) coordinators, and GAD advocates. Discourse analysis indicated that language use in social media hampers the delivery of gender mainstreaming campaigns. Social characterization and social distinctions were prominent components of the humor language, which then cultivated gender normativity. Gender-based humor perpetuate stereotypes, promote discriminatory practices, and reinforce power imbalances through linguistic means. In larger scale, humor language influences the reproduction of humor culture in social media. Gender mainstreaming slows down because of massive cultivation of social belief systems. The problem lies on how gender stereotypes are normalized in society through language use.
... Most people view the media as their primary source of information (Petersen, 2016), and consumers may learn about crime, perpetrators, and victims through media portrayals (Beale, 2006). Within the area of mass communication, cultivation theorists argue consumers learn about the real world via media portrayals (Grabe & Drew, 2007), and that repetitive media messaging is especially opinion-forming (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Indeed, researchers find that media representations of crime, perpetrators, and victims in local news may lead to heightened fear of crime regardless of actual crime rates (Romer et al., 2003). ...
... Media portrayals are important because consumers learn about the real world via the stories that they see (Grabe & Drew, 2007); repetitive media messages are especially opinion-forming (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010) and can cause stereotypes to be triggered in interactions with others (Ramasubramanian, 2011). Moreover, as very few people are personally involved in crime, they learn about it directly from the media (Davies et al., 2007). ...
News story narratives often depict people of color in harmful, stereotypical ways (e.g., as crime prone or unable to reform). However, examinations of story narratives may be incomplete because most people do not read news stories in their entirety. Instead, most people take in only a story’s prominent elements—the photograph, the headline, and the caption. With critical race feminism as a theoretical framework, we used content analysis to examine whether crime story photographs, headlines, and captions varied depending on the race/ethnicity of a woman or girl perpetrator (White, Black, or Latina). We found that these three elements—alone and in combination—were more likely to be unfavorable for non-White women and girls compared to White women and girls. Our findings may help explain how racist stereotypes of women and girls of color persist.
... For example, they tend to believe that a small sample is representative of a larger population 27 . Such a perceptual bias becomes more prominent and is easily manipulated by media messages when the judged matter is deemed undesirable [41][42][43] . Therefore, we expect participants to overestimate the prevalence of bots and that such bias would be further magnified after experimental exposure to bots (see "Materials and Methods" Section). ...
... The susceptibility of prevalence estimates to experimental manipulations also underscores the effects of media interactions on perceptions of social reality. For example, heavy consumers of TV entertainment, which frequently features violent stories and scenes, tend to exaggerate the prevalence of violence in the real world 43,60 . Just as people who perceive the world as more dangerous because of TV viewing develop a strong "mean-world" sentiment 61 , the overestimation of social bots may exemplify dissatisfaction with a polluted social media environment 22 . ...
Automated accounts on social media that impersonate real users, often called “social bots,” have received a great deal of attention from academia and the public. Here we present experiments designed to investigate public perceptions and policy preferences about social bots, in particular how they are affected by exposure to bots. We find that before exposure, participants have some biases: they tend to overestimate the prevalence of bots and see others as more vulnerable to bot influence than themselves. These biases are amplified after bot exposure. Furthermore, exposure tends to impair judgment of bot-recognition self-efficacy and increase propensity toward stricter bot-regulation policies among participants. Decreased self-efficacy and increased perceptions of bot influence on others are significantly associated with these policy preference changes. We discuss the relationship between perceptions about social bots and growing dissatisfaction with the polluted social media environment.
... The early cultivation theory literature focused on frequent viewers of television messages and described them as developing a "mean world syndrome" which involves decreased trust and higher expectations of violence (due to the greater prevalence of violence on screen compared to real life). Adoption of such media messages is more likely when viewers are strongly engaged with the narrative (Cohen, 2001;Green & Brock, 2000) and frequently consume the same messages (Holmes, 2007;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). ...
... Repeated exposure to a genre can also increase transportation (Holmes, 2007;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010) and lead to stronger endorsement of beliefs and attitudes that are pervasive within that genre (Bilandzic & Busselle, 2008). Hefner and Wilson (2013) found that greater exposure to romcoms significantly predicted romantic beliefs such as idealization of romantic partners, and time spent watching movies overall (regardless of genre) significantly predicted romantic belief endorsement. ...
Romantic comedies have long been understood to create unrealistic views of relationships. In the current study, we tested theory-driven corrective strategies for counteracting potentially harmful beliefs about romantic relationships. In an online experiment ( N = 626), participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: to a no exposure control, to watch a romantic comedy scene without correction, to read a corrective article before viewing, or to read a corrective article before viewing and complete a counterarguing exercise after viewing. Results showed that both corrective treatments significantly reduced romantic belief endorsement. We also investigated narrative engagement factors as mediators of these effects. Media enjoyment, realism of specific scenes, and overall movie realism each mediated the effect of corrections on romantic belief endorsement. Our findings suggest theory-driven corrective strategies are effective for reducing idealistic beliefs associated with entertainment media and highlight key persuasive variables for future interventions.
... As chiefly experimental studies can provide evidence for causal relationships, they play a fundamental role in substantiating theory. For example, empirical evidence for a very central theory such as cultivation theory (Gerbner, 1969)-explaining how representations of reality by fictional and non-fictional media systematically distort perceptions of the social world over time-was almost exclusively obtained through content analyses and longitudinal surveys regarding people's media use and beliefs about crime and other social problems (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Because of a lack of experimental work, uncertainty persists about the precise causal mechanisms at play, and the explanatory power of the theory remains subject to debate (Potter, 2014). ...
span>Replication is generally considered a keystone of the scientific enterprise. Unfortunately in communication science, there is a lack of clarity on what a replication actually entails, and to what extent replicators can deviate from original studies. In order to facilitate researchers to conduct, evaluate, and justify the set-up of replications of communication science experiments , we provide a taxonomy of replication types. We argue that researchers almost always need to adapt some elements of an original communication study to meaningfully replicate. The extent to which deviations —ranging from mere updates to deliberate deviations and additions— are permissible, however, depends on the motivation behind conducting a replication study. We distinguish three basic motivations: verification of an original study’s findings, testing the generalizability of an original study (which we further differentiate into generalizability of study outcomes vs. generalizability of theoretical claims), and extending an original study beyond the original goals. We argue that these motivations dictate what types of deviations are permissible and thereby determine the type of replication (i.e., direct, modified, and conceptual). We end with concrete recommendations for replicators: to specify the motivation to conduct a replication study and clearly label and justify any deviations from the original study for all study elements.</span
... Cultivation theory states that, the more time people spend in the virtual world, the more they feel social reality corresponds to the reality shown on television (Foster et al., 1979) According to the theory, people can copy and learn things simply by seeing other people's attitudes and behaviors. People are clearly socialized by television, and this has an impact on the general population and their institutions (Morgan and Shanahan 2010). They also noticed that the subjects in their research would claim ownership of the on-screen behaviors. ...
This study investigates the influence of Indian TV serials on the lifestyles of female students of Khulna University. This study was executed by using qualitative method of research. It targeted 100 female respondents aged 18-25 years from Khulna university students who were selected through purposive sampling method. Researcher used the Uses and gratifications theory, cultivation theory and social learning theory. This study also recorded the respondent's favorite Indian TV channels, preferred serials and category, favorite watching time, communication pattern and understanding level, level of viewing etc. The general findings reveal that, Indian TV serials have significant influence on the lifestyles of the female students. Alongside, these Indian TV serials impose the indigenous culture, fashion, art, tradition, rituals, language and customs in every sphere of life due to heavy dependency on Indian TV serials. They are constantly becoming more and more addicted to Indian TV serials and giving less importance to other educational or entertainment programs whereas they are giving more priority to these serials. In fact, the analysis shows that majority of female students are jeopardized in their studies due to watching Indian TV serials. Today’s young generation is instinctively influencing by Indian norms culture and tradition which is a big threat for Bangladeshi culture as well. This research study demonstrates how Indian TV serials are influencing female’s lifestyles.
... The survey findings, correlation analyses, and regression analyses are all interpreted within the framework of Cultivation Theory, emphasizing the cumulative influence of media content on shaping shared perceptions within the audience over time. The positive acknowledgment of the media's role in investigating the effectiveness of reforms and updating the public on the reform status aligns with the Cultivation Theory, emphasizing the notion that repeated the exposure to specific media messages contributes to the cultivation of certain beliefs and attitudes among the audience (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Similarly, the challenges in the media-government interaction, as well as opportunities for media advocacy, are discussed with the recognition of how these portrayals, when consistently presented, contribute to the cultivation of perceptions regarding the vital role and dynamics between the media and governing authorities (Shrum, 2009). ...
This research investigates the intricate dynamics between media coverage and public perceptions of police reforms in Punjab, Pakistan, adopting a positivist paradigm. Grounded in quantitative approach, the study employs a cross-sectional research design with a structured survey questionnaire administered to residents of Lahore. Stratified random sampling ensures a representative sample across demographic factors. Findings reveal positive perception of media coverage, with respondents acknowledging extensive & unbiased reporting on police reform initiatives. Correlation & regression analyses indicate moderate to strong positive relationship between various media coverage variables and public perceptions, that are influential and diverse media coverage positively impacts attitudes, support for the reform initiatives, & confidence in transparency. Challenges in media-government interaction are recognized, emphasizing limited access to information, yet perceived cooperation between media and authorities. Opportunities for media advocacy and transparency are identified, aligning with watchdog role of the media. The study contributes deep insights into the interplay between media and public perceptions of police reforms, offering valuable implications for policymakers and media practitioners seeking to enhance transparency and public engagement in the realm of the law enforcement required reforms.
... Robots are particularly close to AI in people's minds, as they are frequently depicted as possessing high levels of intelligence in entertainment media (Besley & Shanahan, 2005;Sundar et al., 2016). Although these portrayals are mostly fictional, the cultivation theory suggests that people use illusions of reality to make real-life judgments (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). For example, Liang and Lee (2017) found that "people do respond to autonomous robots and artificial intelligences in an empirically indistinguishable way" (p. ...
Through one pilot test and two main studies using experimental design, this research examines publics' responses to the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in corporate ability (CA) and corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices. Results from Study 1 (N = 113) revealed that the application of AI in CSR practices generated greater word-of-mouth intention and purchase intention than that in CA practices, and perceived warmth of the company mediated this effect. Results from Study 2 (N = 122) replicated the results from Study 1, and further revealed the boundary conditions created by publics' varying levels of uneasiness with robots. The more positive outcomes generated by the application of AI in CSR (vs. CA) practices were more pronounced among those with high levels of uneasiness with robots, but such an effect was not significant among those with low levels of uneasiness with robots. Findings were discussed based on interdisciplinary theoretical insights from the CA-CSR typology, HAII-TIME model, and Stereotype Content Model. Implications for public relations scholarship and practices were discussed.
... This pattern may extend to individuals' engagement with sci-fi. Informed by the genrespecific cultivation effect (Cohen & Weimann, 2000;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010;Shrum, 1996), frequent engagement with a specific genre can increase the chronic accessibility to genre-related concepts, and prolongedly shape individuals' perceptions, beliefs, and values through the lens of that genre. By routinely consuming sci-fi content, individuals should become more attuned to the broader realities and adopt a comprehensive view in interacting with others and the world. ...
This study proposes that science fiction (sci-fi), a specific entertainment genre or theme, can facilitate self-transcendence (i.e., moving beyond self-boundaries) by inducing epistemic humility (i.e., awareness of one’s epistemic limits accompanied by epistemic openness). Through increasing self-transcendence, sci-fi engagement can further promote prosocial intentions in a real-world context. We conducted three studies with different paradigms to test our hypotheses. Through a retrospective design, Study 1 found that sci-fi (vs. comedy or romance) films were recalled as eliciting stronger self-transcendence. Studies 2a and 2b, using an experimental design, revealed that sci-fi (vs. realistic) narratives induced stronger epistemic humility, and consequently led to heightened self-transcendence. Study 3, extending the findings in the pandemic context through a three-wave longitudinal design, demonstrated that sci-fi engagement within one month predicted the subsequent increase in self-transcendence, which in turn promoted coronavirus disease (COVID)-related prosocial intention over time. The potential of sci-fi to foster self-transcendence and prosociality is discussed.
... Based on the context of the great east Japan earthquake, Cheng and colleagues compare the cultivation effects of television and social media consumption on perceptions and attitudes towards post-disaster recovery (Cheng et al., 2016). Moreover, systematic reviews of cultivation research suggest that considering the changing media landscape, there is a need for more studies investigating and comparing the mechanisms of cultivation in social media contexts and, subsequently, extending the theory to fit the usage of new digital media (Morgan et al., 2015;Morgan and Shanahan, 2010;Potter, 2014). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to investigate the mechanisms through which social media news consumption across different platforms leads to opinion polarization in society. To this end, the authors draw from cultivation theory to examine whether social media news consumption imparts a mainstreaming or resonance effect. Media consumption imparts a mainstreaming effect if frequent users, regardless of their social identity, develop homogenous attitudes about issues, whereas resonance is at play if there is a differing cultivation effect on various social groups depending on their relatability of life experiences.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conduct the study in the developing context of India, using a population survey dataset from 2019. Regression-based mediation and moderation analyses were carried out to test the hypotheses.
Findings
The findings reveal that resonance is the most prominent mechanism through which social media news consumption cultivates opinion polarization, contrary to the mainstreaming effect imparted by television. Further, WhatsApp use was found to strengthen the polarizing effect of overall social media news consumption, while YouTube use weakened the cultivation of polarization.
Research limitations/implications
The paper unearths how social media news consumption influences the opinion polarization of various social groups differently. The authors also find the differential effect of specific platform use. These findings have the potential to inform policymakers and developers about how to mitigate the detrimental effects of platform-based political persuasion.
Originality/value
This study offers significant contributions. First, the authors explain social media-induced polarization using the novel theoretical lens of cultivation. Second, the authors find that social media and television news consumption differ in their polarizing effects. Third, the authors find that while WhatsApp use amplifies the polarizing effect of social media news consumption, YouTube use weakens it.
... Staunch cultivation theory scholars believe that television is still the dominant medium and should therefore be the only medium studied within cultivation research (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Other scholars posit that with expanded platforms for content, cultivation research needs to evolve to include other technologies. ...
... Agenda-setting often occurs in the form of reverse agenda-setting, which assumes that public discussion in social media sets the agenda for traditional media (McCombs and Valenzuela, 2020). Cultivation theory refers to the relationship between the user and digital media, including social media (Morgan and Shanahan, 2010). Research on disinformation impact also refers to media dependency theory, particularly in the context of the thesis that viewer reliance on disinformation messages increases with social instability (Carillo et al., 2016). ...
This article novel research on disinformation conducted by the Central European Digital Media Observatory. We have identified Russian disinformation strategies related to the war in Ukraine and established the extent of their penetration in Central European countries. This international comparison shows that thecountries in question are susceptible to Russia-related disinformation efforts to a highly varying degree. Poland is largely immune to narratives about the Ukraine war and the Ukrainian state imposed by official and unofficial actors connected to the Russian authorities and their supporters. On the other hand, Slovak society is relatively receptive to such sentiments, while Czechs are somewhere between these poles. The use of social media as a source of news contributes to disinformation, but the effect is weak. In all three societies there is a strong, significant influence of individuals’ degree of education and material situation. Respondents with post-secondary education and those who consider themselves well off are less vulnerable to disinformation, regardless of their media consumption.
... Cultivation theory argues that the more media a person consumes, the more likely it is that he or she will endorse the perspectives that are presented in the dominant media narrative (Gerbner, 1970). Scholars criticized this theory over the decades since its inception, particularly arguing that media effects are likely to differ according to the type of programming one consumes rather than reflect a singular "media narrative" (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). In terms of public views of crime, punishment, and related topics, the cultivation literature is mixed on the question of whether overall viewing habits or consumption of specific media genres (e.g., local news) impact one's perceptions of crime (Romer et al., 2003;Weitzer & Kubrin, 2004). ...
... People who watched crime related shows on television remained more afraid of being victim to violent crimes (Gerbner et al., 1978) and patients' attitudes towards health care providers (favorable vs un-favorable) could be mapped to their television watching habits (Morgan and Shanahan, 2010). Subsequent work on communication research have brought forth two theories which might explain such effect (Table:3) (Stout et al., 2004). ...
Media and information technology forms the interface through which we reach the world outside the immediate grasp of our five senses. Mass media therefore is the prime cultivator of our perceptions, influencing our thinking, attitudes, and behavior. The depiction of 'madness' and the 'mad' in mass media significantly affects the society's view of these disorders and their sufferers. As the mentally ill are often depicted as unstable, violent, odd, or comical, there is a general increase in stigma related to mental illness, especially in those people who are avid consumers of mass media. Negative depiction of mental health professionals and mental health treatments often leads to reduced utilization of these services by those who need them the most. Social media use itself can also negatively affect mental health through precipitation of depression, anxiety, online-bullying and through exposure to inappropriate content. Despite the pitfalls, responsible use of information technology can result in great benefits. Virtual and augmented reality can be used to develop newer techniques of therapy in delusions, autism and ADHD. The enmeshment of modern life in technology has made it a very powerful tool that needs to be used carefully, lest it becomes the healthcare problem itself.
... Therefore, there is no doubt that television is the single most common source of action associated with marriage for a large proportion of the population (Signorielli, 2005). Furthermore, the media was blamed as the one responsible for shaping the views of romance (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). ...
The rise in divorce incidence seems to be the most apparent social phenomenon in Indonesia during the last decade. As the Ministry of Religious Affairs noted, the number of divorces has increased by 9% to 408,202 in 2018 compared to the previous year. One rationale that may explain this phenomenon comes from the role of television, which has the potential to influence the opinions of society through its programs. In developing countries, including Indonesia, television is still relevant as a medium to reach a large portion of society at a low cost. Hence, this study aims to determine the role of television viewing on divorce in Indonesia. Unlike previous studies, which use qualitative data collected with in-depth interviews at the individual level, we utilize quantitative analysis based on macro data at the provincial level from Statistics Indonesia in 2018. We perform a multiple regression model using the ordinary least squares method and find statistical evidence that divorce rates are positively associated with television viewing, particularly in rural areas. From this finding, the government should regulate media by limiting the frequency and duration of soap operas and celebrity news and by promoting television stations to provide diversified content on their channel.
... To date, researchers have explored two main theories to explain how media coverage influences benefits attitudes: 2 1. Cultivation theory suggests that the more time people spend consuming media, the more their worldview resembles it (Morgan and Shanahan, 2010). 3 Suggestive evidence supports this: attitudes to claimants are more hostile among those who consume more negative media sources Gilens, 1996;Sotirovic, 2000). ...
The media are often blamed for widespread perceptions that welfare benefit claimants are undeserving in Anglo-Saxon countries – yet people rarely justify their views through media stories, instead saying that they themselves know undeserving claimants. In this paper, I explain this contradiction by hypothesising that the media shapes how we interpret ambiguous interpersonal contact. I focus on disability benefit claimants, which is an ideal case given that disability is often externally unobservable, and test three hypotheses over three studies (all using a purpose-collected survey in the UK and Norway, n=3,836). In Study 1, I find strong evidence that a randomly-assigned ‘benefits cheat’ story leads respondents to interpret a hypothetical disability claimant as less deserving. Study 2 examines people’s judgements in everyday life, finding that readers of more negative newspapers in the UK are much more likely to judge neighbours as non-genuine – but with effectively no impact on judgements of close family claimants, where ambiguity is lower. However, contra my expectations, in Study 3 I find that Britons are no more likely than Norwegians to perceive known claimants as non-genuine (despite more negative welfare discourses), partly because of different conceptions of what ‘non-genuineness’ means in the two countries.
... Agenda-setting often occurs in the form of reverse agenda-setting theory, which assumes that public discussion in social media sets the agenda for traditional media (McCombs and Valenzuela, 2020;Neuman et al., 2014;Scheufele, 2000). Cultivation theory now refers to the relationship between the user and digital media, including social media (Morgan and Shanahan, 2010). Research on disinformation impacts also makes reference to media dependency theory, particularly in the context of the thesis that viewer reliance on disinformation content increases as social instability increases (Carillo et al., 2016). ...
... There are some reasons to believe that such systematicity may exist within social media, and also that users even construct their own consistent narrative worlds, but these studies do not, as a group, offer strong evidence to confirm those suspicions. Morgan and Shanahan (2010) argued that cultivation theory has become something of a "paradigm." Again, studies have investigated more than just overall television use, exploring genres of TV and other media such as video games. ...
This is a meta-analysis of 460 effect sizes, from 66 independent samples, comparing social media usage to a variety of attitudes and beliefs, from the perspective of cultivation theory. We found an overall effect size of .123 and identified several significant moderators. Our analyses revealed higher effects for studies looking at exposure to specific types of content (as compared with general social media use), for younger samples, and for Asian samples. Observed effects were lower when active use was measured. We discuss our results in regard to the applicability of cultivation theory to the study of the effects of social media.
... What can trigger U.S. college students' attention to gun control is when they believe that they, potentially, are targets in "threatening" or "unsafe" situations. It is worth noting that the findings for RQ1 do not deny the possibility of long-term cultivation effects produced by watching television (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010), but it is difficult to determine whether student viewers' victimization beliefs and environmental anxiety were triggered partially by their televised social reality. ...
Student beliefs profoundly affect their identity and impact other student outcomes during their years in college, but contemporary research on college students’ sacred-belief identifiers is scant. We utilized a constructivist, mixed-methods, explanatory, sequential design and surveyed 201 college students and interviewed 27 participants to inquire about their sacred-belief identifiers. In an initial survey, 86% of student participants identified as a religious person, a person of faith, or a spiritual person. We offer definitions for each of these sacred-belief identifiers and make recommendations for campus ministers, diversity and inclusion professionals, and those conducting campus climate assessments.
... It is worth noting that the cultivation theory was first coined by George Gerbner in the late 1960s to examine the effects of the television phenomenon [6] The theory generally posits that television misrepresents reality; therefore, heavy viewers tend to perceive their social reality as being a mirror to the television reality, which is different than the real world, thus leading to misconceptions and unreal perceptions [7,8]. Thus, "heavy viewers will be more likely to perceive the real world in ways that reflect the most stable and recurrent patterns of portrayals in the television world" [9]. ...
News media coverage, regardless of the platform being used, can shape people’s opinions, perceptions, behaviors, and preferences about policy, security, and civil liberties in times of crisis. This study examines the possible cultivation impact of news post exposure on Facebook on shaping threat perception. Furthermore, it aims at exploring the correlation between Facebook news exposure, preferring high security levels, and curbing some civil liberties during the COVID-19 pandemic. For this, we used the survey method ( N = 1309 ) with youths aged 18-35 in the U.S., Spain, and Egypt. Our results showed that heavy news exposure on Facebook cultivated fear and terror perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, it shaped people’s preference for a tightened security environment and willingness to trade off some civil liberties. In other words, despite the different media and political systems, heavy news post consumption on Facebook can increase the tendency to give up civil liberty rights and prefer a more stringent security environment.
... The Influence of the Media on Public Perceptions of Youth in Foster Care and in Adoptive Care attitudes and interpersonal behavior towards them by implicitly changing our language and our emotional responses (Caputo & Rouner, 2011;Ray & Hinnant, 2009;Klin & Lemish, 2008;Angermeyer and colleagues, 2005;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). To reconstruct the language used to refer to this marginalized and vulnerable group, throughout this chapter, youth with a lived experience in foster care (YFC) will be referred to with person-first phrasing rather than the commonly used term, "foster child" that is pervasive in the media. ...
This multi-phased research examined media portrayals of youth in foster care (YFC) and how those portrayals influence public perception. The first phase found that the Los Angeles public negatively perceives media portrayals and life outcomes for YFC. The mental model of YFC was mostly inaccurate. Media portrayals influenced perceptions of mental models and life outcomes, even for those who have direct experience with YFC. Phase 2 found that deliberate priming of positive media portrayals failed to change entrenched negative perceptions of life outcomes for YFC. Phase 3 was a national survey in which the American public was more likely to perceive negative media portrayals and negative life outcomes for YFC as compared to youth in adoptive care (YAC). Media portrayals and beliefs about media accuracy predicted perceptions. Higher levels of consumption of traditional media types and media genres magnified perceived differences between YFC and YAC. The respondents with a foster care-like experience in childhood skewed younger, consumed more non-traditional media, and held more positive perceptions of YFC as compared to those without personal experience.
... It implies that those frequently exposed to the media for a long time are more likely to see the social reality of the environment portrayed by the media they view, influencing their patterns of behaviour (Deuze, 2021).The theory suggests that, as TV is a collective form of communication and has pathos oriented concepts. Watching will lead people to adopt on to the values and beliefs that are not realistic (Shanahan & Morgan, 1999;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). While intense TV viewers usually rated society more brutal than moderate viewers, information for moderate viewers has shown a more destructive environment in some cases in which they did watch a violent act (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008;Shanahan & Morgan, 1999). ...
The depiction of imprudent behaviour of people in our media, especially in television dramas is common nowadays. Stories based on marital affairs and physical abuse are popular content in a majority of the Pakistani Urdu TV dramas. These dramas have gained high ratings and have become a part of daily discussions in many homes in our society. Fantasized lives, illicit independency, and unwise behaviour depicted in Visual Television Contents can change its audience’s perception of the world completely. People start doubting their relationships with their significant others on a subconscious level. This depiction also sets precedent for distrust in the minds of children as well. In this paper, researchers argue that repeated television exposure increases favourable attitudes to separation between married couples. Through a qualitative content analysis, 29 male and female characters are studied from three popular Pakistani Urdu dramas telecast during 2019-2020 to explore the factors behind the clashes of the married couples portrayed in Pakistani Urdu TV dramas. The study also analyses the tragedies in domestic stories of dramas that represent the vulnerability of the married couple’s relationship.
... The concept of Cultivation Theory is supported by empirical research. Researchers like Morgan and Shanahan (2010) for instance state that "if the field of mass media effects has any paradigms at all, cultivation must be one of them" (ibid, p. 349). ...
... Additionally, contemporary social actors now find themselves exposed to and immersed in a much more prosperous media economy far surpassing that of just television. This means that cultivation processes now occur across various media formats, including those affiliated with the digits here, such as social media platforms (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010;North, 2011). The current study examines how LGBTQ+ audiences might cultivate positive feelings associated with their sexual and gender identities through media consumption and their relationships with such content. ...
Few studies have scrutinized the use of popular media as a practical tool for reducing homophobia and providing services for LGBTQ+ people. This survey study sought to gauge the association of LGBTQ+ individuals’ subjective judgment that social support is available through media (Perceived Media Support; PMS) with their identity and psychological status. We turn to Cultivation Theory and the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis as guiding frameworks to develop the Perceived Media Support Inventory (PMSI), capturing the emotional, instrumental, informational and esteem support that LGBTQ+ individuals perceive from popular media. We collected data from 200 self-identified participants in Iran. Factor and item analyses verified the robustness of the PSMI. PMS was revealed as associated with identity certainty in gays, lesbians and transgender people, identity affirmation in bisexuals, decreased acceptance concerns in transgender people, reduced anxiety in gays, and elevated resilience to stressful circumstances in LGBTQ+s. Besides, surprisingly, PMS was linked to several ramifications, such as identity uncertainty in bisexuals, identity superiority and concealment motivation in gays, internalized homonegativity in transgender people, difficult orientation/identity development process in gays, anxiety in LGBTQ+s in general, a feeling of psychological distance from the community in lesbians and feeling of hatred toward the community in gays. Findings suggest that perceived media support has positive and negative psychological consequences on Iranian LGBTQ+ people, leading us to theorize the dialectics of cultivated media support.
Korean Wave, or Hallyu, refers to the popularity of Korean culture forms, including films, television dramas, and music, among others. K-pop has gained significant attention, leading to many groups achieving international success and recognition. In India, the Korean Wave was first noticed in the
Northeast region during the 2000s. With the pandemic, more people in India have been consuming K-pop content, making it the new Korean Wave. This paper examines K-pop’s impact on the youth of India, studying the fandom activities and consumption pattern among fans in the Indian context. A survey was conducted involving 131 participants between the ages of 18-30, who have some relation to K-pop. The questionnaire was distributed through friends, acquaintances, and K-pop social media pages. The research revealed that many people in India have started listening to K-pop in recent years. Although there are many fans and fan communities, a significant number of the population are passive
supporters of K-pop. The study highlights that K-pop is a booming industry in India with immense potential for research.
The study aims to investigate the exposure frequency of
Pakistani young adults to LGBTQ content on Netflix and
to examine the influence of Netflix’s LGBTQ content on
the future acceptance of sexual minorities among Pakistani
young adults. The conceptual framework is developed
around Cultivation Theory. The study also employs a
rigorous quantitative method using a cross-sectional survey
of 200 Netflix users between the ages of 18 and 26, 100 males
and 100 females, through purposive sampling. The
participants are selected from the media and mass
communication departments of four universities chosen
from the QS ranking 2024, with 25 males and 25 females
from each university. The collected data is subjected to
frequency, correlation, and regression tests using SPSS for
further analysis. The findings of the study revealed a
statistically clear connection between Netflix LGBTQ
content consumption and a shift in attitudes among young
Pakistani adults.
Communication has existed since the beginning of mankind. Over the years, its practices have evolved, becoming more and more sophisticated but its principal motive has remained the same; to effectively spread messages. As one of the arms of communication, mass media has evolved to become a dominant force for the dissemination of information. The implication of this is that not only have our modes of communication evolved, but the ways in which we view each other in the global community has also altered our phenomenological experience of everyday life. Marshall McLuhan describes this as the ‘global village’ where traditional barriers of time and space have been broken and bridged. The inevitable march of human civilization towards technology has brought about the information age where the reliance on mass media is more a rule than an option. We no longer live with mass media, but we live within its confines. This in turn affects the way that we process information including cultural stimuli and the entire architecture of human thought. The ubiquity of mass media has created an environment where mass media not only dictates norms but also reflects human behavior creating a new reality that is not only framed, but also made immediate by it. This means that as we become more and more entrenched in the realities created by mass media, we begin to become blasé of the ways it shapes and dictates our lives.
Information pollution (i.e., misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation) has become a global threat to democracies and the ability to govern as well as the well-being of individuals. Legacy media organizations have historically been the primary source of news and information about important topics that affect citizens’ lives. In the U.S. people no longer have a shared sense of truth because information pollution has led to mistrust of journalists, journalism, and major institutions. Social media and political advertising play a role in the spread of information pollution. Media effects theories help explain how people can be susceptible to information pollution. While information communications technology (ICT) has exacerbated the proliferation of information pollution, evidence has shown that technology can play a prominent role in designing interventions, including inoculating individuals against its effects.
"Buy now, pay later" als eine Form der Embedded Finance-gewinnt vor dem Hintergrund des öffentlichen sowie wissenschaftlichen Diskurses hinsichtlich der Problematik der Verbraucherverschuldung zunehmend an Bedeutung. Die kreditbasierte Zahlungsmethode wird als potenzielle Schuldenfalle für Verbraucher angesehen. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit besteht darin, auf Basis einer Literaturanalyse zu untersuchen, inwiefern Buy now, pay later eine Determinante für das Verschuldungsrisiko von Verbrauchern darstellt. Die Analyse zeigt, dass Buy now, pay later bei verantwortungsvoller Nutzung grundsätzlich mit Vorteilen für Verbraucher einhergeht, die Bezahlform je-doch unter der Berücksichtigung von strukturellen, verbraucherbezogenen, umweltspezifischen so-wie psychologischen Aspekten gleichermaßen eine Determinante für das Verschuldungsrisiko von Verbrauchern darstellt. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse erlauben die Formulierung konkreter Handlungsempfehlungen für Verbraucher, politische Entscheidungsträger sowie Regulierungsbehörden.
Objective: Within the context of rapid sociocultural transformation in Chinese society over recent decades, exploring intergenerational disparities in attitudes toward non-conventional sexual behaviors holds sociological significance. Employing a methodology akin to cultivation analysis, this study focuses on the potential influence of television and the internet in narrowing or widening attitudinal disparities between distinct age groups. This is achieved by comparing heavy users of these media to individuals with light media consumption.
Materials and Methods: In the present study, we utilized the 2017 wave of the Chinese General Social Survey, a dataset that is representative of the national demographic of China. Our objective was to explore the potential influence of both traditional media (TV) and new media (the internet) consumption on the attitudes of Chinese adults toward three forms of non-conventional sexual behavior, namely premarital, extramarital, and same-sex behaviors.
Results: Firstly, compared to television, the internet is more likely to contribute to the liberalization of sexual attitudes, though this influence is age sensitive. Secondly, regarding the attitudes toward premarital sex and same sex behaviors, television tends to sustain or create consensus across different generations, whereas the internet tends to widen attitudinal gaps. Lastly, probably due to the moralized nature of extramarital sex in the Chinese context, both television and the internet maintain or produce the conservative consensus, though heavy television viewing could widen the attitudinal gap between young people and the other two age groups.
Discussion and Conclusion: Our study reveals that for premarital sex and same-sex behaviors, heavy television viewing tends to foster or sustain intergenerational consensus, while frequent internet usage tends to augment intergenerational divergence or erode intergenerational agreements. However, the media’s impact on intergenerational differences in attitudes toward extramarital sex exhibits distinctive features, likely stemming from the deeply moralized nature of extramarital affairs within Chinese society. To conclude, by conducting a comparative examination of various media landscapes, our research offers a mediated perspective that aids in comprehending the disparities in attitudes toward sexual behaviors across different generations in contemporary China.
The paper investigates whether watching legal series leads to law school enroll- ment. First, the study analyses if series consumption is related to enrolling at law school. This is achieved by analyzing data of 1,353 students from Münster, Germany. Hence, lo- gistic regressions are conducted. Thereafter, the odds ratios of studying law are compared for the periods before and after the first broadcasting of the series Suits. Results suggest that watching legal series is highly significantly related to studying law. Moreover, findings indicate that the broadcasting of Suits is followed by a rise in application and enrollment numbers at Münster Law School.
The categories of disinformation and fake news are among the more frequently invoked concepts in the context of discussions about modernity. On the one hand, there is widespread agreement on the special (negative) role of media phenomena defined in this way, while on the other hand, a lot of research is being conducted to shed light on their nature and principles of operation. Meanwhile, there is a fundamental – at least from the point of view of the social sciences – problem with these concepts. Namely, we do not have their precise definitions. The presented text has the task of analyzing the state of affairs in this regard and proposing an adequate approach. This approach, in fact, identifies the category of disinformation with the category of fake news (in the broader sense), while pointing out the constitutive features of both these phenomena, related to the categories of truth, intention and media format. These features are analyzed in the context of the category of the media genre of information (more specifically, the information function understood in a pragmatic way) and the discursive framework of journalism, into which, as will be shown in the text, disinformation attempts to intrude.
This book empirically tests, compares, and explains the effects of British and American legacy conservative press and far-right websites, on accordant political views and behavioural intentions.
Correspondingly, the 2016 Brexit Referendum and American Presidential election results are often attributed to the spread of fake news through social media, Russian Bots, and alt-right news websites. This has raised concerns about the impact of digital disinformation on democracy, as well as the rise of nativist parties and movements worldwide. However, this book argues that these causal attributions are largely based on unproven assumptions and deflect attention from the more influential and harmful role of traditional conservative media.
To support this argument, Leyva incorporates insights from various fields such as neurocognitive science, media-communication research, cross-cultural psychology, and sociology. Additionally, the book presents primary evidence from a series of experiments that examined the effects of candidate-related fake news and immigration coverage from both old and new media right-wing sources. These experiments focused on how such content influences anti-immigrant attitudes and voter preferences. By doing so, the book provides a nuanced and robustly tested theoretical account of how right-wing media affects political beliefs, sentiments, and practices at the neuronal level, and of how this can in turn negatively impact democratic multicultural societies.
Given its interdisciplinary approach, this book will be of interest to scholars in the social, behavioural, and cognitive sciences who are studying media psychology, online misinformation, authoritarian populism, political sociology, new media, and journalism.
Philosophers and moral educators have examined the potential for narrative media (e.g., novels or films) to influence the development of practical wisdom (the forms of perception and reasoning necessary for virtuous living). Interest in studying this relationship using social scientific methodology is growing. One social science discipline with relevant insights that have not yet been explored is media psychology, a subdiscipline in communication that empirically studies the effects of narrative media. Drawing on media psychology research, this paper proposes a model of one process by which narratives can help us develop practical wisdom. Developing certain functions of practical wisdom involves increasing our sensitivity to types of morally relevant features (MRFs) that we normally miss (i.e., increasing the accessibility of those features). The proposed model explains how, under the right conditions, narratives can influence the accessibility of a given type of MRF. Implications for operationalizing narrative effects on practical wisdom are discussed.
A tanulmány témája a 2020–2022 között futó öt, főműsoridőben sugárzott amerikai kórházsorozat (A Grace klinika, A rezidens, Chicago Med, Doktor Murphy, New Amsterdam) koronavírus-járvány ábrázolása. A kórházsorozat-elemzések gyakori kerete a kultivációs elmélet; több kutatás vizsgálta már a műfaj edukációs értékét is. Ezekhez az irányvonalakhoz kapcsolódva, az elemzés célja a visszatérő történetelemek, narratívák azonosítása – kiemelt szempont a technológia, az információáramlás és a szakértők ábrázolása. A sorozatok három idősíkra tagolták a pandémia bemutatását: a fertőzöttek megjelenése; az első hullám alatt kialakuló krízis; a hullám lecsengését követő időszak. Elmondható, hogy kiálltak a járvánnyal kapcsolatos tudományos álláspontok és a biztonsági protokollok betartása mellett. A pandémia új klasszifikációs kategóriát hozott létre a műfajban: 2020 óta a kórházsorozatok az alapján is megkülönböztethetőek, hogy létező vagy lezárt problémaként ábrázolják a koronavírus-járványt. Ez a kérdés különösen fontos ennél a műfajnál, hiszen a kezdetektől fogva törekszik a hiteles információk átadására, valamint a nézők edukációjára.
To what extent should scholars view competitive reality television series as a politically relevant medium for transmitting messages about race, racial identity, and politics in the United States? Cultivation theory argues that the depiction of social issues and groups on television influences how individuals perceive the world around them. Drawing on this theory, I argue that the increasingly diverse casts of American competitive reality series are a heretofore underexplored site for studying the transmission of narratives related to race and racial justice to ostensibly unsuspecting American television audiences. In this article, I analyze viewers’ reactions to Black contestants discussing their feelings of racialized social obligations when playing the game – what I refer to as narratives of racial duty. Employing a sentiment analysis as well as an inductive thematic content analysis of tweets reacting to four episodes from the 41st season of Survivor, I found that audience members overwhelmingly reacted negatively to embedding narratives of racial duty into the series. Specifically, they described the season as too political – the worst in the show’s history – and even vowed to stop watching. These findings suggest that broadcasting exemplars who challenge prevailing narratives of racial progress may stoke feelings of racial backlash that could ultimately prompt individuals to tune out of these entertainment programs at best, and stoke racial discord at worst. Thus, I conclude that bringing race to the center of communication research offers scholars in both traditions a new vantage point for studying trends in American racial attitudes.
The dependent variables typically used in testing for the cultivation effect have often been grouped into two categories: those that relate to the demographics or facts of television content and those that relate to the values expressed in television content (Hawkins and Pingree, 1982). This article explores this distinction in terms of the cognitive processes underlying the different types of judgments. The author argues that the demographic judgments are typically made in a memory-based fashion and the value judgments are typically made in an on-line fashion (Hastie and Park, 1986). This notion is then used to construct cognitive process models for each type of judgment that specifies when and how television information exerts its influence and results from previous research are presented that support these models. The general finding is that the same factors (motivation and ability to process information) affect the extent to which television information is used regardless of the type of judgment. However, the way in which these factors influence cultivation of demographic measures is exactly the opposite of the way in which they influence value measures.
Three hypotheses regarding the relationship between television viewing and fear of crime exist. The cultivation hypothesis states that watching television increases fear of crime. The mood management hypothesis states that frightened people will watch more crime on television to learn how to cope with their fear. The withdrawal hypothesis states that people who are afraid of crime will be afraid to leave the house. This leads to heavier television viewing, thus creating a spurious relationship between fear of crime and watching crime on television. This article compares these three models and a null model using structural equation models. Data from a representative sample of 909 respondents from Flanders, Belgium, offer support for the cultivation hypothesis, which offers a better explanation than the null model, but do not support either of the other hypotheses. In the model, direct experience of crime was not related to fear, while television viewing was.
Many Americans report that they are fearful of crime. One frequently cited source of this fear is the mass media. The media, and local television news in particular, often report on incidents of crime, and do so in a selective and sometimes sensational manner. This paper examines the role of the media in shaping crime fears, in conjunction with both demographic factors and local crime conditions. Unlike most previous research in this area, which typically focuses on only one medium, the present study examines the effects of several media — local and national television, the radio, newspapers, and the Internet. The findings address four theoretical perspectives on the relationship among the media, real-world conditions, and fear of crime.
This study tests the idea that TV genres (crime drama, reality cop shows, news) and channels (TV and newspapers) vary in their potential to cultivate perceptions, fears, and behavior related to exposure and attention to crime content. Randomly selected adults (505) over the age of 18 in Indiana were interviewed. Regression analyses indicate significant variance across media genres and channels in their influence on viewer orientations to crime. Yet overall, media use is a relatively weak predictor of crime orientations. This study was conducted with grant support from the School of Journalism at Indiana University.
We focus on the relationships among three types of television viewing (news, police reality, and crime drama) and attitudes toward capital punishment and handguns, as well as the likelihood of actually owning a handgun. A host of exogenous variables are treated as predictors of television use, support for police authority, fear of crime, and our criterion variables. A series of direct and indirect relationships are assessed. Analysis suggests that viewing police reality shows is both directly and indirectly related to the endorsement of capital punishment and handgun ownership, while also directly predicting a greater likelihood of actual handgun ownership. In addition, TV news viewing predicts fear of crime in audience members, and this fear contributes to the endorsement of capital punishment and handgun ownership. Crime drama viewing is positively related to support for the death penalty.
Mental models are dynamic mental representations of situations, events, and objects. We argue that the mental models approach can expand our understanding of cultivation theory. We survey the research on mental models, situation models including the event indexing model, and cultural models. Based on this literature, we propose several ways in which cultivation theory can be expanded to provide a richer understanding of how the media influence people's perception of their social reality and understanding of their culture.
Cultivation effects are discussed and assessed within the context of mental processing strategies. Specifically, an information-processing perspective is taken to illustrate how television viewing may affect social judgments. Heuristic processing is posited as a mechanism that can explain why heavier television viewing results in higher first-order cultivation judgments (i.e., those requiring estimates of set size, such as the incidence of violent crime or percentage of doctors in the workforce). Past cultivation findings are integrated into this framework, and new directions for research are proposed.
People may use information from a variety of sources in constructing their judgments of crime risk, including direct experience, word-of-mouth, and the mass media. One hundred fifty-eight general population respondents provided 3 estimates of risk of violent crime: societal crime risk, personal crime risk to themselves in their own neighborhood, and personal crime risk to themselves in New York City Respondents' level of television viewing was related to their estimates of societal crime risk and to their estimates of personal crime risk in New York City (p < .05) but not to their estimates of personal crime risk in their own neighborhood (p < .05). This pattern of results was qualified by a significant interaction (p < .05): all 3 risk estimates were related to respondents' level of television viewing only for those with high direct experience with crime, results that are consistent with Gerbner's concept of resonance (Gerbner et al., 1980). The implications for the concept of impersonal impact (Tyler, 1980) and Gerbner et al.'s concepts of cultivation and mainstreaming are also discussed.
Past fictional television has tended to portray doctors in an extremely positive manner, while more recent fictional programming appears to portray physicians less positively. Based on Pfau, Mullen, and Garrow's (1995) suggestion that exposure to television's newer medical shows may lead to more negative feelings toward doctors, the present study examined the relationship between exposure to these and other fictional and non-fictional genres and perceptions of physicians. Results indicate negative relationships between exposure to prime-time doctor shows and perceptions, supporting Pfau et al.'s prediction. Exposure to television news magazines, network news, and talk shows also predicted perceptions of physicians.
This study merges insights from cultivation and uses and gratifications to examine the relationship between environmental concern, five forms of television viewing, and pro-environmental behaviors. This research considers both the direct effects of various forms of television viewing and their potential mediating roles in the relationship between environmental attitudes and behaviors. Analysis of 1999 and 2000 DDB Life Style Study data reveals that television news and nature documentary use are predicted by environmental concern and contribute to pro-environmental behaviors, whereas three forms of entertainment television use are not consistently linked to these variables. Implications for future research are discussed.
This study applied theoretical propositions of the assimilation and contrast perspectives of social psychology to investigate the effects of exposure to TV portrayals of Asian Americans on judgments regarding Asian and African Americans. Experimental participants exposed to TV-mediated messages reinforcing the Asian American “model minority”‘ stereotype were more likely to positively evaluate Asian Americans and to negatively evaluate African Americans than participants exposed to messages countering the “model” stereotype or to a control stimulus. Exposure to the “model” reinforcement also led to disagreement with affirmative action.
Participants were exposed to a crime story embedded in a newscast in a 3 (Officer Race—Black, White, or Race Unidentified) × 3 (Perpetrator Race—Black, White, or Race Unidentified) × 2 (Prior News Viewing—Heavy, Light) factorial design. Afterward, participants were asked the likelihood that the depicted officer and perpetrator were either White or Black. In addition, participants were asked how positively they viewed the officer who was featured in the story. Results revealed that race unidentified perpetrators were rated as having a high likelihood of being Black. In addition, heavy news viewers were more likely than light news viewers to express a high likelihood that the unidentified officer was White. Finally, heavy news viewers were more likely than light news viewers to have positive perceptions of unidentified officers, but not of Black officers featured in a newscast. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed in light of cultivation and chronic activation.
The present study examined the relationships between self-reported exposure to television makeover programs and viewer self-esteem, perfectionism, and body dissatisfaction. Results indicated that frequency of exposure to television makeover programs was negatively related to self-esteem and positively related to perfectionism and body dissatisfaction.
The traditional cultivation approach assumes (a) a uniform message across all television genres, (b) a nonselective viewing pattern in the audience, and (c) long-term effects. This study of possible effects of daily talk shows on adolescents involved a prolonged-exposure experiment designed to evaluate effects of exposure to sequences dealing with lesbian or gay male relationships, transsexuality, and tattooing. The experimental design allows the study of the relationship between the content of a specific genre and cultivation measures, independent of third variables. The results show that cultivation effects occurred at both first-and second-order level. However, these effects were restricted to the particular issues. No transfer effects pertaining to a general change of attitudes were observed. It is concluded that cultivation effects are limited to both the genre and issue in question. Accordingly, the identification of cultivating messages within and across different television genres should be emphasized.
One explanation for the high divorce rate in our society focuses on the idealistic expectations with which many people enter into marriage. The media have been cited as the source of or major contributor to these expectations; however, no empirical evidence exists to support that claim. Based on a survey of 285 never-married university students, this study sought to examine the relationship between television viewing, holding idealistic expectations about marriage, and intentions to marry. Results from regression and path analyses indicate that, although overall television viewing has a negative association with idealistic marriage expectations, viewing of romantic genre programming (e.g., romantic comedies, soap operas) was positively associated with idealistic expectations about marriage. Further, a strong and positive association between these expectations and marital intentions was evidenced. These findings are discussed in terms of both cultivation theory and the uses and gratifications perspective of media influence.
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This article critically examines the statistical evidence presented by Gerbner et al. to support their assertion that television-viewing “cultivates” distorted perceptions of the “real world.” In Part I, I point out discrepancies in the items, samples, and coding categories employed, and show that when controls are applied simultaneously (rather than singly) there is no linear relationship between amount of viewing and the provision of “television answers.” This reanalysis concludes that the “cultivation” hypothesis lacks empirical support and that the very data presented in its support argue strongly for rejecting the assertion that it has any scientific basis in fact.
The cultural transformation of our time stems from the extension of the industrial-technological revolution into the sphere of message-production. The mass production and rapid distribution of messages create new symbolic environments that reflect the structure and functions of the institutions that transmit them. These institutional processes of the mass-production messages short-circuit other networks of social communication and superimpose their own forms of collective consciousness—their own publics—upon other social relationships. The consequences for the quality of life, for the cultivation of human tendencies and outlooks, and for the governing of societies, are far-reaching. Informed policy-making and the valid interpretation of social behavior require systematic indicators of the prevailing climate of the changing symbolic environment. A central aspect of cultural indicators would be the periodic analysis of trends in the composition and structure of message systems cultivating conceptions of life relevant to socialization and public policy. Findings of studies of the portrayal of violence in network television drama illustrate the terms of such analysis, and demonstrate the need for more comprehensive, cumulative, and comparative information on mass-cultural trends and configurations.
The basic assumption of cultivation - more exposure to television leads to more cultivation effects - is examined by reviewing research on genre-specific cultivation. Studies on three genres are included in the review: Crime, soap opera and talk shows. The review indicates differential cultivation effects of the different genres; not all of them are consistent with the basic cultivation hypothesis. Building on these results, a theoretical framework is set up that accounts for possible explanations. The framework starts from the notion of a multi-step cultivation process inherent in current theorizing, ranging from (1) encoding and storage of television information, (2) inferences about the real world, and (3) retrieval and construction of cultivation judgments. This notion is extended by reconceptualizing the 'cultivating' message, integrating uses and gratifications of television viewing and emphasizing the role of personal knowledge and attitudes.
Crime-related television viewing may influence not only the viewer but also individuals with whom the viewer communicates. A matched sample of parents and their first semester college-age children were surveyed independently (N = 178 pairs)to test a model linking parents' crime-related television viewing with their college-age children's perceptions of crime prevalence. The model identifies parents' precautionary warnings as influenced by their own crime viewing and as influencing their college-age children's crime-prevalence estimates. Results indicate the relationship between parents' crime viewing and their issuance of precautionary warnings is mediated by their own estimates of crime prevalence and that parents' precautionary warnings influence young adults' perceptions of crime prevalence. Young adults' gender influences both the frequency of parental warnings and young adults' perceptions of how frequently they were warned by parents but appears not to influence perceptions of crime directly.
As a theory of media effects, cultivation suggests that television viewing influences beliefs and opinions about the real world. As a model of social influence, the theory of reasoned action focuses on predicting behaviors based on salient beliefs and attitudes. This study attempts to elaborate cultivation theory by using a theory of reasoned action perspective to determine if heavy television viewing influences not only beliefs and attitudes about violence in society but also intentions to take and actual engagement in protective action. Findings indicated that amount of television viewing directly influenced prevalence estimates of violence in society as well as intentions to take protective measures and indirectly affected mean world attitude and protection behaviors through its effects on their preceding variables. Implications for conceptualization and measurement of cultivation variables as well as the process through which television impacts behavior are discussed.
This article addresses several elaborations and specifications of Gerbner and Gross' (1976) cultivation hypothesis: that heavy television viewers incorporate biases present in television content into their own construc tions of reality. Subjects were 1280 children from grades 2, 5, 8, and 11 in Perth, Western Australia who answered questions designed to tap their perceptions of violence and "meanness" in society. The cultivation relation ship between viewing and beliefs was replicated with these Australian schoolchildren, but only for adolescents, suggesting that the integration of discrete television events into social reality beliefs requires cognitive skills not available to or unused by younger children. Division of children's viewing into different content types indicated that beliefs about violence stemmed most clearly from crime-adventure programs and cartoons, but perceiving a mean world is related more globally to all television viewing.
Interpersonal trust has recently emerged at the centre of research in social science as an important component of social capital. Earlier, it has been theorized that exposure to media cultivates a suspicious and distrusting ‘mean–world’ outlook on life (cultivation theory). In this article, we aim to bind these separate but obviously interconnected theoretical discussions in a combined empirical analysis, by exploring several potential correlates of social trust. As criminologists, our main interest lies in the possible association between victimization, fear of crime, use of crime news media and trust. We categorize victimization experiences as either persistent or occasional ones. In addition, we add a set of social and structural factors to our analysis. Our cross–sectional survey data consists of a nationally representative sample of 15–16 year–old Finnish adolescents (N = 5142). The results of the multivariate analyses indicate that both victimization and fear of crime are related to lower levels of interpersonal trust. As expected, there is a more robust association between persistent victimization and the level of trust than is the case with occasional victimization. Viewing regularly television crime reality programmes is also robustly related to lower levels of trust, a finding that supports the cultivation theory. Of social interaction variables, social support and supervision by parents and teachers are positively related to trust. Contrary to this, participation in civic life (such as religious and various secular associations) is not related to social trust among Finnish adolescents. This and other results are here discussed applying social capital theory and cultivation theory of media effects.
Research on the cultivation hypothesis has focused on whether relationships between television viewing and social reality beliefs truly exist or are artifacts. There is very little evidence about what cognitive processes allow viewers to construct television-biased beliefs. The present study tests two possible processes: First, that perceptions of the television world serve as an intermediate step between fragmented incidental learning from television and beliefs about the real world and second, that beliefs closely linked to television content are an intermediate step in implying more general values and beliefs. These two hypotheses were tested in one adult and three adolescent samples, two in the United States and two in Australia. Across a range of cultivation questions, the basic cultivation result generally replicated that heavy viewers had beliefs about the world that appeared influenced by television. However, neither process hypothesis was supported. Although the null findings on the first hypothesis do not rule out construction from learned fragments, findings on the second hypothesis contradict cultivation's second-order effect. “Close” beliefs and their implied counterparts were unrelated, and cultivation relationships for these implied variables occurred only for those with real-world biased “dose” beliefs. Exploration of this result demonstrated that cultivation of both kinds of beliefs occurred more of ten for adolescents with high academic skills, suggesting that if cultivation occurs, it is a more active and intellectually demanding process than previously proposed.
Cultivation theory research has found a relationship between heavier viewing of television and less concern about the natural environment. The current research delves further into this issue by exploring how environmentalists’ television viewing is related to their attitudes about the environment. The findings indicate that when overall television viewing is the independent variable, there are cultivation and mainstreaming effects for environmentalists (i.e., environmentalists who were heavy viewers of television scored lower on the new environmental paradigm (NEP) scale than lighter viewing environmentalists, and were more similar to the general public in their environmental attitudes than lighter viewers). The findings also show that the cultivation effects are related to need for cognition (NFC) and attention to television (such that those with higher NFC, and those who pay more attention to television, have lower scores on the NEP scale). When non-fiction programming is the independent variable, however, heavier television viewers score higher on the NEP, and NFC and attention to television do not relate to the cultivation effect.
Content analyses indicate two predominant portrayals of African Americans in U.S. television: comfortable and successful, or unemployed and criminal. It is argued that this dichotomized presentation influences the public's perceptions of socio-economic success as well as perceived reasons for lack of success. This is explored in a survey (N = 139) of perceptions about the success of Blacks and Whites and the reasons for socioeconomic differences. Observed relationships between news viewing and perceived lack of motivation, as well as contradictory relations between estimates of educational achievement and sitcom and drama viewing, are discussed in the terms of modem racism.
Many critics have chided daytime television talk shows because of deviant behavior that they highlight. This study examined if exposure to daytime television talk shows cultivated negative attitudes and perceptions of interpersonal relationships in the U.S. among international and U.S. students. The hypothesis that international students would demonstrate more of a cultivation effect than U.S. students was tested using three dependent measures: (1) estimates of the frequency of certain inappropriate behaviors in the U.S., (2) attitudes about interpersonal relationships among certain primary groups in the U.S., and (3) perceptions of certain interpersonal relationships among primary groups in the U.S. The hypothesis received support on all three measures.
This article examines the relationship between television viewing and public perceptions of juvenile crime rates and the effectiveness of the juvenile justice system. Special attention was devoted to viewers of television news and shows like Cops and America's Most Wanted, where researchers expected a greater misperception of crime rates and the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. The results showed significant media effects on perceptions of juvenile crime and the effectiveness of the juvenile justice system in the expected direction. As viewers watched more crime-related television, they were more likely to misperceive realities of juvenile crime and juvenile justice.
Previous research suggests that effects of television fiction on the perception of reality are coding errors occurring when viewers remember what they saw without remembering the validity of the source. A qualitative study of 33 prison inmates discussing their first entry into the prison system shows that when experiences which previously were of secondary importance suddenly and acutely become of primary importance, people explicitly and actively use knowledge gained from television fiction as a means to learn about and anticipate what will happen in realities that are otherwise inaccessible. First timers expected a real Flemish prison to resemble the prisons from American TV and movie fiction. The article argues that audiovisual fiction contains cues that suggest that some of what is shown resembles reality.
The time has come for us to take a serious look at the institution of peer review. It is not a good way to catch misconduct or outright fraud in science, because the reviewer quite naturally accepts the account of how and why the research was done. But detecting fraud is not the purpose of peer review.
Cultivation research has been criticized for failing to articulate underlying psychological processes and mechanisms. Research into viewers' percep- tions of content realism has been implicated in the cultivation process, yet we know little about how viewers assess realism, especially while viewing. This article considers the role of perceived realism judgments in the cultiva- tion process from a narrative perspective. It argues that cultivation research should refocus on the viewer's interaction with the narrative, and that per- ceived realism judgments should be considered an on-line, evaluative pro- cess that has the potential to interfere with cultivation effects.
Many studies have shown that heavy TV viewers make social reality judgments more in line with televised reality. Shrum's (2001) heuristic model of cultivation effects predicted and found that biases in first-order cultivation judgments resemble heuristic processing. Systematic processing eliminated the effect. This study presents a series of computational simulations to examine whether a simple feed-forward neural network model exhibits learning behavior in accordance with Shrum's model. The data from the model are tested in contrast to data from human participants. Results closely fit human data. Simulations show that increased television exposure increases construct accessibility; television exemplars are not discounted when exhibiting the cultivation effect; and systematic processing reduces or eliminates the cultivation effect.
Recent work in the area of media and fear of crime suggest that both program content and audience traits are important factors in predicting fear of crime. Working from these premises, this article explores the relationship between watching television and fear of crime among twelve different audience sub-samples and six program types. Additionally, we examine whether respondents' perception of the racial composition of their neighborhood provides a mediating context for the television/fear relationship. Using a random telephone survey of 1,490 adults in Leon County, Florida, we find that program content and audience traits influence the television/fear relationship. More importantly, these findings demonstrate that perceived racial composition of neighborhood is a crucial dimension in structuring the TV/fear relationship, with television effects for several different program types located primarily among individuals who perceive they live in a neighborhood with high percentages of blacks. Results are discussed in terms of "social threat."
This article explores the role of exemplar accessibility in Shrum's (1996) heuristic processing model of cultivation effects. Specifically, the study tested whether television exposure and perceived realism of television would predict the accessibility of examples of constructs frequently portrayed on television. Participants (197) completed a survey measuring television exposure, perceived realism of television, and demographics. Six weeks later they were divided into two experimental conditions. Condition 1 participants answered social judgment questions and then performed an exemplar accessibility task. Condition 2 participants performed the exemplar accessibility task then made social judgments. As predicted by the model, participants who answered social judgment questions first exhibited a cultivation effect. Those who performed the exemplar accessibility task first did not. Also, measures of perceived realism of television predicted accessibility of examples (Black doctors, shootings, and extramarital affairs). Mere exposure to television did not predict the accessibility of examples as predicted. Results suggest that perceived realism of television content may play a role in the heuristic process linking television exposure and social judgments. Limitations are discussed, and suggestions for future research are offered.
This study explored the cultivation phenomenon among international college students in the United States by examining the connection between levels of acculturation, daytime TV talk show viewing, and beliefs about social reality. It was expected that international students who were heavy viewers of daytime TV talk shows and who scored low on a measured of acculturation about the United States would hold the most negative perceptions and attitudes concerning U.S. society. Three specific hypotheses were tested. International students who score low on acculturation and watch a great deal of daytime talk shows should (1) overestimate the frequency of certain undesirable behaviors in the United States, (2) have more negative attitudes toward human relationships in the United States, and (3) have more negative perceptions of human relationships in the United States. The first hypothesis received limited support while the second and third received strong support.
Discusses the portrayal of science and scientists on prime-time television and assesses the impact that it has on public conceptions of science. Reports that television cultivates a less than favorable orientation toward science and scientists. Offers recommendations for improvement. (ML)
The study examines whether more television viewing contributes to negative perceptions of young people's behaviour with regard to substance use. This hypothesis is tested among middle-aged and elderly people, for whom television might be the primary source of information about youth. In addition, the study explores whether this relationship may be dependent upon respondents' direct experience and educational level. Correlational analyses and analyses of covariance performed on a sample of 246 people aged over 30 indicate that the relationship between television exposure and drug use estimations is curvilinear. It also showed to be moderated by respondents' educational level but not by their direct experience with adolescents. The interrelated impact of television viewing and education is discussed.
In this study we examined how media contribute to college students' erroneous perceptions of peer norms and the consequences of such misperceptions. The data came from a survey of 312 college students. Results indicate that students believed that their peers were significantly more sexually permissive than was actually the case. The data suggested that they formed such erroneous impressions of peers based in part on their perceptions of media influence on peers. Some evidence also indicated that these misperceptions produced a significant impact on male college students, making them more likely to say they would engage in casual sexual activity and engage in it at an earlier stage in dating.
Public opinion about regulating smoking is characterized by considerable ambivalence. On the one hand, more than 80% of Americans recognize the health risks of smoking cigarettes; the majority of the public favors various antismoking policies, such as restricting smoking in public places. On the other hand, a majority also agrees that a person should have the right to smoke in public. Studies about communication and media effects on smoking are mostly concerned about the effectiveness of antismoking campaigns. How general media use, where fewer intentional antismoking messages are present, might affect attitudes about smoking is less studied. This study compares the relative impact of mass media on attitudes about smoking behavior and on various smoking-related policy stances. In particular, we are interested in the role that mass media play in influencing perceptions of the social climate surrounding cigarette smoking. Data come from a survey of 794 respondents about media use, smoking behaviors, and attitudes toward smoking. Results show that TV viewing (exposure) is indirectly related to perceptions of public support for smoking. TV exposure is positively related to prevalence estimates of smoking, which in turn are related to support for a smoking ban and to perceptions of public support for such a ban. Implications for communication theories such as spiral of silence and cultivation are discussed.
The present investigation applies cultivation theory to describe the role of viewing Grey's Anatomy on patients' predispositions. Results demonstrate that heavy viewers of Grey's Anatomy perceive this program to be credible. Credibility was positively associated with a perception that real-world doctors are courageous. A direct association did not emerge between Grey's Anatomy viewing and a perception that doctors are courageous, although an indirect effect emerged, mediated through credibility. A positive association emerged between perceptions that doctors are courageous and patient satisfaction. Results are discussed with an emphasis on the role of entertainment programs in cultivating patients' predispositions about medical doctors.