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Oryx Vol 37 No 4 October 2003
Short Communication
Satellite tracking of flamingos in southern Africa: the importance of
small wetlands for management and conservation
Graham McCulloch, Adrian Aebischer and Kenneth Irvine
Abstract The Makgadikgadi Salt Pans in Botswana are Africa to Makgadikgadi to breed. It also shows that, during
the non-breeding season, movement is widely dispersedone of the most important breeding sites in southern
Africa for lesser flamingos Phoeniconaias minor and and nomadic among a network of wetlands around
the subcontinent. Small wetlands, often unrecognized asgreater flamingos Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Much of
flamingo migration behaviour is unknown and there has important for conservation, provide valuable feeding sites
and migration staging posts along flamingo migrationbeen speculation on the pattern of flamingo movements
to and from Makgadikgadi and their dispersal through- routes. This highlights the need for the conservation
of the network of small wetlands around southernout southern Africa. We carried out the first satellite
tracking of flamingos in southern Africa to find out Africa, which are often under threat from anthropogenic
activities, to protect two high profile bird species inwhere lesser and greater flamingos go after leaving
Makgadikgadi. In July 2001 five lesser and three greater decline.
flamingos were tagged. Following migration from the
pans, one of the greater flamingos flew west to the Keywords Flamingos, migration, Phoeniconaias,Phoeni-
copterus, satellite tracking, southern Africa, telemetry,coast of Namibia, the other south to a small wetland in
South Africa. The lesser flamingos moved south-east wetlands.
from Makgadikgadi to South Africa and Mozambique.
Movement by both species was nocturnal. This work This paper contains supplementary material that can
only be found online at http://journals.cambridge.orgshows that flamingos migrate from all over southern
Of the five species of flamingos that occur worldwide may have caused a >20% decline of flamingo numbers
over the last two decades. Collectively, small wetlandstwo, the greater flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus and
the lesser flamingo Phoeniconaias minor, occur in Africa. also provide an important but poorly understood habitat
network for flamingos (Breen, 1991; Anderson, 2000c).The lesser flamingo is categorized on the IUCN Red List
as Lower Risk: near threatened across its entire range The conservation of flamingos on small ephemeral pans
and some perennial wetlands around southern Africa(Collar et al., 1994; IUCN, 2002) and both species are
listed in the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement is of concern owing to the lack of formal, eCective pro-
tection of the majority of these increasingly threatened(AEWA, 2000) as ‘‘populations in decline throughout
southern Africa’’. Both species are considered Lower sites (Davies & Day, 1986; Allan, 1987; Breen, 1991;
Allan et al., 1995; Anderson, 2000c).Risk: near threatened or Vulnerable throughout southern
Africa owing primarily to the lack of breeding sites The salt pans of the Makgadikgadi depression are a
relict of an immense Quaternary palaeolake that onceand the vulnerability of breeding to both natural and
anthropogenic disturbance (Brook, 1984; Simmons, 1996; covered much of northern Botswana (Thomas & Shaw,
1991). The remnants of this great lake at Ntwetwe andAnderson, 2000a, b). Simmons (1996, 2000) has suggested
that a lack of successful breeding at the large wetland Sua Pans comprise a flat surface of saline clay that is
flooded intermittently with seasonal rainfall. Duringsites of Etosha Pan in Namibia and Sua Pan in Botswana
the rainy season (October–April), the pans are trans-
formed into vast shallow salt lakes that provide excellent
Graham McCulloch (Corresponding author) and
Kenneth Irvine Department of Zoology, Trinity College, feeding conditions for both species of flamingos. The
Dublin 2, Ireland. E-mail: mccullg@tcd.ie southern section of Sua Pan provides one of the most
important breeding sites for both species in southern
Adrian Aebischer, 2 Rte de Schiffenen 17, CH-1700 Fribourg,
Switzerland. Africa, with breeding success depending on the extent
of seasonal flooding (Hancock, 1990; Simmons, 1996).
Received 19 June 2002. Revision requested 25 September 2002.
Accepted 27 May 2003. The pans typically dry out at the end of each season,
480 © 2003 FFI, Oryx,37(4), 480–483 DOI: 10.1017/S0030605303000851 Printed in the United Kingdom
481
Satellite tracking of flamingos
often before breeding is complete, forcing the birds to oC, for 6 months, switching to a cycle of 8 hours on/
44 hours oC, for the time estimated to coincide with theseek food elsewhere (Hancock, 1990; Simmons, 1996).
Controversy surrounds the geographical origin of 6-month period around breeding and migration. The
PTT cycles were oCset from the 24-hour orbit cycles offlamingos that migrate to and from the pans, and while
evidence of movements to and from the direction of the receiving satellites to avoid possible transmission at
a time-window each day with few or no overpasses.Makgadikgadi are well documented (Borello et al., 1998;
Anderson, 2000c), details of their migration patterns and ‘On’ periods, therefore, occurred at diCerent times of the
day, alternating between nocturnal and diurnal trans-behaviour are unknown (Simmons, 1996, 2000; Borello
et al., 1998). It has been suggested, that because of missions. All data were transmitted through the Argos
satellite system. Location accuracy varied according tothe very high numbers, up to hundreds of thousands,
that occur on Makgadikgadi and Etosha in years of the PTT signal strength and the number of receiving
satellites (five in total ) during each transmission. Theexceptional rainfall (above the average of 400–500 mm)
these migrations may link with the East African popu- PTTs produced excellent data and we only used location
information with accuracies of 150–1,000 m of the reallation (Berry, 1972; Simmons, 1997; Borello et al., 1998).
In July 2001 we began the first satellite tracking of position. The locations of the all sites used by the tracked
flamingos are given in Fig. 1 and the Appendix.flamingos in southern Africa in an attempt to monitor their
movements from Makgadikgadi after an exceptional Owing to exceptional floods the pans did not dry up
in 2001 and the flamingos remained to complete anotherbreeding season. A total of 28 flamingos were caught
on Sua Pan using a noosing method similar to that used breeding season. Of the eight birds that were tagged,
PTTs on two greater and three lesser flamingo were stillin East Africa (B. Childress, pers. comm.) and South
America (B. Conway, pers. comm.). Using 80 and 30 g transmitting at roughly the same location, to the north-
east of Sua Pan (20°22∞S, 26°12∞E), when the pans finallyPTT satellite telemetry devices, we tagged five lesser
and three greater flamingos. The devices were attached began to dry out in February 2002. The greater flamingos
(GF a&GFb) left the pans between 18 and 20 Februaryusing a figure-of-eight style harnessing technique with
teflon ribbon (Nagendran et al., 1994). The transmission 2002 (Fig. 1). On 20 February GF ahad moved 170 km
west to a small pan on the western edge of thecycles of each device were set at 8 hours on/158 hours
15
20
20
25
30
25 30 35ºE
Etosha
Makgadikgadr
Botswana
Namibia
South Africa Lesotho
Swaziland
Mozambique
Zimbabwe
100km
GFb
GFa
LFa&b
GFc
(vi)
(v)(xiv)
(viii)
(xv)
(vii)
(xii)
(ii)
(i)
(x)
(ix)
(iii)
(iv)
(xiii)
(xi)
(xvi)
Fig. 1 The migration of two greater flamingos (GF a&b) and three lesser flamingos (LF a,b&c) from the Makgadikgadi salt pans to their
non-breeding destinations around southern Africa. Precise locations of all sites are given in the Appendix.
© 2003 FFI, Oryx,37(4), 480–483
482 G. McCulloch et al.
Makgadikgadi (site i). On 22 February it was located lands (sites xiv and xv) before returning once again to
Kamfers Dam in August. It remained there until the580 km south-east on a small lake (site ii), 5 km from
Springbok Pan in the western Gauteng Province of South PTT stopped transmitting in mid-September. On 10 May
LF bhad moved 200 km north-east, very close to wetlandAfrica. GF bleft Makgadikgadi on a westerly course
and during the night of 20 February was located 700 km site xv. The PTT stopped transmitting for a time on
29 June. It began transmitting again on 29 Septemberaway, flying in the direction of Etosha Pan (site iii), in
Bushmanland, north-eastern Namibia. Flamingos have and LF bhad then moved to Lake Nanghul (site xvi), a
perennial freshwater lake in southern Mozambique.been observed stopping at pans close to this location on
numerous occasions and were presumed to be transient Flamingo movement from Makgadikgadi was as a
result of the disappearance of water, forcing them toflocks, en route between Botswana and Namibia (Hines,
1993; Simmons et al., 1998). Part of this flight (54 km) leave. Thunderstorms may, however, be linked to their
arrival on the pans, as suggested by Simmons et al.was tracked continuously for 49 minutes with an esti-
mated average ground speed of 65 km hr−1. At the time, (1998) (G. McCulloch, pers. obs.). The Tswana name for
flamingos in Botswana, meaning thunder and lightningEtosha Pan was dry and therefore unsuitable habitat for
flamingos. On 22 February GF bwas located on the bird, provides some support to this idea. Although none
of the tagged birds flew north-east, this study cannotcoast of Namibia, 45 km north of Walvis Bay, 1,230 km
from Makgadikgadi. On 26 February it had moved south discount the possibilities of migratory connections
with East African populations. Mozambique has beento Walvis Bay (site iv).
On 20 February all three lesser flamingos (LF a,b&c) suggested as part of a coastal route north for inter-
connecting populations (Borello et al., 1998). Inspectionwere still at Makgadikgadi. In the weeks following
their departure we observed a highly dispersed move- of the movement of birds suggests that some sites close
to Makgadikgadi (i, iii and ix) are transient points onment (Fig. 1). On 23 February LF aand bwere located
930 km south-south-east on Kamfers Dam (site v), an longer migration routes, as previously suggested (Hines,
1993; Simmons et al., 1998), while others are likely to beimportant non-breeding site in the Northern Cape
Province of South Africa. Regular observations of large important feeding sites for non-breeding populations.
The results, particularly those of LF a, also shownumbers of flamingos have been recorded on this wet-
land (Anderson, 2000c). On 26 and 28 February LF athat flamingos are highly scattered and movement is
nomadic among the many wetlands on which they havethen moved 130 km east, to Skoppan (site vi) and 60 km
north to a small pan (site vii) near Flamingo Pan. On been recorded (e.g. Borello et al., 1998; Anderson, 2000c).
The majority of sites chosen by the flamingos are located9 March it flew to another small wetland (site viii) 17km
south. LF cmade its first stop on a small pan (site ix) in areas where small, predominantly ephemeral, pans
and dams are concentrated (Seaman et al., 1991; Allan130 km south of Makgadikgadi, before flying to a wet-
land (site x) near Barbers Pan, where it was located on et al, 1995; Anderson, 2000c). Many small ephemeral
wetlands throughout southern Africa are, however,4 March. It was then located on the night of 6 March,
flying to a wetland in the Lake Chrissie area (site xi), vulnerable to disturbance and degradation from drain-
age, domestic waste and agricultural pollution (Davies160 km east. During this flight the bird flew 90 km in 90
minutes at an average ground speed of 60 km hr−1. & Day, 1986; Allan, 1987; Breen, 1991; Allan et al 1995).
Furthermore, most wetlands, including coastal lagoonsDespite observations of flamingos occasionally flying
over land by day (e.g. Williams, 1993), we recorded such as Walvis Bay in Namibia, and many of the dams
and other man-made wetlands that often support largemigration in progress only during night-time ‘on’
periods, supporting the theory that flamingos in Africa flamingo populations, have no or limited protection
as conservation sites (Breen, 1991; Allan et al., 1995;fly between wetlands at night (Brown et al., 1982). Later
in the year some of the flamingos continued nomadic Anderson, 2000c). The vulnerability of sites that lack a
protected status (Ehrlich & Daily, 1993) is a great concernmovements to diCerent locations. GF amoved 40 km
south-south-west to a wetland (site xii) on 31 March, for flamingo conservation as, collectively, scattered and
small sites used by these birds are as equally importantwhere it remained until the PTT stopped transmitting
on 3 May. On 5 May GF bflew 45 km south to Sandwich in their life-cycle as are the larger sites that aCord
protection either because of their remoteness (e.g. SuaHarbour (site xiii ). It returned to Walvis Bay again on
2 June and later that month the bird was found dead Pan and Magkadikgadi) or legal status (e.g. Etosha Pan
and Kamfers Dam) or both. The results of this work(with the transmitter attached) on the edge of a salt
works pond 38 km north of Walvis Bay, where it was indicate the importance for flamingos of a network of
wetland sites across southern Africa and emphasizesreportedly scavanged by a jackal. On 21 April LF a
returned to Kamfers Dam (site v). In June and July it the need for a reappraisal of wetland protection in the
subcontinent.continued its nomadic movements, visiting small wet-
© 2003 FFI, Oryx,37(4), 480–483
483
Satellite tracking of flamingos
Davies, B.R. & Day, J.A. (1986) The Biology and Conservation of
Acknowledgements
South Africa’s Vanishing Waters. Centre for Extra-mural
Studies, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
We thank Disney Conservation Awards, Adelheid Ehrlich, P.R.D. & Daily, G.G. (1993) Population extinction and
Studer-Thiersch and Basel Zoo, PFG Glass (Pty) Ltd. saving biodiversity. Ambio, 22, 64–68.
South Africa, Bill Hunt and the International Flamingo Hancock, P. (1990) The flamingos of Sowa. Bushcall, 1, 16–21.
Foundation and Paul Henry and Botswana Ash (Pty) IUCN (2002) 2002 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland [http://www.redlist.org, accessed 9 July
Ltd. for financial support. We also thank Northstar and
2003].
Argos for the PTT transmitters and location information.
Hines, C.J.H. (1993) Temporary wetlands of Bushmanland and
Finally, a big thank you to Rob Simmons, Nicky Kavongo, northeast Namibia. Madoqua, 18, 57–69.
Bousfield, John and Pat Nurse and the Birdlife Botswana Nagendran, M., Higuchi, H. & Sorokin, A.G. (1994)
Club for their help catching and tagging the flamingos. A harnessing technique to deploy transmitters on cranes.
In The Future of Cranes and Wetlands. (eds H.M. Higuchi &
J. Minton), pp. 57–60. Wild Bird Society of Japan, Tokyo,
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© 2003 FFI, Oryx,37(4), 480–483
