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Solar radiation interception and utilization by chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) crops in northern Syria
Abstract
An analysis of chickpea experiments carried out in northern Syria during the 1980–1 and 1981–2 growing seasons showed that both intercepted solar radiation and its rate of conversion to dry matter were variable components of dry-matter production. Among the sources of variation in the experiments, the most important factor affecting both interception and utilization of solar radiation was site. Winter planting also led to increased solar radiation interception and utilization. Used in conjunction with chickpea lines resistant to blight, winter planting seems likely to lead to increased productivity. In higher rainfall areas, where the crop is usually grown, such an increase would be of commercial significance. In drier areas, winter planting would enable the cultivation of chickpea as a subsistence crop.
... and arrangement on the stem have direct or indirect impacts on canopy architecture, solar interception, and seed yield (Leach and Beach 1988;Li et al. 2006). In chickpea, an erectophile canopy has greater LI during the vegetative growth period than a planophile canopy (Hughes et al. 1987). A larger crop canopy is associated with improved rooting systems and greater water use efficiency (Leach and Beach 1988). ...
... Higher plant populations usually give rise to an earlier canopy closure in chickpea (Ayaz et al. 2004), soybean (Ball et al. 2000;Purcell et al. 2002), faba bean (Loss et al. 1998), and lentil (McKenzie and Hill 1991). However, in the dry environment of northern Syria, plant population and growth habit had marginal effects on dry matter production (Hughes et al. 1987). Many of the studies referenced above used a limited number of cultivars with similar canopy architecture, and information is lacking on the effect of the interaction of different leaf types and plant populations on LI. ...
... Leach and Beach (1988) found that increasing row spacing increased RUE, but responses of RUE to plant populations were inconsistent. Hughes et al. (1987) found that RUE was greater for cultivars with erect growth habit than for cultivars with prostrate growth habit, and that RUE was lower for the 60 plants m (2 compared with 30 plants m (2 plant populations. Little is known about the potential differences in RUE among chickpea genotypes varying in leaf type. ...
A chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) crop with rapid leaf development, high solar radiation interception, and efficient use of radiation can maximize the yield potential in a short-season typical of the Northern Great Plains. This study determined the effects of cultivars varying in leaf architecture on light interception (LI) and radiation use efficiency (RUE) in chickpea. Six kabuli chickpea cultivars with fern and unifoliate-leaf traits were grown under low (45 plants m-2) and high (85 plants m-2) population density at Saskatoon and Swift Current, Saskatchewan, in 2003 and 2004. Fern-leaf cultivars achieved consistently higher maximum LI, and greater cumulative intercepted radiation than cultivars with the unifoliate-leaf. Estimated RUE varied largely with growing season, but did not differ among cultivars or between plant populations. Compared with low plant population, high plant population resulted in greater maximum LI in only 1 out of 4 location-years, but higher cumulative intercepted radiation in 3out of 4 location-years. Our results indicated that future high-yielding kabuli chickpea cultivars for short seasons will benefit from increased canopy LI and seasonal cumulative intercepted radiation via the fern-leaf trait, although the fern-leaf does not further increase RUE. Use of fern-leaf cultivars, coupled with adoption of strategies that promote a rapid canopy development and improved radiation interception are keys to maximizing chickpea yield potential in the short-seasons experienced in the Northern Great Plains.
... The crop is therefore able to intercept more solar radiation and fix more nitrogen because of the increased photosynthetic area and reduced competition for assimilate between the pods and the nodules (Hughes et al., 1987;Wery et al., 1988). Rainfall is also well distributed in the Mediterranean region during winter and the crop can use it more efficiently (Keatinge and Cooper, 1983;Huda and Virmani, 1987). ...
... d by sowmg date as found in chickpea (McKenzie et al., 1992) and lentils (McKenzie and Hill, 1990;Turay, 1993) grown under Canterbury conditions. The July sowing accumulated 18% more maximum dry matter than the September sowing (Table 6.1) becausejLFas-in-lht! field for longer--and intercepted =-,-="-""~'" more photosyntheti~ally acti~~_La.giation (Hughes. et al., 1987). The cooler temperatures under which vegetative growth occurred have also been shown to prolong growth since flowers fail to set pods (Saxena et al., 1983). In Canterbury, work on lentils and chickpea indicates that additional nitrogen and rhizobial inoculation can increase maximum dry matter accumulated (Hernandez, 1986;Turay, 1993). I ...
... These results support Hernandez and Hill's (1985) finding that differences in dry matter production from chickpeas in Canterbury were related to the amount of solar radiation intercepted during the growing season. Similar results have also been reported in wheat and barley (Gallagher and Biscoe, 1978), cowpeas (Littleton et al., 1979b), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millspaugh) (Hughes and Keatinge, 1983), chickpea (Hughes et al., 1987), field bean (Husain et al., 1988b) and lentils (McKenzie and Hill, 1991). ...
... The slope of this relationship represents the amount of dry-matter produced per unit of intercepted Qpa. This slope, or 'radiation-use efficiency' (RUE), has been reported to be reasonably stable for several crop species (Hughes et al., 1987;Monteith, 1989). Such apparent stability has made RUE an attractive parameter for crop simulation models 3present address: Agricultural Engineering Department, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6120, U.S.A. 0378-4290/90/$03.50 ...
... In this paper, we briefly review the evidence showing that an increase in the vapor-pressure difference between the air in the substomatal cavities and the air surrounding the leaves may decrease leaf conductance and photosynthesis of well-watered plants, making vapor-pressure difference a likely candidate to explain variability in RUE under nonstressed conditions. We then assess the possible contribution of leaf/air pressure difference, approximated by the saturation vapor-pressure deficit (de) of the air above the canopy, to variability in RUE using data from several sites (Kiniry et al., 1989 ). BACKGROUND It is commonly accepted that environmental stresses reduce RUE, and that such stresses must be accounted for when modeling biomass accumulation (Shibles and Weber, 1966;Hughes and Keatinge, 1983;Hughes et al., 1987 ). Drought decreases photosynthetic capacity and leaf conductance (Zou and Kahnt, 1988 ). ...
... All these factors contribute to reduce RUE of stressed crops. Under nonstressed conditions, however, RUE is often assumed to be reasonably stable (Hughes et al., 1987;Monteith, 1989). ...
The ratio of the amount of crop dry-matter produced per unit of intercepted photosynthetically active radiation is usually referred to as radiation-use efficiency (rue). Large within-species variability in rue has been reported for a number of species growing with adequate moisture and nutrients. This variability raises questions concerning the generality of the approach for plant-growth analysis and modeling. Available data suggest that increased vapor-pressure difference between substomatal air and the air surrounding the leaves may lead to reductions in leaf conductance and photosynthetic capacity of well-watered plants, and therefore to rue reductions. The coefficient of determination (r2) of linear regressions of reported rue values as a function of daily saturation vapor-pressure deficit (Δe) were calculated for sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and maize (Zea mays). Decreased rue was associated with increased Δe in well-watered conditions, explaining a large portion of the rue variability. Effects of Δe should be considered when the rue concept is used to estimate biomass accumulation.
... It was lowest under elevated CO 2 treatment (0.5), followed by combination treatment of CO 2 and O 3 treatments (0.67), followed by ambient condition (0.87) and highest was under elevated O 3 treatment (0.88). Our observed values of 'k' for chickpea (Fig. 5) were matching to the values reported by Hughes et al. (1987) and Saha et al. (2015) but were lower than those reported by Tesfaye et al. (2006). The canopy extinction coefficient depends on the architecture and orientation of the leaves in the canopy. ...
... The value obtained in our study for radiation use efficiency (RUE y ) in chickpea crop was lower than the value reported by Saha et al. (2015), but almost nearer values were reported by other scientists (0.30-0.93 MJ −1 by Hughes et al. 1987;0.25-0.87 by Jahansooz et al. 2007). Similarly, RUE b values are also in line with Beech and Leach (1988, 1.4 g MJ −1 ) and by Soltani et al. (2006; 1.0 g MJ −1 ). ...
An experiment was conducted in the Free Air Ozone and Carbon dioxide Enrichment (FAOCE) facility to study the impact of elevated O3, CO2 and their interaction on chickpea crop (cv. Pusa-5023) in terms of phenology, biophysical parameters, yield components, radiation interception and use efficiency. The crop was exposed to elevated O3 (EO:60ppb), CO2 (EC:550 ppm) and their combined interactive treatment (ECO: EC+EO) during the entire growing season. Results revealed that the crop's total growth period was shortened by 10, 14 and 17 days under elevated CO2, elevated O3 and the combined treatment, respectively. Compared to ambient condition, the leaf area index (LAI) under elevated CO2 was higher by 4 to 28 %, while it is reduced by 7.3 to 23.8 % under elevated O3. The radiation use efficiency (RUEy) was highest under elevated CO2 (0.48 g MJ-1), followed by combined (0.41 g MJ-1), ambient (0.38 g MJ-1) and elevated O3 (0.32 g MJ-1) treatments. Elevated O3 decreased RUEy by 15.78% over ambient, and the interaction results in a 7.8% higher RUEy. The yield was 31.7% more under elevated CO2 and 21.9 % lower in elevated O3 treatment as compared to the ambient. The combined interactive treatment recorded a higher yield as compared to ambient by 9.7%. Harvest index (HI) was lowest under elevated O3 (36.10%), followed by ambient (39.18%) , combined (40.81%), and highest was under elevated CO2 (44.18%). Chickpea showed a positive response to elevated CO2 resulting a 5% increase in HI as compared to ambient condition. Our findings quantified the positive and negative impact of elevated O3, CO2 and their interaction on chickpea and revealed that the negative impacts of elevated O3 can be compensated by elevated CO2 in chickpea. This work promotes the understanding of crop behaviour under elevated O3, CO2 and their interaction, which can be used as valuable inputs for radiation-based crop simulation models to simulate climate change impact on chickpea crop.
... For a given species, RUE is widely regarded as a stable quantity in the absence of limitations due to water deficits, inadequate nutrition and pests and diseases (Monteith and Elston, 1983). Hughes et al. (1987) observed a linear relationship between the maximum amount of biomass accumulation by pigeon pea and the amount of solar radiation intercepted by the foliage during the crop growth. Moisture stress adversely affected radiation interception, photosynthetic efficiency and harvest index. ...
... Even though GAUCH-3 recorded the greater RUE values, the seed yield was lower than that GCH-4 cultivar both under rainfed and irrigated conditions. This was mainly due to the differences in partitioning of assimilates from source to sink which confirms with the findings of Monteith and Elston (1983) and Hughes et al. (1987). Correlation between seed yield, LAI and cumulative intercepted radiation (GlR): Negative correlation between seed yield and cumulative intercepted radiation up to 60 DAS was due to the utilization of intercepted radiation for the growth and ievelopment of the plant infrastructure rather than for the production of seed. ...
... Generally, any means (either genetic or management) that promotes early canopy development and radiation interception will reduce E and increase 7(as evaporational losses would be negligible once the canopy closes), often with little or no increase in total ET [2,3]. For example, in Syria, erect chickpea lines intercepted less solar radiation, thus permitting greater evaporative water losses during early growth, and consequently they had a lower WUE value than chickpea lines with a prostrate habit [4]. Similarly, leafless pea had a lower WUE than either semileafless or conventionally leafed types [5]. ...
... However, such canopy structure may create sufficiently high levels of humidity within the canopy to be conducive to fungal disease development, thus negating the positive effects ofhigher TE on biomass production or yield. For instance, in chickpea the closed canopy types, which have greater WUE than open canopy types [4], also provide a conducive microenvironment for the development of Botrytis and Ascoclr.yrd blight diseases [42]. ...
... The lower values of K recorded in the MS treatment could be attributed to the modification of leaf angle and orientation by the water deficit (Jeuffroy and Ney, 1997). The values of K observed in the C treatment are higher than previous reports on beans (0.4 by Gardiner et al. (1979) and 0.64 by Tsubo et al. (2001), chickpea (0.4-0.61 by Hughes et al. (1987)), pea (0.33-0.49 by Heath and Hebblethwaite (1985)) but within the range of values reported by Thomson and Siddique (1997) for many grain legumes. The K reported for cowpea was 0.93 (Varlet-Grancher and Bonhommme in Jeuffroy and Ney (1997)) which is higher than the value found in this study. ...
... The maximum RUE values found in this study are within the range of values (in g MJ −1 SR that is half of the present values in g MJ −1 PAR) reported for several grain legumes in different environments, including 0.30-0.93 for chickpea (Hughes et al., 1987;Singh and Sri Rama, 1989;Leach and Beech, 1988), 0.15-0.78 for beans (Tsubo et al., 2003), 0.72-1.46 ...
Grain legumes are the main source of protein for subsistence farmers in the semi-arid tropical regions where production is limited by many biotic and abiotic stresses. Knowledge of resource capture by crop species can be one of the options in improving the productivity of crops in this environment. A study was conducted on three grain legume species, viz. common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) to study their radiation interception, radiation use efficiency (RUE) and seed yield under three water regimes in a semi-arid region of Ethiopia in two seasons. The water regimes were well-watered control (C), mid-season/flowering and pod setting period water deficit (MS) and late season/pod filling period water deficit (LS). It was found that dry matter production was highly associated with the fraction of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intercepted (F, r=0.83* to 0.96**), which in turn is positively correlated with LAI (r=0.78* to 0.98*) across all species and water regimes. The lowest values of F, RUE, canopy extinction coefficient (K), seed yield and harvest index (HI) were recorded in the MS treatment. The reduction in RUE due to MS was 39, 30 and 29% and due to the LS was 18, 19 and 17% for beans, chickpea and cowpea, respectively. RUE was more sensitive to early stage than late stage reproductive water deficit in beans and chickpea while it was not significantly affected by any of the stress treatments in cowpea. RUE was positively significantly correlated with seed yield (r=0.85** to 0.89**) and HI (r=0.72* to 0.88**) over the two seasons. It is concluded that attainment of high LAI that reduces soil water evaporation, intercepts and converts radiation into dry matter efficiently, and partitioning of the dry matter to the seed is the major requirement of a high seed yield in grain legumes in semi-arid environments.
... In this environment, a late May sowing appears to oer the best compromise between early sowing into warm soil and late sowing to avoid frost at¯owering. This optimum time, of a few weeks before the winter solstice, corresponds to that found elsewhere in Australia (Pye 1980, Siddique and Sedgley 1986, Horn et al. 1996, Sudan (Ageeb and Ayoub 1976), Syria (Hughes et al. 1987) and India (Lal et al. 1980, Dixit 1992. This timing optimizes solar energy use and water use (Hughes et al. 1987, Dalal et al. 1997) while minimizing opportunities for frost damage to intolerant plant parts such as pollen (Srinivasan et al. 1999). ...
... This optimum time, of a few weeks before the winter solstice, corresponds to that found elsewhere in Australia (Pye 1980, Siddique and Sedgley 1986, Horn et al. 1996, Sudan (Ageeb and Ayoub 1976), Syria (Hughes et al. 1987) and India (Lal et al. 1980, Dixit 1992. This timing optimizes solar energy use and water use (Hughes et al. 1987, Dalal et al. 1997) while minimizing opportunities for frost damage to intolerant plant parts such as pollen (Srinivasan et al. 1999). ...
Dry matter accumulation was determined in 27 chickpea (Cicer arietinum) lines in time-of-sowing field trials and in controlled-environment chambers at day/night temperatures of 13/5, 18/8 and 23/13 °C to assess tolerance to growth-inhibiting temperatures. Field trials were based at Narrabri, NSW, Australia, in a region of summer-dominant rainfall where winter crops are grown on stored soil moisture. Percentage emergence was lower than expected in some field trials and in the coolest controlled environment. Subsequent dry matter accumulation showed the effects of poor crop establishment until the onset of flowering. Kabuli types were more susceptible to poor emergence than desi types. Different lines yielded the greatest dry matter production at different stages of growth. In the seedling phase, to 30 days after emergence, kabuli accessions SP1.563 and Garnet showed significantly greater dry matter accumulation than all other accessions in all controlled environments, suggesting broad adaptation. One desi accession, Gully, was almost as productive as these two kabuli accessions in the intermediate environment but was much poorer in the other environments, indicating very narrow adaptation. In the vegetative phase, the greatest relative growth rates were found in the desi accessions. Line 940-26 was identified as highly productive in both field and controlled-environment experiments. Dry matter accumulation was not significantly affected by temperature, although it was slightly greater in the coolest controlled environment than in the other two. The accession by temperature interaction was not significant, showing that the breadth of adaptation was similar in all accessions during this growth phase. The optimum time of sowing for dry matter accumulation was late May, 4–6 weeks before the winter solstice. The results showed that chickpeas are well adapted to germination and seedling establishment in moderate conditions, followed by vegetative growth in cooler conditions. These conditions are typical following autumn sowing in a Mediterranean or temperate environment. Kabuli types appear to have stronger growth during the seedling phase and desi types during the vegetative phase. Recombination of these traits could lead to more productive cultivars.
Selektion von Kichererbse auf Eignung für Herbstaussaat
Die Trockenmasseproduktion wurde an 27 Kichererbsenlinien in Abhängigkeit von dem Aussaattermin in Felduntersuchungen und in Wachstumskammern bei 13 °C Tages-/5 °C Nachtemperatur sowie 23/13 °C hinsichtlich der Toleranz gegenüber wachtumsinhibierenden Temperaturen untersucht. Die Felduntersuchungen wurde in Narrabri, NSW, Australien, in einer Region mit Sommerniederschlägen, bei denen Winteranbau auf Feuchtigkeitsbevorratung beruht, durchgeführt. Die Auflaufprozente waren in den Feldversuchen und den kühleren Kammerversuchen geringer als erwartet. Als Folge zeigte die Trockenmassebildung bis zum Beginn der Blüte den Einfluß des schwachen Auflaufens der Saaten. Kabuli-Typen waren empfindlicher als desi-Typen gegenüber dem schwachen Auflauf. Unterschiedliche Linien gaben die höchsten Ertäge zu unterschiedlichen Wachstumsstadien. Im Sämlingstadium, 30 Tage nach Auflaufen, zeigten die kabuli.Linien SP1.563 und Garnet unter kontrollierten Wachtumsbedingungen eine signikant größere Trockenmasseproduktion im Vergleich zu allen anderen Linien, was auf ein breites Spektrum der Adaption hinweist. Eine desi-Linie, Gully war annähernd so produktiv wie diese beiden Linien; sie war allerdings viel schwächer unter den anderen Umweltbedingungen, was auf eine enge Adaption schließen läßt. In der vegetativen Phase wurden die höchsten relativen Wachstumsraten in den desi-Linien gefunden. Linie 940-26 wurde als hoch produktiv unter den desi-Linien unter Feld- und kontrollierten Wachstumsbedingungen nachgewiesen. Die Trockenmasseproduktion war nicht signifikant von der Temperatur abhängig, obwohl sie leicht erhöht war in der kühlsten Behandlung. Die Linien zu Temperatur Interaktion war nicht signifikant; danach ist die Breite der Adaption in allen Linien wahrend des Wachstums vergleichbar. Der optimale Saatzeitpunkt für die Trockenmasseproduktion war der späte März, 4–6 Wochen vor der Wintersonnenwende. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß Kichererbsen gut in der Keimung und im Sämlingswachstum für gemäßigte Klimabedingen adaptiert sind; das vegetative Wachstum ist auch unter kühleren Bedingungen gut. Diese Voraussetzungen sind typisch für eine Herbstaussat in einem mediterranen Klima. Kabuli-Typen scheinen ein stärkeres Wachstum während der Sämlingsphase und desi-Typen während der vegetativen Phase zu haben. Rekombination dieser Eigenschaften könnte zu produktiveren Kultivaren führen.
... where K is the extinction coef®cient of the canopy. Tabatabaian, 1995; Movahhedi, 1996). Hughes et al. (1987) reported that K was 0.61 for a line with prostrate growth habit and 0.47 for a line with erect growth habit. In this model K was set at 0.5 for semi-erect local cultivars. The value of RUE was set at 0.95 g/MJ, which was observed by Hughes et al. (1987) for chickpea and also calculated using Sinclair (1991) method with a light ef®ciency ...
... In this model K was set at 0.5 for semi-erect local cultivars. The value of RUE was set at 0.95 g/MJ, which was observed by Hughes et al. (1987) for chickpea and also calculated using Sinclair (1991) method with a light ef®ciency of 5 mgCO 2 /kJ (Ehleringer and Bjorkman, 1977) and a light-saturated leaf CO 2 assimilation rate of 0.8 mgCO 2 /m 2 /s (calibrated using crop growth rate data of Movahhedi, 1996). When grains began to grow, a RUE value of 0.70 was used to allow for effect of mobilization of leaf N to grain (Sinclair and de Wit, 1976). ...
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a major crop in cool and cold semi-arid environments of Iran, where yield is limited by climatic factors, water availability and genotype. A robust crop model can assist in evaluation of biophysical limitations in crop yield. The objective of this study was, therefore, to develop a simple mechanistic model for chickpea to be used in assessing production limitations. The model simulates crop phenology, development of leaves as a function of temperature, accumulation of crop biomass as a function of intercepted radiation, dry matter accumulation of grains as a function of time and temperature, and soil water balance. Phenology, leaf growth and senescence and biomass production were made sensitive to soil water content. The model uses a daily time step and readily available weather and soil information. The model was tested using independent data from a range of Iran's environmental conditions. In most cases, simulated grain yield were similar to observed yield and ranged from 0.4 to 3.25 t/ha. The root mean square error was 0.24 t/ha. The agreement between simulated and observed grain yields showed the robustness of the model in predicting chickpea growth and yield for both irrigated and rainfed conditions. It was concluded that the model can be used in simulation studies of potential yield and production limitations.
... Chickpea responds well at 18 °C -to 20 °C during the vegetative and 20 °C to 25 °C of maximum temperature (ICRISAT, 2011) [3] . Solar radiation's interception directly influences chickpea's dry matter by increasing photosynthesis (Hughes et al., 2003) [8] . ...
A field experiment was conducted during the winter (rabi) season of 2019-20 and 2020-21 at Dhab research farm, Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar, India, to study the effect of weather parameters on dry matter production of chickpea under different tillage and irrigation practices. The treatment consisted of two tillage practices, including conventional and conservation tillage, and two irrigation methods, viz., flood and sprinkler irrigation. The treatments were allocated in a split-plot design with three replications. The results indicated that concerning tillage practices, conventional tillage produced significantly higher dry matter production at all stages over zero tillage. In the case of irrigation methods, sprinkler irrigation was the most effective, producing significantly higher dry matter production during both years. Correlation and regression studies weather parameters and dry matter production resulted that all weather parameters positively influenced dry matter production, except for the relative humidity. However, total evaporation was the most significant factor influencing dry matter production more than other weather parameters.
... The appropriate leaf arrangement and leaf angle for greater light interception depend on crop species and management. Erectophile canopy has greater light interception than a planophile canopy in chickpeas [24], and a larger leaf area genotype could produce more assimilates and increase grain yield in maize [25]. The estimation of the leaf angle in the canopy directly was too difficult; however, the k by the relation between light penetration and LAI could predict the leaf angle in the plant canopy [26]. ...
The yield potential of cassava might be increased by enhancing light interception and the ability to convert energy into biomass and yield, which is described as radiation use efficiency (RUE). The objective of this study was to determine light interception, extinction coefficient (k), and RUE of three cassava genotypes (Kasetsart 50 (KU50), Rayong 11 (RY11), and CMR38-125-77) under seasonal variations. The field experiments were conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replications, using two planting dates for 2 years at Khon Kaen, Thailand. Data were recorded for weather conditions, light interception, leaf area index (LAI), and biomass. Solar radiation interception, RUE, and k were calculated. Light interception of the crop planted in May sharply increased in the early growth stage, whereas the crop planted in November slowly increased and could maintain higher light interception from the mid–late growth stages. Light interception and LAI had a moderate to high coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.61–0.89) for three cassava genotypes and all planting dates. The k values ranged from 0.59 to 0.94, varying by genotypes and planting dates, indicating that the leaf orientation of the three cassava genotypes was horizontally oriented. The relationship between biomass accumulation and cumulative solar radiation produced a high value of R2 (0.86–0.99). The RUE for biomass (RUEbi) varied by genotype and planting date, ranging from 0.66 g MJ−1 to 0.97 g MJ−1. However, the RUE for storage root dry weight (RUEsr) ranged from 0.29 g MJ−1 to 0.66 g MJ−1. The RUEbi and RUEsr in each genotype on each planting date were significantly different. The highest RUEbi and RUEsr were found at 4–6 and 7–9 MAP for almost all genotypes and planting dates, except for the crop planted in November 2015, when both RY11 and CMR38-125-77 had the highest RUEbi at 10–12 MAP. RY11 had a lower LAI compared to other genotypes, which contributed to lower light disruption and lower RUEbi and RUEsr. KU50 and CMR38-125-77 could maintain canopy light interception during canopy development and storage root accumulation stages and had high RUEbi and RUEsr, resulting in high biomass and crop yield.
... Chickpea responds well at 18 °C -to 20 °C during the vegetative and 20 °C to 25 °C of maximum temperature (ICRISAT, 2011) [3] . Solar radiation's interception directly influences chickpea's dry matter by increasing photosynthesis (Hughes et al., 2003) [8] . ...
A field experiment was conducted during the winter (rabi) season of 2019-20 and 2020-21 at Dhab research farm, Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar, India, to study the effect of weather parameters on dry matter production of chickpea under different tillage and irrigation practices. The treatment consisted of two tillage practices, including conventional and conservation tillage, and two irrigation methods, viz., flood and sprinkler irrigation. The treatments were allocated in a split-plot design with three replications. The results indicated that concerning tillage practices, conventional tillage produced significantly higher dry matter production at all stages over zero tillage. In the case of irrigation methods, sprinkler irrigation was the most effective, producing significantly higher dry matter production during both years. Correlation and regression studies weather parameters and dry matter production resulted that all weather parameters positively influenced dry matter production, except for the relative humidity. However, total evaporation was the most significant factor influencing dry matter production more than other weather parameters.
... Chickpea responds well at 18 °C -to 20 °C during the vegetative and 20 °C to 25 °C of maximum temperature (ICRISAT, 2011) [3] . Solar radiation's interception directly influences chickpea's dry matter by increasing photosynthesis (Hughes et al., 2003) [8] . ...
A field experiment was conducted during the winter (rabi) season of 2019-20 and 2020-21 at Dhab research farm, Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar, India, to study the effect of weather parameters on dry matter production of chickpea under different tillage and irrigation practices. The treatment consisted of two tillage practices, including conventional and conservation tillage, and two irrigation methods, viz., flood and sprinkler irrigation. The treatments were allocated in a split-plot design with three replications. The results indicated that concerning tillage practices, conventional tillage produced significantly higher dry matter production at all stages over zero tillage. In the case of irrigation methods, sprinkler irrigation was the most effective, producing significantly higher dry matter production during both years. Correlation and regression studies weather parameters and dry matter production resulted that all weather parameters positively influenced dry matter production, except for the relative humidity. However, total evaporation was the most significant factor influencing dry matter production more than other weather parameters.
... This is in agreement with Saxena et al. (1993) who reported that abiotic stress, particularly drought and thermal, delay the chickpea flowering phase. Hughes et al. (1987) also suggested that the exposure of the culture to water stress shortens its biological cycle and delays its flowering. ...
A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the response of two chickpea varieties to water stress at the College of Agriculture campus, Hawassa University under greenhouse from January to June 2017. Three water stress levels i.e. without stress (control), vegetative water stress and seed filling water stress were assigned as main plot, chickpea varieties Habru (Kabuli type) and Mastewal (Desi type). The treatments were laid in split plot design with four replications. The results showed that water stress significantly affected all parameters studied in this experiment. The seed filling water stress resulted greater reductions in the value of all tested parameters studied compared to optimum watering and vegetative stress except number of primary branches and harvesting index, which were significantly lower under vegetative water stress. As well, the two varieties significantly differed for all observed parameters except number of nodules per plant and nodule dry weight. Days to flowering, pod maturity, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and harvest index were significantly higher for Mastewal variety while, plant height, number of primary branches, number of secondary branches, dry biomass, seed yield per plant, hundred seed weight and root dry weight were greater for Habru variety. Days to flowering, plant height, seed yield per plant, hundred seed weight, number of pods per plant and harvest index were significantly affected (p<0.05) due to all two way interactions. Water management schemes that ensure to avoid especially terminal water stress could help to maintain chickpea production, which is usually grown with residual moisture by the majority of Ethiopian farmers. Given the fact that the results are obtained from a pot experiment there is a need to substantiate the findings with field experiments conducted under contrasting moisture environments. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(1): 13-21, June 2020
... At present-day winter, sowing and drill irrigation have been used by approximately 90% of Israeli farmers. Australia is biotic stress-free until the mid-1990s, and later production of chickpea declined, but it is recovered by the release of resistant variety and by adopting good management practices (Hughes et al. 1987). In Mediterranean Australia, winter temperature is moderate, and autumn sowing of chickpea is exposed to suboptimal temperature on flowering and can delay pod set by 30 days more. ...
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millisp.) is an economically important grain legume of the tropical and subtropical region of the world and is one of the major inseparable dietary protein sources to the large mass of the Indian population. The diverse growing condition exposes the pigeonpea to different biotic and abiotic stresses during its life cycle. Pigeonpea get infected by various diseases nevertheless, only a few of them are of economic importance. After wilt (C.O: Fusarium udum) and sterility mosaic disease (C.O: Pigeonpea Sterility Mosaic Virus), Phytophthora stem blight (PSB) caused by Phytophthora drechsleri Tucker f. sp. cajani is the third most potentially important disease of pigeonpea in India. This disease is soilborne; the fungus survives as chlamydospores, oospores, and dormant mycelium in the soil and on infected plant parts. Moist cloudy weather with drizzling rain for about 6–8 hrs (RH = 85–95%) with temperatures around 25 °C favor disease development. The disease can be managed through agronomic interventions like early sowing, ridge planting, and summer ploughing of field to desiccate pathogen. The seed treatment and spraying of Ridomil MZ® at 3 g/kg seed and 2 g/liter of water, respectively, may give protection, but its efficacy is doubtful. Therefore, the development of resistant varieties would be an effective means to control the disease. This chapter describes the effect of P. drechsleri on pigeonpea and its productivity and will also describe the methods used in controlling the stem blight of pigeonpea.
... At present-day winter, sowing and drill irrigation have been used by approximately 90% of Israeli farmers. Australia is biotic stress-free until the mid-1990s, and later production of chickpea declined, but it is recovered by the release of resistant variety and by adopting good management practices (Hughes et al. 1987). In Mediterranean Australia, winter temperature is moderate, and autumn sowing of chickpea is exposed to suboptimal temperature on flowering and can delay pod set by 30 days more. ...
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is one of the leading pulses crops of India under the Leguminaceae family. It is grown as an annual and perennial crop under rainfed conditions, mostly in less fertile or marginal areas intercrop with cereals and oilseeds. The circumstances under which the crop is cultivated pose a major barrier for the crop, making it sensitive to abiotic and biotic stresses, and a key drawback in the maximum yield potential. Among the abiotic stresses, temperature, soil acidity, salinity, drought, waterlogging, etc. cause severe yield losses, and major biotic stresses include diseases like wilt, Phytophthora blight, Alternaria blight, etc. The crop is also susceptible to various parasitic nematodes, viz. Meloidogyne javanica, Heterodera cajani, Rotylenchus sp., etc. Pigeon pea has the specialty of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and efficiently establishes symbiosis with Bradyrhizobium spp. even though the crop is a promiscuous legume. This symbiosis provides more than 90% of nitrogen requirement for the crop depending on the conduciveness of the growing environment, variety of crop and type of soil. To be productive, the crop also requires neutral to slightly acidic soil conditions, and the potential yield is significantly reduced under extreme conditions of acidity, basicity or salinity, drought, etc. As the saying goes, “When the soil is deficient, the plants also are deficient and weakened, and they lose their defenses” (Charlotte Gerson). So, maintaining the soil health by supplying all the essential nutrients in the form of organic or inorganic manures is crucial for the crop to remain healthy and productive. Therefore, the efficient and improved practices of nutrient management like an application of cross-inoculants’ group-specific biofertilizers, enriched compost, liming of acid soils or gypsum application in alkaline soils can be practised for sustaining the soil health. Deep summer ploughing, soil solarization, biopesticides, etc. are some of the pathogen management practices for maintaining the health of the crop and, thus, reduction in yield losses.
... At present-day winter, sowing and drill irrigation have been used by approximately 90% of Israeli farmers. Australia is biotic stress-free until the mid-1990s, and later production of chickpea declined, but it is recovered by the release of resistant variety and by adopting good management practices (Hughes et al. 1987). In Mediterranean Australia, winter temperature is moderate, and autumn sowing of chickpea is exposed to suboptimal temperature on owering and can delay pod set by 30 days more. ...
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a significant and high-value pulse crop worldwide, ranking third after beans and pea. It is a yearly legume adopted in 45 countries over 5 continents and grown over a territory of 10.4 million hectares with the production of 8.57 million tons. Chickpea is known by various names, such as Bengal gram, gram, and chana, in India, being the largest chickpea producer accounting for 64% of the worldwide production. Chickpea has a quantitative source of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins, fibers, and phytochemicals. Comparatively the nutritional quality of protein existing in chickpea is better than other pulses. Chickpea also fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere and reduces the need for nitrogenous fertilizers. Optimal conditions like 18–26 °C (during the night) and 21–29 °C (during the day) and rainfall of 560–660 mm/year are required for the optimal growth and development of chickpea. The crops are affected by serious foliar disease, which affects the development stages. Pathogens like fungi, viruses, bacteria, nematodes, and mycoplasma affect chickpea production. Among all this, fungi are the most disease causing group that affect the growth and development of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and pods of chickpea. Diseases of chickpea like Botrytis gray mold, Ascochyta blight disease, rust, and Sclerotinia blight are caused by fungi Botrytis cinerea, Ascochyta rabiei, Uromyces ciceris-arietini, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, respectively. Among these, most prominent are the Ascochyta blight and Botrytis gray mold. The foliar disease has restricted chickpea production in many countries, so integrated management or efficient control strategies are to be taken to prevent loss of crop and pulses. This chapter includes the ecology of the chickpea to its environment based on distribution and climate analysis. New and suitable understanding of the science, economic importance, distribution, symptoms, epidemiology, and integrated management and control measures of the major foliar fungal disease of chickpea is studied in this chapter. Investigation of the pathogen’s genetic basis of host-pathogen interaction and identification of the host-plant resistance will help in improving or breeding a resistant variety of chickpea and will be useful to farmers and researchers.
... A evidência não é sempre muito clara porque os diferentes genótipos têm diferentes características que podem afectar ε indirectamente. Por exemploHughes et al. (1987) encontraram diferenças de ε entre variedades de grão-de-bico, mas umas com folhas erectas e outras com folhas prostradas.Bonhomme et al. (1982) encontraram diferenças entre três genótipos diferentes de milho, embora os erros padrão tivessem sido relativamente grandes. Por outro lado,Heath & Hebblethwaite (1985) depararam com diferenças de em diferentes variedades de ervilha (Pisum sativum), mas com diferentes fenótipos de folhas e em diferentes condições de stress hídrico. ...
... Lower k value under enriched CO 2 treatment 429 resulted in decrease of fIPAR that might have compensated the CO 2 -430 induced increase in fIPAR due to LAI amplification. As a result, the 431 Hughes et al., 1987;439 0.25-0.87 by Jahansooz et al., 2007). ...
... However, the exposure of this culture to the final drought shortens its farming cycle and delays its flowering. It reduces the dries matter production (Hughes et al., 1987), the water use efficiency (Brown et al., 1989), the plant height and the grain yield . ...
In order to determine early selection parameters for drought stress tolerance, an experiment was carried out, in situ, in pots under controlled climatic conditions. Drought stress tolerance of eight "kabuli" chickpea type accessions (Béja1, Amdoun 1, Nayer, Kasseb, Bochra, FLIP96-114C, FLIP88-42C and ILC3279) was evaluated with four amounts of irrigation: 100, 75, 50 and 25% of the water reserve easily usable (WREU). The assessment of the drought stress intensity on the chickpea genotypes was based on four parameters namely: the relative water content, the foliar index, the chlorophylls (a and b) contents and the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters. The first three parameters require destructive vegetable material techniques and various handling which can bring about many errors. On the other hand, the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters have the advantage of being non-destructive, direct reading, reliable and rapid. The results analysis showed that the drought stress has negatively affected all the studied parameters. The chickpea genotypes had a broad genotypic variability toward the drought stress and various physiological and chlorophyll fluorescence answers. The identification of the drought stress tolerant genotypes appears complicated and uncertain. The drought tolerance index showed that genotypes: ILC3279, Béja1 and Nayer are the most tolerant; whereas FLIP96-114C, FLIP88-42C and Kasseb are the most sensitive.
... F Sato (1971), Pearson and Hunt (1972). G Hughes et al. (1987), Thomas and Fukai (1995a). H Muchow and Charles-Edwards (1982). ...
This paper describes the physiological basis and validation of a generic
legume model as it applies to 4 species: chickpea
(Cicer arietinum L.), mungbean
(Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek), peanut
(Arachis hypogaeaL.), and lucerne
(Medicago sativa L.). For each species, the key
physiological parameters were derived from the literature and our own
experimentation. The model was tested on an independent set of experiments,
predominantly from the tropics and subtropics of Australia, varying in
cultivar, sowing date, water regime (irrigated or dryland), row spacing, and
plant population density. The model is an attempt to simulate crop growth and
development with satisfactory comprehensiveness, without the necessity of
defining a large number of parameters. A generic approach was adopted in
recognition of the common underlying physiology and simulation approaches for
many legume species. Simulation of grain yield explained 77, 81, and
70% of the variance (RMSD = 31, 98, and 46
g/m2) for mungbean (n =
40, observed mean = 123 g/m2), peanut
(n = 30, 421 g/m2), and
chickpea (n = 31, 196
g/m2), respectively. Biomass at maturity was
simulated less accurately, explaining 64, 76, and 71% of the variance
(RMSD = 134, 236, and 125 g/m2) for mungbean,
peanut, and chickpea, respectively. RMSD for biomass in lucerne
(n = 24) was 85 g/m2
with an R2 of 0.55. Simulation
accuracy is similar to that achieved by single-crop models and suggests that
the generic approach offers promise for simulating diverse legume species
without loss of accuracy or physiological rigour.
... No bibliographic references were found for biomass sorghum grown under Mediterranean conditions; consequently, each comparison between our data and that of other authors can be done only for sweet or grain sorghum. Some authors report the RUE as a stable parameter for many crops (Hughes et al. 1987; Monteith 1990), but variability in RUE was also pointed out by other authors (Sinclair and Muchow 1999), who reported that this parameter can be influenced by vapour pressure deficit (VPD) (Stockle and Kiniry 1990), and underlined that, in sorghum, the RUE can oscillate from 3.8 to 2.1 g MJ –1 , ranging from 2.11 to 0.89 kPA in terms of VPD, temperature (Hammer and Vanderlip 1989) and water status (Ong and Monteith 1985). For this reason, it is important to estimate the RUE coefficient not only in non-limiting conditions, but also in different water situations so as to guarantee an accurate biomass prediction and consequently to be able to assess the potential of biomass sorghum in Mediterranean environments. ...
Mathematical crop simulation models are useful tools in predicting the potential yield of field crops in a specific environment. The main driving parameter used to estimate biomass accumulation in most of these models is radiation-use efficiency (RUE). Biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a crop that can be used for energy production (thermal and bioethanol chains) and a knowledge of its RUE in different water supply conditions can help to improve model simulations and evaluate crop diffusion. A 3-year field experiment was carried out in Southern Italy where sorghum was submitted to four irrigated regimes based on actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc). In the first year ETc was measured with weighted lysimeters, while in the other 2 years it was estimated by means of estimated crop coefficient (Kc) and the reference evapotranspiration ET0. The RUE, calculated as the slope of the first-order equation between dry biomass and intercepted photosynthetically
active radiation along a crop cycle, showed an average of 2.91�0.54 gMJ–1, even if the RUE proved to be closely correlated with crop water consumption. The latter ranged between 891 and 454mmand the RUE increased 4.2 mg MJ–1 per mm of water used. A high crop interception of solar radiation was observed in sorghum, reaching its maximum efficiency 40 days after sowing. To obtain high yielding yield biomass sorghum requires a large supply of water, as confirmed by the Kc calculated during the crop cycle, which resulted higher (especially in the development and middle stages) when compared with those reported in the FAO 56 Paper. The obtained RUE values also confirmed a high efficiency in biomass production of this
crop, allowing for the introduction of biomass sorghum in the cropping systems of Mediterranean environments as an alternative crop for energy purposes, but with adequate irrigation water supply.
... Radiation use efficiency (RUE) and water use efficiency (WUE) are crop parameters that contain the plant behaviour, in response to different factors, linked not only to intercepted radiation, but also to the water stress, photosynthetic conditions and so on. Some authors report RUE as a stable parameter for many crops (Hughes et al., 1987; Monteith, 1989), but variability in RUE was also pointed out by other authors (Sinclair and Muchow, 1999). However, it is important to take into account variations in RUE particularly because it can change with water supply. ...
Biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a crop that can be used for energy production in the bioethanol chain and a greater knowledge of its potential and response to irrigation water levels could help to assess its potential diffusion in Mediterranean areas. A twoyear field experiment was carried out in Southern Italy; two irrigation regimes were compared in biomass sorghum, optimal watered (irrigation supplies greater than actual crop evapotranspiration, ETc) and stressed watered (about 65% of the optimal one). Growth analysis, soil water content and aboveground dry biomass (ADM) yield at harvest were measured and analyzed. Radiation use efficiency (RUE), irrigation (IWUE) and water use efficiencies (WUE) were also calculated. Seasonal water use ranged from 830 mm in the optimal treatment to 589 mm in the stressed one. Similarly, ADM proved to be statistically different between the two irrigation treatments (34.6 vs 19.8 t of dry matter ha -1). The RUE, calculated as the slope of the first order equation between dry biomass and intercepted photosynthetically active radiation along a crop cycle, showed an average of 2.84±0.65 g MJ -1. No statistical differences for IWUE and WUE were obtained between irrigation regimes (8.22 and 5.87 kg m -3, on average). The two years of experiment influenced IWUE and WUE (both larger in the rainier growing season), but not the RUE. The high RUE and WUE obtained values confirmed that biomass sorghum is a crop with considerable dry matter production efficiency. The experimental results suggest that the introduction of biomass sorghum in the cropping systems of Mediterranean environments as an alternative crop for energy purposes is feasible, but requires an adequate seasonal irrigation water supply (not less than 500 mm).
... The fraction of intercepted radiation is determined from crop leaf area index (LAI) and crop canopy extinction coefficient (K) (Sinclair, 1986;Hammer et al., 2010;Robertson et al., 2002). The value of K was set equal to 0.5 and RUE was equal to 1 g MJ −1 based on experimental observations of chickpea (Soltani et al., 2006d;Hughes et al., 1987). The value of RUE is corrected for stressful temperature, CO 2 concentration and water deficit based on findings of Soltani et al. (2000Soltani et al. ( , 2007. ...
... LUE appears to be roughly constant within ecosystems but to vary with environmental conditions. Environmental stress due to drought, extreme temperatures or nutrient limitations may act to reduce LUE below its unstressed value (Legg et al. 1979;Green, Hebblethwaite & Ison 1985;Green 1987;Hughes et al. 1987). Such environmental stresses may also influence APAR through reductions in leaf area. ...
1. Net primary production (NPP) by terrestrial ecosystems appears to be proportional to absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (APAR) on a seasonal and annual basis. This observation has been used in 'diagnostic' models that estimate NPP from remotely sensed vegetation indices. In 'prognostic' process-based models carbon fluxes are more commonly integrated with respect to leaf area index assuming invariant leaf photosynthetic parameters. This approach does not lead to a proportional relationship between NPP and APAR. However, leaf nitrogen content and Rubisco activity are known to vary seasonally and with canopy position, and there is evidence that this variation takes place in such a way as to nearly optimize total canopy net photosynthesis. 2. Using standard formulations for the instantaneous response of leaf net photosynthesis to APAR, we show that the optimized canopy net photosynthesis is proportional to APAR. This theory leads to reasonable values for the maximum (unstressed) light-use efficiency of gross and net primary production of C3 plants at current ambient CO2, comparable with empirical estimates for agricultural crops and forest plantations. 3. By relating the standard formulations to the Collatz-Farquhar model of photosynthesis, we show that a range of observed physiological responses to temperature and CO2 can be understood as consequences of the optimization. These responses include the CO2 fertilization response and stomatal closure in C3 plants, the increase of leaf N concentration with decreasing growing season temperature, and the downward acclimation of leaf respiration and N content with increasing ambient CO2. The theory provides a way to integrate diverse experimental observations into a general framework for modelling terrestrial primary production.
... Whereas Anbessa et al., (2006) noticed that early flowering is a key factor in the formation and maturation of pods before the occurrence of these abiotic stresses. Hughes et al., (1987) announced that the exposure of the culture to the final dryness shortens its biological cycle and delays its flowering. Ellis et al., (1994) indicated that high temperatures, higher than 38 °C, delay considerably the chickpea flowering. ...
... The traditional farming system of Mediterranean climates in West Asia and North Africa (WANA) exacerbates terminal drought stress because chickpea is sown in early spring to avoid the principal winter stresses of frost, chilling and Ascochyta rabiei disease pressure at the early seedling stage (Walker, 1996). Increased exposure to terminal drought under springsowing decreases season length, delays flowering, reduces dry matter production (Hughes et al., 1987), water use efficiency (Brown et al., 1989), plant height and seed yield (Singh et al., 1997). Adaptation research has confirmed the importance of drought avoidance in chickpea. ...
Terminal drought is the most important abiotic stress of dryland chickpea. The principal adaptive strategy of the crop is drought escape through early phenology. In regions where average temperatures at flowering <14–16 °C, such as southern Australia or northern South Asia, the lack of reproductive chilling tolerance forces chickpea to delay podset. This delay compromises drought escape by exposing chickpea to terminal drought during much of the pod filling phase, reducing yield potential and stability, depending on seasonal climatic fluctuations.
Chickpea is an important pulse crop, cultivated on about 18 Mha worldwide, and is both a critical diet component for large populations of semiarid tropical climate and one of the most beneficial crops for farming systems’ sustainable productivity. Chickpea originates from a fairly narrow centre of origin, that is, the middle East Anatolia, although it enjoys large variation in its wild ancestors. As a cultigen, it has adapted to extremely varied cropping systems, either as a winter crop in tropical environments to a spring crop in more temperate climates, requiring in each case adaptive traits such as photoperiod sensitivity, or tolerance to cold, or Aeschochyta blight. In this chapter, we outline opportunities to meet the main challenges of chickpea adaptation to stresses, including heat, drought, and salinity, to improve agronomic management, to develop new plant types towards harvest mechanisation, and to increase quality standards to cater for the renewed interest on nutrition.
1. Introduction
Over one billion people, mostly in developing countries, use medicinal plants for the whole life or some part
of it or at least prefer them to the synthetic drugs. According to a study of World Bank, trade in medicinal plants
will have a share of over 5$ trillion in global trade in 2050. Growing population during last century and the
demand for harvesting medicinal plants from natural areas, particularly those which commonly used, endangered
these species with the risk of extinction. Common Mallow (Malva sylvestris L.) is a medicinal plant commonly
used as a natural remedy and other industries e.g. cosmetic industry. On the other hand, negative impacts of
synthetic agricultural inputs on human health, the need for producing healthy commodities, replacing chemical
agricultural inputs with some environmental friendly ones, and paying attention to new concepts like
sustainability, lead agroecologists to introduce ecologically alternatives to farmers, in order to be replaced with
chemical fertilizers. Using Plant growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) and fungi symbiotic with many
vascular plants, is one of these alternatives. Mechanistic crop growth analysis including radiation absorption and
use efficiency was compiled in agricultural researches from 1950, farther than classical analysis. Thus, the goal
of this experiment is to evaluate radiation absorption and use efficiency of Common Mallow under the effect of
different sources of biological, chemical and organic fertilizers and intercropping with Fenugreek
(Trigonellafoenum-graecum).
Materials and Methods
The experiment was conducted as a split plot design based on RCBD with three replications at the research
farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the growing season of 2013. The main plot factor had two
levels: 1-application of cattle manure and 2-no application of cattle manure, and the sub plot factor had seven
levels as: 1- Nitroxin®, 2-Sulphur solubilizing bacteria (SSB) 3-Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB), 4-
Nitroxin + SSB + PSB, 5- Chemical fertilizer, 6-Row intercropping with Fenugreek, and 7- Control. Inoculation
of seeds with boifertilizers done in standard situation recommended by their producers and the CFU of all
biofertilizers were more than 108
. On 25 of March, 25 ton.ha-1
of cattle manure distributed by hand in needed
plots. The sowing operation was done on March 30.The total area of a plot was 12 square meters and the
distance between and on the rows were 50 and 20 cm, respectively. Leaf area index, dry matter and the radiation
above, and transmitted through, the canopy measured each 14 days (with a Linear Septometer, SunScan, Delta T
Co., UK). Then the total radiation absorption for each plot was calculated by the relevant equations. Finally,
radiation use efficiency is estimated with measuring the slope of the regression line between cumulative
absorbed radiation and dry matter of the plant.
Results and Discussion
The results showed that application of cattle manure increased LAI, particularly in the early stages of
Common Mallow growth, and the highest level of LAI was on the treatment of “Nitroxin + SSB + PSB + Cattle
manure” and “Chemical fertilizer + cattle manure” with 2.49 and 2.37, respectively. This is while, in the absence
of cattle manure, chemical fertilizer had more effect on increasing LAI compared to the biofretilizers.
Application of cattle manure also reduced the light extinction coefficient (K) of the plant, while “Nitroxin + SSB
+ PSB + Cattle manure” treatment had the least K value (K=0.47, R2=0.98). ANOVA results showed all
experimental treatments had a significant effect (P≤ 0.001) on the cumulative absorbed radiation of Mallow
during the growing season. The most accumulated absorbed radiation occurred under Nitroxin + SSB + PSB
treatment (by mean of 986.6 MJ.m-2
), while application and no-application of cattle manure had no significaneffect on radiation absorption. The total calculated mean of RUE was 1.26 g.MJ-1
. Nitroxin inoculation resulted
in the least RUE (1.09 g.MJ-1) and Nitroxin + SSB + PSB inoculation plus cattle manure application had the
highest RUE (1.5 g.MJ-1).
Conclusions
Generally, according to the goals of the experiment which were comparing some ecological inputs with
chemical fertilizer from the point of mechanistic crop growth analysis factors such as radiation absorption and
RUE, it seems that mixture of the three biological fertilizers of Nitroxin + SSB + PSB plus application of cattle
manure can compete with chemical nitrogen fertilizer in such factors.
It is important to quantify the nitrogen (N) uptake and dinitrogen (N2) fixation of legumes and estimate the N contribution that these crops make to subsequent crops for sustainable agricultural production. The growth and development of legumes and their impact on soil N fertility can be simulated by the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM). However, the model performance has not been evaluated in simulating the dynamic processes of N accumulation and N2 fixation. The parameterised model was tested for the simulation of N uptake and N2 fixation in above-ground biomass of four crop legumes (lupin, chickpea, field pea and peanut). The simulations varied in location, cultivar, sowing date, climate, soil type, water regime (irrigated or dryland) and starting soil N and applied fertiliser N in tropical, subtropical, semiarid and Mediterranean environments across Australia. In general, the absolute amount of N uptake and N2 fixation in above-ground biomass (unit: kg ha−1) were reasonably well simulated, with 92% of the variation in observed N accumulation in above-ground biomass and 84% in N2 fixation being explained by APSIM. The model was also able to simulate the responses of N2 fixation by chickpea and peanut to differences in soil mineral N status. However, the simulations of N2 fixation efficiency (NFE, calculated as fixed N2 per unit above-ground dry matter (DM; unit: g N kg−1 DM) were much less accurate, especially for lupin. Sensitivity analysis showed that improving the definition of the model parameter of crop N2 fixing capacity (the potential to fix atmospheric N2 per unit above-ground DM; unit: g N g−1 DM) would improve the simulations of NFE. We therefore propose that to successfully simulate the absolute amount of N accumulation and N2 fixation, the above-ground biomass as the major driving factor must first be simulated well, and future work should focus on accurately determining the parameter of crop N2 fixing capacity through optimisation of N2 fixation data obtained from field or controlled experiments to fine-tune the simulations of the relative efficiency of N2 fixation.
Radiation use efficiency is the amount of dry matter production resulted from absorbed radiation by plant. Accurate estimation of radiation use efficiency is important for the quantification of plant productivity in fluctuating environmental conditions. Also, more studies on changes in radiation use efficiency and the causes of these changes and their consequences on plant productivity are needed to better understanding the subject.other to study the effect of row spacing and density on radiation use efficiency and extinction light coefficient on chickpea, an experiment was conducted in 2007-08 at Ahvaz, south-west of Iran. The experiment was a split plot factorial in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Main plots were three row spacings (40, 50 and 60 cm) and sub-plots assigned to two plant densities (25 and 35 plants/m2) as well as two cultivars (Arman and Hashem). Results showed that the row spacing had no significant effect on all investigated traits. Higher plant density (35 plants/m2) had significantly positive effect on investigated traits as it had lowest extinction light coefficient and more radiation use efficiency, particularly at flowering and pod formation stages (115 days after planting). Hashem cultivar had greatest dry matter productivity and fraction intercepted photosynthetically active radiation and lowest extinction light coefficient in reproductive stage, particularly 115 days after planting. Consequently, using a combination of narrow row spacing and high plant density treatments had greatest result.
Mathematical crop simulation models are useful tools in predicting the potential yield of field crops in a specific environment. The main driving parameter used to estimate biomass accumulation in most of these models is radiation-use efficiency (RUE). Biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a crop that can be used for energy production (thermal and bioethanol chains) and a knowledge of its RUE in different water supply conditions can help to improve model simulations and evaluate crop diffusion.A 3-year field experiment was carried out in Southern Italy where sorghum was submitted to four irrigated regimes based on actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc). In the first year ETc was measured with weighted lysimeters, while in the other 2 years it was estimated by means of estimated crop coefficient (Kc) and the reference evapotranspiration ET0.The RUE, calculated as the slope of the first-order equation between dry biomass and intercepted photosynthetically active radiation along a crop cycle, showed an average of 2.91 ± 0.54 g MJ–1, even if the RUE proved to be closely correlated with crop water consumption. The latter ranged between 891 and 454 mm and the RUE increased 4.2 mg MJ–1 per mm of water used. A high crop interception of solar radiation was observed in sorghum, reaching its maximum efficiency 40 days after sowing.To obtain high yielding yield biomass sorghum requires a large supply of water, as confirmed by the Kc calculated during the crop cycle, which resulted higher (especially in the development and middle stages) when compared with those reported in the FAO 56 Paper. The obtained RUE values also confirmed a high efficiency in biomass production of this crop, allowing for the introduction of biomass sorghum in the cropping systems of Mediterranean environments as an alternative crop for energy purposes, but with adequate irrigation water supply.
Arguably the most important adaptive criterion in annual crops is appropriate phenology that minimizes exposure to climatic stresses and maximizes productivity in target environments. To date this has been achieved empirically by selecting among diverse genotypes in target locations. This approach is likely to become inadequate with pending climate change because selection is imposed on the outcome (flowering time) rather than the underlying mechanism (i.e. responses to daylength, ambient or vernalizing temperatures). In contrast to the cereals, in legumes the interaction between phenological mechanisms and environmental selection pressure is largely unknown. This paper addresses this shortcoming through photothermal modelling of chickpea germplasm from the world's key production areas using a meta-analysis of multi-environment trials located from 49° N to 35° S. Germplasm origin had significant effects on temperature and daylength responsiveness, the former strongly correlated to vegetative phase temperatures at the collection or development site (r = 0.8). Accordingly, temperature responses increase from winter-to spring-sown Mediterranean and Australian material, and then to north, central & southern India. Germplasm origin also affects the relationship between photoperiod and temperature response. In Eastern Mediterranean material a strong negative relationship (r =-0.77) enables temperature insensitive genotypes to compensate through a strong photoperiod response. Clearly, chickpea evolution has selected for different phenological mechanisms across the habitat range. Given that under the anticipated global warming temperature sensitive cultivars will flower relatively earlier than those responding largely to photoperiod, it is important to exploit this diversity in developing better-adapted genotypes for future cropping environments.
The conversion efficiency (εc) of absorbed radiation into biomass (MJ of dry matter per MJ of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation) is a component of yield potential that has been estimated at less than half the theoretical maximum. Various strategies have been proposed to improve εc, but a statistical analysis to establish baseline εc levels across different crop functional types is lacking. Data from 164 published εc studies conducted in relatively unstressed growth conditions were used to determine the means, greatest contributors to variation, and genetic trends in εc across important food and biofuel crop species. εc was greatest in biofuel crops (0.049–0.066), followed by C4 food crops (0.046–0.049), C3 nonlegumes (0.036–0.041), and finally C3 legumes (0.028–0.035). Despite confining our analysis to relatively unstressed growth conditions, total incident solar radiation and average growing season temperature most often accounted for the largest portion of εc variability. Genetic improvements in εc, when present, were less than 0.7% per year, revealing the unrealized potential of improving εc as a promising contributing strategy to meet projected future agricultural demand. © 2015 American Society of Plant Biologists. All Rights Reserved.
In this study, a simple theoretical framework was extended to account for the effects of temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentration on RUE. A general test of the model showed that simulated and observed daily biomass productions under average daily temperatures ranged from 11 to 28°C are similar. The calculated RUEs for 13-23°C were similar to measured ones and percentage increase in RUE for CO2 concentration of 640 ppm relative to 330 ppm was in agreement with the measured percentage increase in biomass production. By using the framework, RUE response functions to average daily temperature and CO2 concentration were calculated for chickpea. RUE of chickpea at temperatures lower than 3°C and higher than 36°C is zero. RUE rapidly increased (9.5%°C-1) with increasing temperature from 3 to 14°C With further increase in temperature to 22°C, RUE slowly (1.4%°C-1) decreased and temperature increase between 22 to 36°C resulted in sharp decrease (7.4%°C-1) in RUE. Response of RUE to CO2 concentration was curvilinear. At low concentrations of CO2 (60 to 400 ppm), RUE was especially sensitive to increases in CO2 concentration, but increases in CO2 greater than 700 ppm were predicted to result in only small increases in RUE. The functions obtained can be used in simulation studies of chickpea crop response to projected climate change.
tMost studies on radiation use efficiency (RUE) have focussed only on the relationship between interceptedsolar radiation and biomass accumulation, without considering the intermediate steps that underlie thedevelopment of the crop. The present study aims to estimate the RUE of sunflower (Helianthus annusL.) under different deficit irrigation schemes, with the introduction of an intermediate step at the leafscale, the net photosynthesis rate (PN), and the exploration of the relationship between RUE and PN.The linear relationship between intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (iPAR) and total plantdry matter was defined during the vegetative phase, and a single value of RUE (2.08 g MJ−1) was pre-dictive of biomass accumulation; the curvilinear response of RUE with respect to PNexplained one ofthe hierarchical processes that governs the smooth and stable conversion efficiency of iPAR to biomass.However, different RUE values should be used to estimate seed yield when irrigation is suspended atthe heading (RUE, 0.29 g MJ−1), flowering (RUE, 0.35 g MJ−1) or milking (RUE, 0.44 g MJ−1) stages, becauseafter the vegetative stage, synchronization of the processes underlying the late growth – grain fillingphases was lost. Despite this, even if the yield performance followed the water treatment (2.69, 3.61 and4.36 t ha−1for increasing water supply), the productivity of sunflower with small (150 mm) or moder-ate (270 mm) amounts of water ensured satisfactory seed production and water saving (74% and 53%reduction, compared to well-watered treatment) in water-limited environments.
In recent years, the interest for legume crops has been increasing in the European
Community, both for the agronomic improvement of soil fertility and for human
and animal food source reasons. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in the
Mediterranean environment is not usually irrigated. Knowledge about its canopy
growth, water and radiation use efficiencies can improve chickpea productivity.
In this study, the chickpea has been submitted to different irrigation scheduling
at specific crop phases and as a function of soil moisture. Total plant biomass
was related to water availability and radiation interception. But in good
conditions of available water there was a lengthening of the crop cycle, with
reduction of pod growth, harvest index and nutrient toward the seeds.
Consequently, the best values of water use efficiency were found in the treatment
irrigated with 50 mm only at flowering or at pod filling. Protein yield was higher
in the treatment refilling field capacity when soil plant available water was 25%.
A canopy extinction coefficient of 0.84 and a radiation use efficiency of 1.02 g
MJ-1, on average, were found. In conclusion, the irrigation of the chickpea at
sensitive phases (flowering and pod filling) and with a low amount of water,
resulted in the best strategies.
Keywords: chickpea, water use efficiency, radiation use efficiency, water deficit.
1 Introduction
The chickpea is one of the major legume crops grown in Mediterranean regions,
where rainfall is highly variable and often insufficient. As the season progresses,
the crop is exposed to increasing moisture deficit and heat. This results in low
Mathematical crop simulation models are useful tools in predicting the potential yield of field crops in a specific environment. The main driving parameter used to estimate biomass accumulation in most of these models is radiation-use efficiency (RUE). Biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a crop that can be used for energy production (thermal and bioethanol chains) and a knowledge of its RUE in different water supply conditions can help to improve model simulations and evaluate crop diffusion.
Average chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) yield is low in major producer countries, which in nearly all cases is a consequence of water-deficit conditions. A first step in increasing crop yield under drought is to identify drought traits that are likely to be beneficial. In this study, we examined potential benefits of six modified drought traits in chickpea in two contrasting water-limited environments. Simulations were performed over 30 seasons for two soil depths (120 and 80 cm) at Tabriz and Gonbad, Iran, representing the environmental diversity among major chickpea producing areas. Delayed stomata closure with respect to soil drying resulted in decreased yield. A slower rate of leaf development did not lead to yield improvement. Four other traits increased crop yield. Increased depth of water extraction from the soil provided the greatest yield increase that varied from 14% in a deep soil at Gonbad (wetter environment) to 45% in a shallower soil at Tabriz (drier environment). Slower rate of growth (crop mass production) was the second important trait which resulted in 6–8% yield increase in 120-cm-soil and 21% yield increase in 80-cm-soil. The priority of other traits to increase crop yield depended on soil depth. In 120-cm-soil, reduced maximum transpiration rate improved crop yield (5–7%). Yield enhancement as a result of early stomata closure with respect to soil drying was ≤3% in this soil. In 80-cm-soil, however, early stomata closure with respect to soil drying was the third most beneficial drought traits in increasing yield (13–16%). Reduced maximum transpiration rate resulted in 3 and 6% yield increase at 80-cm-soil in Tabriz and Gonbad, respectively. It was concluded that deeper rooting, slower rate of growth, early stomata closure and reduced maximum transpiration rate are key target traits for genetic improvement in chickpea in water-limited environments with terminal droughts.
On rappelle les principales definitions et methodes de mesure utilisees dans les etudes du bilan radiatif solaire d'un couvert vegetal. Le rayonnement transmis peut etre mesure par un reseau de capteurs ponctuels ou par des capteurs lineaires. Des relations entre les efficiences d'absorption ou d'interception et l'indice foliaire sont utilisees pour calculer le rayonnement absorbe ou intercepte (produit de l'efficience et du rayonnement incident) par la culture au cours de son cycle. Ce travail concerne essentiellement les cultures herbacees en conditions naturelles
An experiment was conducted in 1994–95 to test the effects of soil moisture (two levels, nil and fully irrigated) and shade (two levels, full light and 40% shaded) on the abortion of reproductive structures, yield, and yield components in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Shade and soil moisture interacted significantly, and the highest dry matter (DM) production of 838 g/m was produced by unshaded irrigated plants. This was about twice the DM produced by shaded unirrigated plants. Total DM production was highly correlated with radiation interception, where c. 2.1 g DM were produced per MJ of intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Functional growth analysis showed that the crop growth rates were 14 and 27 g/m per day for shaded and unshaded plants respectively. The two factors again interacted on seed yield. Highest yields were produced from plants that were unshaded and irrigated (389 g/m), whereas shaded irrigated plants produced only 139 g/m. Reduced seed yield was accompanied by a large drop in harvest index (HI) in shaded irrigated plants. This drop in HI was because of a limited assimilate supply in shaded plants and increased reproductive abortion in shaded and irrigated plants.
In a 2-year field experiment at Hohenheim in 1987–88, with an intact or partly deflowered indeterminate cultivar and a determinate cultivar, light interception and dry matter production were highest in crops grown in isometric stands (equal distances between plants), lowest in double rows and intermediate in single rows. Dry matter production was greater at high than at low population density and in the wetter and cooler weather of 1987. Population density had a greater effect on DM production than on light interception. The greater leaf canopies under high density and in 1987 (Stützel & Aufhammer 1991) reduced light extinction coefficients. In the determinate cultivar, light extinction coefficients were consistently higher and light use efficiencies were consistently lower than in the indeterminate cultivar. Deflowering the indeterminate genotype and different planting designs did not change light use efficiencies and light extinction coefficients. In general, differences in light use efficiencies were inversely related to differences in light extinction coefficients.
Quantitative information regarding biomass accumulation and partitioning in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is limited or inconclusive. The objective of this study was to obtain baseline values for extinction coefficient (KS), radiation use efficiency (RUE, g MJ−1) and biomass partitioning coefficients of chickpea crops grown under well-watered conditions. The stability of these parameters during the crop life cycle and under different environmental and growth conditions, caused by season and sowing date and density, were also evaluated. Two field experiments, each with three sowing dates and four plant densities, were conducted during 2002–2004. Crop leaf area index, light interception and crop biomass were measured between emergence and maturity. A KS value of 0.5 was obtained. An average RUE of 1 g MJ−1 was obtained. Plant density had no effect on RUE, but some effects of temperature were detected. There was no effect of solar radiation or vapour pressure deficit on RUE when RUE values were corrected for the effect of temperature. RUE was constant during the whole crop cycle. A biphasic pattern was found for biomass partitioning between leaves and stems before first-seed stage. At lower levels of total dry matter, 54 % of biomass produced was allocated to leaves, but at higher levels of total dry matter, i.e. under favourable and prolonged conditions for vegetative growth, this portion decreased to 28 %. During the period from first-pod to first-seed, 60 % of biomass produced went to stems, 27 % to pods and 13 % to leaves. During the period from first-seed to maturity, 83 % of biomass was partitioned to pods. It was concluded that using fixed partitioning coefficients after first-seed are not as effective as they are before this stage. Environmental conditions (temperature and solar radiation) and plant density did not affect partitioning of biomass.
This paper summarizes the essential features of the Mediterranean climate and its associated soils and farming systems. Rain falls mainly during the winter so that crops must usually rely on stored soil moisture when they are growing most rapidly. Water use efficiency of dry matter production can be increased in three ways but chiefly by decreasing evaporation from the soil surface. Soil and crop management techniques used to increase water use efficiency are reviewed.
Field experiments on rainfed castor beans (Ricinus communis L.) were conducted for 4 years (1990–1993) to explain the variability in radiation use efficiency (RUE) and water use efficiency (WUE) in relation to meteorological parameters. In these experiments castor c.v. Aruna was sown on three different dates (treatments) in each year.The results from this study indicate that both RUE and WUE vary from year to year and also were influenced by the planting dates. Variations in RUE and WUE ranged from 0.79–1.19 g MJ−1 and 0.72–1.25 g kg−1, respectively. The variability in RUE and WUE before and after flower initiation were quite contrasting. The variability in RUE and WUE was associated with saturation vapour pressure deficit (SVPD), drought index, temperature and wind velocity. RUE was related positively with SVPD and wind velocity and negatively with drought index and temperature. WUE showed inverse relationships with SVPD and temperature and a direct relation with wind velocity. The study emphasises the need for incorporation of the effect of weather on RUE and WUE in the algorithms for biomass estimation of crop simulation models.
The adaptation of a wide range of grain legume species (Lupinus albus L. cv. Kiev mutant, L. angustifolius L. cv. Yorrel, L. atlanticus L. accs. P22924 and P22927, L. pilosus Murr. acc. P23030, Cicer arietinum L. acc. T1587, Lens culinaris Med. acc. ILL6002 and cv. Digger, Vicia faba L. cv. Fiord,V. narbonensis L. acc. ACT60104, Lathyrus cicera L. acc. 495, L. ochrus (L.) DC acc. 537, L. sativus L. acc. 453, P. sativum L. cv. Dundale, V. benghalensis L. cv. Early purple, and V. sativa L. cv. Languedoc) to low-rainfall Mediterranean-type environments of southwestern Australia was examined in relation to canopy development, radiation interception, and dry-matter production. Species were grown at one location, and in two consecutive growing seasons (1993 and 1994). Dry-matter production was large for most species, particularly in 1993 (maximum biomass > 580 g/m2 for all species except L. pilosus) which had above-average rainfall. V. faba and P. sativum developed greater maximum biomass than other species, and this was associated with high crop growth rates (CGR) during the early part of the growing season and large maximum CGR. Other species which produced large maximum biomass (V. narbonensis and L. ochrus in 1993) developed dry matter more slowly during the early stages of plant growth, but achieved maximum CGR similar to those obtained for V. faba and P. sativum. CGR of these species increased rapidly close to flowering as air temperatures began to rise. Species which produced large maximum biomass intercepted a greater amount of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) (r = 0.73* and 0.70** in 1993 and 1994, respectively). There were differences among species in the efficiency with which intercepted PAR was converted into biomass (radiation-use efficiency), but these differences did not closely reflect differences in dry-matter production. Cumulative intercepted PAR was positively correlated with the fraction of incident PAR intercepted by species (r = 0.87** and 0.96** in 1993 and 1994, respectively), but was poorly correlated with cumulative incident PAR. Differences among species in intercepted PAR were therefore not related to differences in the length of time species were intercepting incident PAR (a function of crop phenology). Greater fraction of incident PAR intercepted by species was closely related to green (photosynthetic) area duration (GAD) (r = 0.60* and 0.78* in 1993 and 1994, respectively), but was poorly correlated with the efficiency with which green area intercepted PAR (described by the extinction coefficient). Maximum biomass of species was also closely related to GAD (r = 0.78** and 0.84** in 1993 an 1994, respectively). These results indicate that in low-rainfall Mediterranean-type environments, grain legume species should be selected for the development of large green area index (GAI), which should maximise the interception of PAR, production of dry matter, and consequently seed yield of the crop.
This paper reviews aspects of crop physiology and productivity for selected grain legumes. Vegetative development, including phases of leaf area increase and branching are described, then, the main reproductive stages and their progression along the stem are discussed. The effects of water and nitrogen shortage on reproductive development are briefly described. A model for reproductive development along a stem is proposed and applied to several grain legumes, and effects of genetic variability are discussed. Growth, and its analysis in terms of intercepted radiation and radiation use efficiency are then reviewed. The variability of these two components is analysed according to differences due to species, genotypes (mainly characterized by different foliage structures), environmental conditions and methods of measurement. Yield is then analysed as a direct consequence of crop growth. Finally, a pattern of assimilate partitioning is described, and its consequences for reproductive structure formation, i.e. the grain number on each node of the stem, are discussed.
Information on the relationship between biomass production, radiation use and water use of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is essential to estimate biomass production in different water regimes. Experiments were conducted during three post-rainy seasons on a Vertisol (a typic pallustert) to study the effect of water deficits on radiation use, radiation use efficiency (RUE), transpiration and transpiration efficiency (TE) of chickpea. Different levels of soil water availability were created, either by having irrigated and non-irrigated plots or using a line source. Biomass production was linearly related to both cumulative intercepted solar radiation and transpiration in both well watered and water deficit treatments. Soil water availability did not affect RUE (total dry matter produced per unit of solar radiation interception) when at least 30% of extractable soil water (ESW) was present in the rooting zone, but below 30% ESW, RUE decreased linearly with the decrease in soil water content. RUE was also significantly correlated (R2 = 0.61, P < 0.01) with the ratio of actual to potential transpiration (T/Tp) and it declined curvilinearly with the decrease in T/Tp. TE decreased with the increase in saturation deficit (SD) of air. Normalization of TE with SD gave a conservative value of 4.8 g kPa kg−1. To estimate biomass production of chickpea in different environments, we need to account for the effect of plant water deficits on RUE in a radiation-based model and the effect of SD on TE in a transpiration-based model.
Solar radiation interception and dry matter production were studied in soybeans ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.) grown in various planting patterns (4 populations of 26, 52, 104, and 209 thousand plants per acre within each of 4 row widths – 5, 10, 20, and 40 inches).
Increased population resulted in increased leaf area index (LAI) and a reduction in the number of days from emergance to 95% (daily basis) solar radiation interception (D 95 ). At corresponding populations of 52,000 or above, D 95 was considerably higher for the 40‐inch row pattern than for the other spatial arrangements, which differed in reaching D 95 by only a few days.
Dry matter production was a functin of percent solar radiation interception regardless of planting pattern. However, the efficiency of utilization of intercepted energy differed between years for the mean of all treatments, and was significantly lower for the 208,000 plant population in 1962. These differences were attributed to a limitation imposed by moisture stress.
Seed yield was not correlated with total dry matter produced, dry matter produced during seed formation, or solar radiation intercepted. As determined by differences in harvest index, seed yield was a function of differential utilization of photosynthate between vegetative and seed production. In general, high population or close plant spacing in any one direction tended to result in a low harvest index. Thus, while full interception during seed formation is required for maximum seed yield, conditions resulting in a high seasonal interception may not result in highest seed yield.
Rainfall regimes at six sites in northern Syria are compared by fitting a model of daily rainfall for each site. The components of the model, the probability of rain and the mean amount of rain per rainday, vary systematically between sites. Statistics describing a number of agriculturally important rainfall characteristics are derived from the models. It is suggested that this method of comparing sites has advantages over the usual methods.
The efficiency of crop production is defined in thermodynamic terms as
the ratio of energy output (carbohydrate) to energy input (solar
radiation). Temperature and water supply are the main climatic
constraints on efficiency. Over most of Britain, the radiation and
thermal climates are uniform and rainfall is the main discriminant of
yield between regions. Total production of dry matter by barley,
potatoes, sugar beet, and apples is strongly correlated with intercepted
radiation and these crops form carbohydrate at about 1.4 g per MJ solar
energy, equivalent to 2.4% efficiency. Crop growth in Britain may
therefore be analysed in terms of (a) the amount of light intercepted
during the growing season and (b) the efficiency with which intercepted
light is used. The amount intercepted depends on the seasonal
distribution of leaf area which, in turn, depends on temperature and
soil water supply. These variables are discussed in terms of the rate
and duration of development phases. A factorial analysis of efficiency
shows that the major arable crops in Britain intercept only about 40% of
annual solar radiation and their efficiency for supplying energy through
economic yield is only about 0.3%. Some of the factors responsible for
this figure are well understood and some are immutable. More work is
needed to identify the factors responsible for the large differences
between average commercial and record yields.
In the Mediterranean region, chickpeas are traditionally spring-sown since humid winter conditions encourage the development of Aschochyta blight which often causes complete crop failure. Lines resistant to this blight have been selected at the International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) and thus winter planting has become feasible. The best selection, ILC 482, was sown in both winter and spring at three locations in northern Syria with contrasting precipitation patterns. Crop growth and soil moisture analyses were undertaken on all treatments, and relevant meteorological data were collected at each location. At all locations maximum greenarea and dry-matter production of the winter-sown crop was nearly double that of the spring sowing. Large differences were also observed between sites, with green-area and dry-matter production decreasing with precipitation. Depth of profile recharge, amount of extractable moisture and crop evapotranspiration also decreased with precipitation, but only small differences in these moisture variables were observed between winter and spring sowing. Duration of green-area production, as determined by the onset of rapid leaf senescence, was closely related to the fraction of extractable moisture in the soil profile, rapid senescence occurring in all treatments when extractable moisture fell below 40% of its maximum value. Differences in the maximum rates of green-area production are discussed both in relation to the depth of profile recharge, hence the depth of rooting and moisture extraction and to the ambient evaporative demand. The differences observed in green-area and dry-matter production was clearly reflected in final seed yield. The components of yield, number of pods, percentage of empty pods and seed size are related to the variations in moisture stress experienced by the crop.(Received December 03 1982)
Linear relationships between both total and tuber dry-matter yields and the amount of radiation intercepted by potato crops are demonstrated. Their existence suggests that, in the absenceof disease and drought, the essential objective in the production of this crop is to maximize radiation interception. This paper critically assesses the influence of factors which the grower can control on light interception and estimates potential yields for specific environments. The implications of this analysis for growers, breeders, research and the whole industry are discussed.
Analysis of measurements of absorbed radiation and leaf area indices of wheat and barley crops showed that throughout most of growth the fraction of absorbed solar radiation could be described by a simple exponential equation.
For several of these crops grown under a wide range of weather and husbandry at Sutton Bonington and Rothamsted, 2-weekly values of crop growth rate ( C ) were closely related to radiation absorbed until ear emergence and about 3·0 g of dry matter (D.M.) were produced by each MJ of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) absorbed. Final crop weight was closelyrelated to total PAR absorbed during growth ( S A ); on average about 2·2 g D.M. were produced per MJ absorbed, equivalent to a growth efficiency ( E g ) of approximately 3·9%. Unfertilized and drought-stressed crops had a smaller E g .
The fraction of total crop D.M. harvested as grain (harvest index) varied more for wheat than for barley. Calculations of a maximum realizable grain yield made using the largest values of E g and S A for the crops measured and assuming a harvestindex of 0.53 (achieved in an experimental crop) showed a grain D.M. yield of 10·3 t D.M./ha to be possible. To achieve such a yield would require full crop cover from the beginning of April until the end of July in a typical English growing season.
Data from a dry season field trial with short growth habit pigeonpea cultivars in Trinidad, West Indies, indicate a linear relationship between the maximum amount of dry matter accumulated by the crop and the amount of solar radiation intercepted by the foliage during growth.Analysis of these data shows that both the seasonal interception of solar radiation and the efficiency of its conversion to dry matter were reduced in plots which did not receive supplemental irrigation. Such plots also partitioned a smaller proportion of their total dry matter into grain.The potential of short growth habit pigeonpeas as a crop for both marginal cultivated areas and relatively sophisticated production systems is discussed.
Yield potential of tall chickpeas at increased plant density
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