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Depth Distribution of the carotenoid pigments and lipids of some oceanic animals. 2. Decapod Crustaceans
Abstract
Analysis of the carotenoid pigments of decapod crustaceans has indicated that the visible differences in the appearance of species from different depth horizons are largely due to the disposition of pigments and not to differences in total amount of pigment relative to body size. Species from the upper mesopelagic zone have relatively few large chromatophores, and their chitin is either unpigmented or feebly pigmented. Species from deeper zones have very many small chromatophores and chitin heavily pigmented by unesterified astaxanthin. The major carotenoid pigments of almost all species are astaxanthin and its esters.
Lipid analyses have shown that several species of Caridea have very high levels of lipid in the body, and that in many deep-water species wax esters comprise a large proportion of the total lipid. Specific patterns of distribution of the various lipid classes are found in different tissues, with wax esters particularly dominating the hepatopancreas lipids of deep-living species.
The patterns of pigment and lipid distribution are discussed in relation to the depth distribution, light environment, and metabolic requirements of the different species.
... The dominating light source here is bioluminescent organisms. Approximately 90% of all the animals in the mesopelagic zone (200-1,000 m) are bioluminescent, primarily emitting blue light (400-479 nm) (Herring 1983). In this light regime, red, purple, or black coloration may be more cryptic than transparency, because even a perfectly transparent object causes surface reflection (Johnsen 2001). ...
... If an organism can slightly alter its coloration under changing optical conditions, this might result in nearly perfect camouflage (Johnsen and Sosik 2003). It has been noted that mesopelagic shrimps with large chromatophores would have the potential of adjusting their color in response to changes in the ambient light conditions, including on a daily basis (Foxton 1970;Herring 1973;Herring and Roe 1988), but to our knowledge, no data have been provided. ...
... Color changes may be mediated by the presence of chromatophores and different distribution patterns of pigments rather than, or as well as, by changes in total pigment level (Ghidalia 1985). In fact, previous studies of extracted pigment concentrations in oceanic crustaceans have shown no consistent depthrelated trends (Fisher et al. 1952;Herring 1973), while subjective assessments of their color indicate that deepliving species are darker (Foxton 1970). ...
We show that marine zooplankton change their level of coloration both with depth and time of the day. The carnivorous copepod Pareuchaeta norvegica caught near the bottom in 200-400-m deep-water columns were darker than specimens caught higher in the water column. A diel rhythm in coloration occurred even at several hundred meters' depth, with individuals caught during night time being more pigmented than the ones caught during the day. We hypothesize that individuals actively adjust their degree of coloration to achieve optimal camouflage at the prevailing light regime.
... The lipid content of decapod eggs may vary from 3.2 to 20.2% of the wet weight and considerable changes in these values occur during development. The fact that the amount of lipid reserves transferred from the female to the eggs may exceed 60% of that remaining in the female's body indicates that the lipid metabolism of the female is geared to the provision of egg lipid (Herring 1973). ...
... Given that they are the main source of metabolic energy throughout embryonic development, the amount of lipids in the egg generally correlates with the size of the egg and with the time interval between spawning and hatching or larval first feeding (Herring 1973, Rainuzzo et al. 1997. In species with an abbreviated larval development, large energy reserves need to be provided for the developing embryo (Herring 1974). ...
... Egg size has been correlated with lipid content, maternal investment and with the type of larval development in caridean decapods (Herring 1973, Clarke 1993, Wehrtmann & Graeve 1998. Normally, small eggs hatch in small larvae that pass through a large number of developmental stages, whereas large eggs hatch into a more advanced stage, with fewer larval stages, or directly into post-larvae (Herring 1974). ...
The present study examines the changes in volume and lipid biochemistry during the embryonic development of 3 temperate caridean species - Plesionika martia martia, Palaemon serratus and P. elegans-with similar reproductive strategies but occupying different ecological niches. Egg volume, water content and lipid embryonic metabolism are analysed and discussed in relation to early life history and environmental conditions. An increase in egg volume and water content during embryogenesis was noted in all species, although it was larger in P. serratus. F serratus also had the largest eggs, followed by P. elegans and P. martia martia. The quantitatively most important fatty acids (FA) in the eggs are the saturates (SFA) 14:0, 16:0 and 18:0, the monounsaturates (MUFA) 16:1(n-7), 18:1(n-9) and 18:1(n-7), and the polyunsaturates (PUFA) 18:2(n-6), 18:3(n-3), 20:4(n-6), 20:5(n-3) (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) and 22:6(n-3) (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA). Looking at the predominant FA, there appears to be a higher similarity between P. martia martia and P. serratus. The eggs of these species present similar levels of SFA, highly unsaturated (HUFA) and (n-3) FA but P. martia martia eggs have an extremely elevated MUFA and a low PUFA content. P. elegans has high levels of SFA, PUFA, HUFA and (n-3) FA. R serratus and particularly R martia martia eggs are characterised by a higher DHA:EPA ratio than P. elegans. The similarity between the FA profile of P. martia martia and P. serratus eggs may suggest that these 2 species are exposed to more comparable environmental conditions than P. elegans. As for the utilisation of FA classes during embryonic development, all species showed the same trend - MUFA were found to be the major energetic fuel during embryonic development while SFA and HUFA seemed to be conserved. A steady decrease in total lipids, particularly tri- (TAG) and diacylglycerol (DAG), and FA contents was noted in the 3 species. The utilisation of these lipid classes during the incubation period was comparatively low in P, martia martia and P. elegans in relation to P. serratus eggs. This may suggest a higher dependence of the newly hatched larvae of P. martia martia and P, elegans on their lipid reserves and has been interpreted as an adaptation to the early life history of these species, during which there might be a reduced availability of food.
... In a study of deep water decapods, Herring (Herring, 1973) postulated that the large WE stores in the thorax of deepwater decapods shrimp would affect the 'trim', i.e. the orientation of the organism in the water column with respect to gravity. Herring noted that during reproduction, some female decapods produce lipid-rich eggs that are retained on the pleopods. ...
... Such a transfer of lipid from the hepatopancreas on the dorsal side of the thorax to the ventral side of the abdomen could have considerable implications for the animal orientation in its environment. However, Herring (Herring, 1973) also noted that the eggs of these decapods were rich in TAG, i.e. lipids that are less buoyant than WE (Lewis, 1970) and that any affect on trim would therefore be counteracted. This is another example of where a zooplankter modifies its lipid composition according to its life history traits. ...
A new perspective on the role of lipids in zooplankton is proposed, with solidliquid phase transitions of lipids being a factor regulating their buoyancy. These phase transitions are controlled by zooplankton in relation to their physical environment, through the selective accumulation of specific lipids with optimum levels of unsaturation. The necessity to control buoyancy and maintain an optimum depth is a fundamental evolutionary force, driving anatomical, biochemical and behavioural adaptations of all organisms within the aquatic realm. It is hypothesized that each species adjusts the amount, composition and anatomical location of lipids, to maximize fitness according to their preferred habitat and life history traits. Recent discoveries regarding the role of phase transitions of lipids in marine zooplankton and their role in regulating buoyancy will require re-interpretation of existing data and stimulate future scientific endeavours in zooplankton research.
... The R-cells are the primary storage cells and can contain large accumulations of lipid droplets and lipoproteins (Arnaud et al. 1978, Halberg & Hirche 1980, Robinson & Dillaman 1985, Al-Mohanna & Nott 1987, Sagrista & Durfort 1991, Vogt 1994, Wright & Ahearn 1997). Hepatopancreas or digestive glands of many zooplankton groups, including copepods and euphausiids, are characterized by lipid droplets and high lipid contents (Herring 1973, Raymont et al. 1974, Arnaud et al. 1980, Saether et al. 1983, Blades-Eckelbarger 1991, Virtue et al. 1993, Pond et al. 1995). The hepatopancreas of the euphausiid Thysanoessa inermis had a high wax ester content, possibly associated with lipid droplets (). ...
... The hepatopancreas of the euphausiid Thysanoessa inermis had a high wax ester content, possibly associated with lipid droplets (). For the decapod Notostomus auriculatus, 93% of the lipid in the animal's body is associated with the hepatopancreas (Herring 1973). In contrast, in Euphausia superba, less than 2% of its lipids are located in this organ (Clarke 1980). ...
Zooplankton storage lipids play an important role during reproduction, food scarcity, ontogeny and diapause, as shown by studies in various oceanic regions. While triacylglycerols, the primary storage lipid of terrestrial animals, are found in almost all zooplankton species, wax esters are the dominant storage lipid in many deep-living and polar zooplankton taxa. Phospholipids and diacylglycerol ethers are the unique storage lipids used by polar euphausiids and pteropods, respectively. In zooplankton with large stores of wax esters, triacylglycerols are more rapidly turned over and used for short-term energy needs, while wax esters serve as long-term energy deposits. Zooplankton groups found in polar, westerlies, upwelling and coastal biomes are characterized by accumulation of large lipid stores. In contrast, zooplankton from the trades/tropical biomes is mainly composed of omnivorous species with only small lipid reserves. Diapausing copepods, which enter deep water after feeding on phytoplankton during spring/summer blooms or at the end of upwelling periods, are characterized by large oil sacs filled with wax esters. The thermal expansion and compressibility of wax esters may allow diapausing copepods and other deep-water zooplankton to be neutrally buoyant in cold deep waters, and they can thus avoid spending energy to remain at these depths. Lipid droplets are often noted in zooplankton ovaries, and a portion of these droplets can be transferred to developing oocytes. In addition to lipid droplets, zooplankton eggs have yolks with lipovitellin, a lipoprotein with approximately equal amounts of protein and lipid. The lipovitellin lipid is predominantly phosphatidylcholine, so during reproduction females must convert a portion of their storage lipid into this phospholipid. Developing embryos use their lipovitellin and lipid droplets for energy and materials until feeding begins. The various functions storage lipids serve during the different life history stages of zooplankton are very complex and still not fully understood and hence offer a multitude of fascinating research perspectives.
... The color of marine plankton organisms can vary depending on the ingestion of certain foods and the requirements of the nutritional stage (Maoka, 2011). Diatoms and dinoflagellates have green tonalities; the copepod Paracalanus sp. has orange coloration (Moreno et al., 1979), the copepods of the Pontellidae family have blue coloration (Venkataramana et al., 2017;Hansson, 2000), other species of copepods likely have green coloration, and euphausiids and decapods such as Pleuroncodes monodon have orange tonalities (Herring, 1972(Herring, , 1973. Astaxanthin is the carotenoid present in the shell of crustaceans owing to their diet, which gives them purple, blue, and yellow tones (Maoka, 2011). ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of plastic debris in the stomach contents of two commercially important species Ethmidium maculatum and Mugil cephalus from Peru and relate their characteristics to their diet. The contents of 1820 stomachs were analyzed visually to detect the presence of plastics and prey. Of the analyzed samples, 0.3% contained nine microplastic fragments (0.72–4.54 mm) and one mesoplastic fragment (6.65 mm). Green and blue plastics of polyethylene and polypropylene were the most common. In E. maculatum, copepods were the main prey, followed by diatoms and decapods, and they exhibited the highest amount of plastics. In M. cephalus, the main prey were diatoms, copepods, and dinoflagellates, and they exhibited only one type of microplastic. Although the characteristics of the plastics and the prey of these species may be related (sizes–colors), more research is required to understand this problem in commercially important fishery resources in Peru.
... Most of crustacean zooplanktons live near the sea surface (Herring, 1973) where positively-buoyant microplastics are also commonly found. The microplastic samples found here all displayed densities lower than, or very similar to that of seawater (1.043 g/cm 3 ) and were positively buoyant. ...
During the process of studying some morphological characters of fish found in the food of the Australasian gannet Morus serrator breeding at Horuhoru Rock and Mahuki islands in the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand, one carangid specimen of fish species Trachurus declivis out of the 25 fish specimens examined revealed seven small plastic particles in its stomach of different colours: black, red, blue, green, and transparent. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to identify the compositions of the particles as low and high density polyethylene, poly (methyl methacrylate), polypropylene, and a copolymer of butadiene, acrylonitrile, and methacrylamide. The plastic particles comprised several different shapes and sizes, ranging between 4.5 and 10 mm, and are therefore categorized as micro-and mesoplastic fragments.
... This structure supports the hypothesis that these peculiar organs secrete and discharge a light-producing substance to the exterior in response to a specific movement of the pectoral fins (upon a given stimulation). Indeed, (1) bioluminescent compounds often display autofluorescence 8,13-16 , (2) photogenic cells (including secretory glands) from mesopelagic animals are often enclosed in light-tight pigmented sheaths to avoid unwanted bioluminescence detection [17][18][19] and (3) secretory photogenic glands are sometimes associated with structures allowing fast discharge of luminous compounds 20,21 . ...
The function of pocket shark pectoral pockets has puzzled scientists over decades. Here, we show that the pockets of the American Pocket Shark (Mollisquama mississippiensis) contain a brightly fluorescent stratified cubic epithelium enclosed in a pigmented sheath and in close contact with the basal cartilage of the pectoral fins; cells of this epithelium display a centripetal gradient in size and a centrifuge gradient in fluorescence. These results strongly support the idea that pocket shark’s pockets are exocrine holocrine glands capable of discharging a bioluminescent fluid, potentially upon a given movement of the pectoral fin. Such capability has been reported in many other marine organisms and is typically used as a close-range defensive trick. In situ observations would be required to confirm this hypothesis.
... In this context, the way a female synthetize egg yolk may have important fitness consequences for her offspring, and mature ovaries with more lipids may be considered of higher quality. However, the allocation of lipids to the maturing oocytes is a costly process for females, which may transfer as much as 60% of their lipid reserves in the hepatopancreas to the ovary (Herring, 1973). The costs associated with ovarian maturation may explain the development of higher quality ovaries when females face favourable conditions for reproduction (i.e. ...
The present study was aimed at evaluating the effect of male presence on ovarian maturation in juvenile females and the role of potential chemical, visual and tactile cues emitted by males in that physiological process. A highly gregarious caridean shrimp with sexual dimorphism, Neocaridina davidi, was used as experimental model. We tested the hypothesis that male presence accelerates ovarian maturation, mainly through chemical cues. Two experiments were performed. In Experiment 1, juvenile females were reared with adult males, adult females or alone, allowing full contact among shrimps. In Experiment 2, these treatments were evaluated allowing chemical and visual communication, only visual communication, or only chemical communication among shrimps. In both experiments juvenile females were observed once a week under a stereomicroscope to determine ovarian growth rate. Although male presence was not necessary for ovarian maturation, it clearly accelerated the rate of ovarian growth, particularly in the last maturation phase. This lead to relatively longer mature ovaries with higher lipid content. On the contrary, the presence of adult females delayed ovarian maturation in juvenile females, while females reared alone showed an intermediate ovarian growth. All these results suggest that adult males release certain cues that stimulate ovarian maturation, while adult females release cues that delay this physiological process. Neither visual cues nor chemical cues released at a distance from females were responsible, either alone or in combination, for the observed effects. Ovarian growth was only influenced when shrimps were allowed to interact freely, probably because of the “mounting” behavior of males towards females. Tactile cues and/or potential chemical cues released by males during this behavior may mediate male stimulatory effect on ovarian growth. Altogether, present results partially support our initial hypothesis and contribute to increase the limited amount of information available on the role of intraspecific multimodal communication in non-behavioral reproductive processes in invertebrate species.
... Reserve mobilization from somatic tissues to the gonads has been reported for several mollusc species (Martínez et al., 2000b;Dridi et al., 2007) and crustacean species (Rosa and Nunes, 2003;Rodríguez González et al., 2006;Buckup et al., 2008). Indeed, shrimp females may transfer as much as 60% of their lipid reserves in the hepatopancreas to the maturing ovary (Herring, 1973;Palacios et al., 2000). Of particular significance are polyunsaturated fatty acids, which accumulate in the ovaries at advanced maturation stages (Harrison, 1990). ...
Maternal provisioning is particularly important in invertebrates with abbreviated development because large energy reserves must be provided for the developing embryo. In this context, the objective of the present study was to analyze in an aquatic invertebrate with direct development the effect of temperature on female biochemical composition and reserve allocation to maturing ovaries, which determine egg quality. A decapod crustacean, the freshwater shrimp Neocaridina davidi, was used as experimental model. Newly hatched juveniles were exposed to 28 °C or 33 °C. Females showed mature ovaries and spawned at 28 °C (control ovigerous females), but no ovigerous female was found at 33 °C. After a 200-day period, half of the females at 33 °C were transferred to 28 °C, where they rapidly showed mature ovaries and spawned (transferred ovigerous females). Ovigerous females and females that did not spawn at 28 °C (control non-ovigerous females) and at 33 °C (high-temperature non-ovigerous females) were sacrificed to determine their biochemical composition. The number, volume, weight, and biochemical composition of the eggs from transferred and control ovigerous females were also analyzed as indicators of their quality. Female biochemical composition was not influenced by temperature, because control and high-temperature non-ovigerous females had similar lipid, protein, and glycogen contents. However, ovarian maturation and spawning were inhibited at 33 °C, which indicates a negative effect of this temperature on nutrient transfer to the oocytes. This effect was rapidly reversed after females were moved to 28 °C; the eggs from control and transferred ovigerous females were of similar quality, except for a lower protein content in the latter. The present results provide valuable information on reserve allocation to reproduction under thermal stress.
... Calado et al., 2010), and factors related to the biology of the species (e.g., time between molts or subsequent broods) (Verísimo et al., 2011). During ovarian maturation, as much as 60% of the lipid content of female decapods may be transferred to their oocytes (Herring, 1973). The source of these lipids is still unclear; lipids may be mobilized from reserves stored in the hepatopancreas (Harrison, 1990), or derived directly from the ingestion of food (Clarke, 1982). ...
Embryonic development of decapod crustaceans relies on yolk reserves supplied to offspring through maternal provisioning. Unequal partitioning of nutritional reserves during oogenesis, as well as fluctuating environmental conditions during incubation, can be sources of within-brood variability. Ultimately, this potential variability may promote the occurrence of newly hatched larvae with differing yolk reserves and an unequal ability to endure starvation and/or suboptimal feeding during their early pelagic life. The present study evaluated maternal provisioning by analyzing fatty acid (FA) profiles in newly extruded embryos of Carcinus maenas Also assessed were the dynamics of such provisioning during embryogenesis, such as embryo location within the regions of the brooding chamber (left external, left internal, right external, and right internal). The FA profiles surveyed revealed a uniform transfer of maternal reserves from the female to the entire mass of embryos, and homogeneous embryonic development within the brooding chamber. Although C. maenas produces a densely packed mass of embryos that are unevenly distributed within its brooding chamber, this factor is not a source of within-brood variability during incubation. This finding contrasts with data already recorded for larger-sized brachyuran crabs, and suggests that the maternal behavior of C. maenas promotes homogeneous lipid catabolism during embryogenesis.
... When food supply is insufficient to provide the large amount of energy needed for ovarian rematuration, total lipid content of the hepatopancreas may decrease, as observed in some penaied shrimps and crabs after consecutive spawns (Cheng et al., 2000;Vazquez-Boucard et al., 2004). One consequence of reproduction, especially in species with abbreviated development, is that egg-laying imposes a great drain on lipid reserves (Herring, 1973). In our study, this physiological cost was evident from the lower lipid and protein concentrations seen in the "reproductive" females versus females that remained virgin over the entire experiment. ...
This study analyzed the quality of recently spawned eggs and of juveniles over five and six consecutive spawns, respectively, in a caridean shrimp Neocaridina davidi with direct development. The potential energetic antagonism between reproduction and somatic growth was also evaluated. The number of eggs per spawn per female was highest in the first spawn, while the number of recently hatched juveniles per spawn per female declined in the sixth spawn. Lower lipid concentration and energy content were detected in eggs of the fourth and fifth spawns, which may indicate for the first time a decrease in maternal provisioning as a result of multiple spawning in a decapod with direct development. This result had no effect on the size of eggs or of recently hatched juveniles, nor on the growth performance of juveniles during a 30-day period following hatching. Lipids were the most abundant biochemical component of eggs, followed by proteins and glycogen; the relative proportion of each component was probably related to embryonic development type. Egg volume was unsuitable as an indicator of nutrient content, as no correlation was found between these variables. The physiological costs of reproduction were evident from the lower energy content of females that reproduced versus females that remained virgin. The lower body weight of the reproductive females at the end of the experiment showed that allocation of resources to reproduction occurred at the expense of somatic growth. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical demonstration of a decapod with direct development.
... (Oplophoridae) and the deep-sea ostracod Gigantocypris sp. (Herring, 1973, citing Denton, 1971), Although pelagic crustaceans are generally streamlined and negatively buoyant, the positively buoyant shrimp Notostomus gibbosus is a dramatic exception (Fig. 1 ). N. gibbosus possesses a bulky, dorsally expanded carapace which is fluidfilled . ...
Unlike most pelagic crustaceans, the deep-sea shrimp Notostomus gibbosus (A. Milne-Edwards) (Oplophoridae) is positively buoyant, possessing a dorsally enlarged carapace which contains a low-density fluid. This fluid comprises 43% of the animal’s wet mass, has a low pH, and gives a lift of 17·7mgml−1; when this fluid is drained, the animal sinks. Low density is achieved by the replacement of less buoyant ions with ions which reduce density via two mechanisms: a change in total solute mass by the use of ions of lesser mass, and an ion-specific disruption of the structure of water molecules (resulting in an increase in fluid volume) caused by ions having large, positive partial molal volumes. The presence of large amounts of trimethylamine (Me3NH+), a relatively large, heavy ion which, together with NH4+, replaces nearly 90% of the Na+ in the carapace fluid, results in little change in the total solute mass of the carapace fluid of N. gibbosus (33·2 ‰) relative to sea water (approximately 34·1 ‰). Reduced fluid density is primarily a result of the large, positive partial molal volumes of Me3NH+ and NH4+, rather than a function of reduced solute masses.
... Gekoppelt mit diesen im Vergleich zu den frühe Entwicklungsstadien hohen Lipidgehalten ist auch eine tiefgreifende Veränderun der Lipidzusamn~ensetzung. Eindeutig dominierende Lipidklasse bei den Adulten sind die Wachsester (60-70%), die Phospholipide sind stark zurückgegangen HERRING & MORRIS (1975) vermuten, da die Unterschiede im Lipidmuster mit der Wanderung der ältere Stadien in grà ¶ÃŸe Tiefen zusammenhängt Die adulten wachsesterreichen A. pelagica aus der Subantarktis haben viermal hà ¶her Lipidgehalte als ihre Artgenossen aus dem Nordost-Atlantik(MORRIS 1972;HERRING 1973). C L A R K E & HOLMES (1986) interpretieren diese hohen Lipidgehalte der antarktischen Acanthephyra pelagica als Anpassung an eine saisonal beeinflußt Nahrungszufuhr, die sekundä aus der aus-geprägte Saisonalitä der Primärproduktio im Südpolarmee resultiert. ...
... In spite of its clearer color of the gonads, A. eximia has a vermillion exoskeleton, common in bathyal decapods and probably due, as assumed by Herring (1973), to a massive presence of small chromatophores. ...
We report data regarding the gonad development in females of Acanthephyra eximia Smith, 1884. Specimens were caught during experimental surveys carried out in Sardinian waters between 500 and 1880 m. We employed for our analysis of the ovary development both macroscopic observation and histologic analysis. According to the macroscopic observations, carried out on 491 specimens, six developmental stages of the ovaries were identified. These were validated by histologic analysis, performed on a sample of 10 specimens per stage, that allow us to describe different cell types. A table whith both macroscopic and histologic stages of the female gonad of A. eximia are briefly summarized.
... Astaxanthin is ubiquitous in marine environments because it is synthesized by phytoplankton and zooplankton and bio-accumulates throughout the food web (Andersson et al. 2003;Harmon & Cysewski 2008). Astaxanthin is the predominant carotenoid in many crustaceans (Herring 1972(Herring , 1973 and is incorporated into the body tissue as it moves from the digestive system to the epidermis, which adds a red hue to the overall shell colour (Chien & Shiau 2005;Tlusty 2005;Tlusty & Hyland 2005;Barclay et al. 2006). Wild red king crabs feed on a wide range of invertebrate, vertebrate and macroalgae species (Feder et al. 1980;Jewett & Feder 1982), suggesting that astaxanthin is likely a natural dietary component of juvenile red king crab. ...
We conducted large-scale production trials in Seward, Alaska, USA to investigate effects of dietary astaxanthin supplementation on survival, growth and shell colouration of recently settled juvenile (C1–C4) red king crabs (Paralithodes camtschaticus). We supplemented a control diet of commercial crustacean feeds with astaxanthin, and fed these diets to juvenile king crabs at densities of 2000 and 4000 crabs m−2 for 56 days. We assessed survival and growth by counting crabs and individually measuring carapace width and weighing crabs at the start and end of the experiment, and quantified crab colour (hue, saturation, brightness) in digital photographs. Diets containing astaxanthin had higher survival, suggesting that astaxanthin may provide nutritional or immune system benefits. Crabs had lower hue, higher saturation and lower brightness values when fed diets containing astaxanthin, suggesting that red king crab colouration is plastic and responds to diet. Astaxanthin is likely an important dietary component for hatchery or laboratory reared red king crab juveniles, and should be considered for aquaculture and other rearing of this and possibly other crustacean species.
... In the laboratory, in the presence of heat and gentle denaturing agents, this protein-prosthetic group denatures, and the wavelength of maximum absorbance shifts closer to that of astaxanthin (λ max = 475 nm; observed color red; Garate et al., 1984). It has been hypothesized that this structural change occurs in situ during a prolonged intermolt period due to photodenaturation, as caroteno-proteins are known to be photoprotective in a large variety of marine and freshwater crustacean species (Cheesman et al., 1967;Herring, 1973). ...
Green crabs, Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus, 1758), were sampled from two New Hampshire estuaries, Hampton-Seabrook Estuary (HSE) and Great Bay Estuary (GBE), over the course of a one year field season (Nov. 2009-Oct. 2010) in order to determine the timing of molt cycles and egg-bearing periods expressed by both populations. Average timing of population molt was assessed by length of average intermolt
period, which was estimated based on the color of the ventral side of the crab using the Munsell paint color charts, 40 hue edn. Crabs in both estuaries appeared to be on a simultaneous molting schedule centered around the month of June. Females experienced a single population-wide molt beginning in June and completed by November. Males experienced two population-wide molts starting in April and November that were both completed by June. Regressions between color variables and crab size or distance from the mouth of the estuary (α = 0.05) revealed no statistically significant correlations. Photoperiod (day-length) appeared to be the most important environmental cue for green crab molting and reproduction. Berried females were captured from January until November, with peak catch occurring in May. These results suggest that green crabs in both estuaries experience a single summer breeding season between June and November, which coincides with a period of relatively lower foraging activity as compared to the spring and fall months.
... Previous reports have noted that color of the hepatopancreas varies among and within species (Herring, 1973;Gibson and Barker, 1979;Herreid and Full, 1988), as well as that measurable pigment contents of the hepatopancreas can vary (Castillo and Negre-Sadargues, 1995). Since only intermolt crabs were sampled in the present study, the color differences we observed are relatively independent of imminent pre-ecdysis or post-ecdysis. ...
Biochemical composition of ovary and hepatopancreas tissues in wild populations of Uca longisignalis and Uca nr. minax were monitored during the reproductive season. Total lipid (concentration and content), C (carbon), N (nitrogen), and C:N ratios of the ovary and hepatopancreas were quantified over the course of ovarian maturation. Ovary lipid and C concentration varied significantly over the course of ovarian maturation for both species, but there was no relationship between lipid concentration or hepatopancreas content and the stage of ovarian development in females. Hepatopancreatic lipid and C concentration did not differ between sexes of U. nr. minax. Lipid demands of ovarian maturation thus appear to be met in large part by increased dietary intake and not purely by translocating lipid stores from the hepatopancreas. In both Uca longisignalis and U. nr. minax, the color of the hepatopancreas may be used as an indicator of the lipid and C levels of the hepatopancreas. Cadmium-yellow and lemon-yellow hepatopancreas tissues had the highest lipid concentrations. No evidence could be found to demonstrate depletion of lipid or C concentrations in the hepatopancreas concomitant with ovarian maturation.
... When studying color vs size, it is important to consider the sexes separately, precisely because of the difference existing in their growth range. HERRING (1972HERRING ( , 1973 also pointed out a close relationship between size and pigment content in various euphausiids and decapod crustaceans and underlined that in marine animals, color is due to carotenoid pigments originating from food. Accordingly, SMITH and BALDWIN (1984) attributed color variations in E. gryllus to ontogenetic changes in their diets. ...
Deep-sea scavenging amphipods, Eurythenes gryllus, were caught in the northeast Atlantic Ocean with baited traps attached on free-vehicle lines at different levels above the seafloor, in September 1983 and May 1984. Maximum catch rates occurred at altitudes ⩽20 m and decreased rapidly above. An increase in size with increasing height of capture above the seafloor appeared for both females and males, females having a greater mean size than males. Small individuals were found generally at lower levels while larger specimens were caught at any level. In September, E. gryllus appeared larger on the NEA site (4800 m) compared to the Armorican Seamount location (3800 m). The mean size of E. gryllus and the proportion of females were higher in September compared to May, indicating that we may have sampled a younger population in May. The study of color distribution versus amphipod size ranges revealed that E. gryllus become colored when maturing. Although the proportion of pigmented amphipods increased with increasing height of catch, this variation was not statistically significant. Spatial and temporal variations in color may result from changes in the availability of certain foods. Comparisons with Pacific studies are made.
... In contrast to EFA, saturated FA (SFA) and monounsaturated FA (MUFA) can be obtained from other FA and are commonly catabolized to produce energy during embryonic development (Luo et al. 2008). Females may transfer as much as 60 % of their lipid reserves to their embryos (Herring 1973), suggesting minimal lipid catabolism independent of egg provision (Rosa and Nunes 2002). Several studies have already tried to determine whether environmental factors may cause variable offspring quality (Wickins et al. 1995; Ouellet and Plante 2004; Anger 2006; Moland et al. 2010). ...
Offspring quality of decapod crustaceans has been widely studied, with special emphasis on the sources of variability determining embryonic and larval quality. Nevertheless, maternal provisioning has commonly been overlooked as a potential source of offspring within-brood variability. In the present study, the existence of variable maternal provisioning was assessed through the analysis of the fatty acid (FA) profile of newly extruded embryos from different regions of the brooding chamber of Homarus gammarus. Significant differences in the FA profile of embryos sampled from different pleopods and sides of the brooding chamber were recorded. Significant deviations of the overall mean of each surveyed female were also observed for essential FA, particularly 20:4n-6, 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3. Lipid energy available to fuel embryogenesis also varied among embryos sampled from different regions of the brooding chamber. Results suggest variable female investment at oocyte production, which may be amplified during the incubation period of developing embryos by differential lipid catabolism. For the first time, maternal provisioning is evidenced as an additional source for within-brood variability in the FA profile of embryos.
... Prior to the reproduction period, which starts in August, Monoporeia affinis, as well as Diporeia sp., accumulate high concentrations of lipids, which are trans-ferred to oocytes during sexual maturation. In decapod crustaceans, the amount of lipid reserves transferred from females to developing oocytes may exceed 60% of that remaining in the females (Herring 1973). Mating starts in November, in both freshwater environments and in the Baltic Sea, and lasts for ~1 mo. ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of food availability on reproduction by comparing the response of reproductive biomarkers of a deposit-feeding amphipod Monoporeia affinis in 2 Swedish lentic environments (Lake Vanern and Lake Vattern) differing in eutrophication level, during the period between 1995 and 2002. In ultraoligotrophic Lake Vattern, a very low fecundity (living eggs female(-1)) was found and severe embryo aberrations in terms of undifferentiated eggs (% female(-1)), dead eggs (% female(-1)) and the percent of females with dead broods were recorded. A significant negative correlation between fecundity and (1) undifferentiated eggs and (2) dead eggs and broods were obtained in both lakes. Amphipods collected in Lake Vattern in 2001 showed significantly lower concentrations of lipids-mainly triacylglycerols (TAG)-and of fatty acids (FAs) than amphipods collected in the more eutrophic Lake Vanern. Dramatically increased spring bloom diatom abundance in Lake Vattern resulted in increased fecundity and lipid and fatty acid concentrations (namely monounsaturated fatty acids, MUFA) and decreased embryo aberrations. A significant relationship between fecundity and diatom biovolume in Lake Vanern and total algal biovolume in Lake Vattern was found. No other alga taxa influenced the fecundity. In Lake Vattern total algal biovolume was negatively related to undifferentiated eggs. MUFA and saturated fatty acids (SFAs) seem to be important for vitellogenesis and oogenesis and also constitute fuel during embryogenesis. Other environmental variables in bottom waters (i.e. oxygen, pH and temperature) and sediment organic content did not influence the reproduction variables. Our findings strongly suggest a relationship between embryo aberrations (e.g. undifferentiated eggs and dead broods) and low food resources.
Biochemical composition of ovary and hepatopancreas tissues in wild populations of Uca longisignalis and Uca nr. minax were monitored during the reproductive season. Total lipid (concentration and content), C (carbon), N (nitrogen), and C:N ratios of the ovary and hepatopancreas were quantified over the course of ovarian maturation. Ovary lipid and C concentration varied significantly over the course of ovarian maturation for both species, but there was no relationship between lipid concentration or hepatopancreas content and the stage of ovarian development in females. Hepatopancreatic lipid and C concentration did not differ between sexes of U. nr. minax. Lipid demands of ovarian maturation thus appear to be met in large part by increased dietary intake and not purely by translocating lipid stores from the hepatopancreas. In both Uca longisignalis and U. nr. minax, the color of the hepatopancreas may be used as an indicator of the lipid and C levels of the hepatopancreas. Cadmium-yellow and lemon-yellow hepatopancreas tissues had the highest lipid concentrations. No evidence could be found to demonstrate depletion of lipid or C concentrations in the hepatopancreas concomitant with ovarian maturation.
The contents of astaxanthin, canthaxanthin and astaxanthin esters were studied in natural populations of the copepod Acartia bifilosa from the Pomeranian Bay and Gulf of Gdańsk in the southern Baltic Sea. Samples dominated by any one of three developmental groups: (1) nauplii, (2) copepodids I-III and (3) copepodids IV-V and adults of Acartia bifilosa were analysed by means of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). As ontogenetic development progressed, significant changes occurred in the proportion of particular pigments in the total pigment pool of the various developmental groups. Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin occurred in all the groups, the former being clearly dominant. However, an increasing percentage of astaxanthin esters was recorded in the copepodids I-III, and even more in the copepodids IV-V and adults group. Most probably, astaxanthin is the main pigment active in copepod lipid metabolism. Carotenoid pigments in copepods very likely act as efficient free-electron quenchers and may be involved as antioxidants in rapid lipid metabolism. The exogenously feeding stages (late nauplii and copepodids) transform plant carotenoids taken from food and are evidently capable of metabolising astaxanthin by esterification and further degradation. It is emphasised that, according to literature data, astaxanthin esters may have an even higher quenching ability. It is suggested that crustacean carotenoid pigments, with their electron donor-acceptor abilities, may replace oxygen in peroxidation processes connected with lipid metabolism. The consequences of such a physiological role of astaxanthin for present-day estimations of energy balances in zooplankton communities are mentioned.
Carotenoids are widely represented in crustaceans; the list of these pigments is enhanced by the detection of new structures. Crustaceans cannot synthesize carotenoids “de novo” but they are able to transform these substances into endogenous forms. β-Carotene appears as the most common precursor in the different metabolic pathways; however other carotenoids are supposed to play such a role. The metabolism of carotenoids in Crustacea is closely related to environmental factors, food in particular. Controlled feeding experiments using labelled pigments have permitted the metabolic schemes as well as the different intermediates involved to be determined. Physiological cycles like molting and vitellogenesis and the metabolic alterations induced by parasitic infections are found to affect the metabolism of carotenoids in these animals. Several possible functions of carotenoids in Crustacea are discussed.
Information on the nature and distribution of carotenoids in Crustacea is rather more extensive than in many other invertebrates but occasionally pigment identification has not always been unequivocal. Recent investigations which use modern physicochemical techniques are gradually revealing a general pattern of distribution and the information is summarized in the accompanying Tables. The most important general feature is the wide distribution of relatively large amounts of carotenoids which are keto derivatives of β-carotene. A considerable number of carotenoproteins are found in the Crustacea but these are discussed in detail in Chapter 1.
Twenty stable elements and 210Po in dry tissue (exciuding gut contents) in deep-sea lysianassid amphipods (Eurythenes gryllus) captured in the Arctic Ocean (Canada Basin) and abyssal regions of the western North Atlantic Ocean (Sohm Abyssal Plain and Bermuda Rise) were determined by neutron activation and alpha counting. respectively. Concentrations of stable elements on a dry-and ash-weight basis were comparable to values in planktonic and benthic crustaceans and fish collected from other abyssal plain areas in the North Atlantic Ocean. Levels of 210Po in amphipods from the Arctic Ocean were lower than values in animals from the Bermuda Rise.
The colour of commercial cooked black tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) is a key quality requirement to ensure product is not rejected in wholesale markets. The colour, due to the carotenoid astaxanthin, can be impacted by frozen storage, but changes in colour or astaxanthin profile, during frozen storage, have not been studied in detail. Subsequently in this study, the aims were to define the astaxanthin (as cis, trans, mono-ester and di-ester forms) content, together with the colour properties, in both pleopods (legs) and abdominal segments. Changes in astaxanthin content and colour properties were further determined during frozen storage (−20°C). Total astaxanthin content was seen to decrease in all samples over time, with the rate of degradation being significantly greater (P < 0.05) in pleopods than abdomen. In both pleopods and abdomen, rate of degradation of esterified forms was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than non-esterified forms. Hue angle (increase), a* value (decrease) and L value (increase) were all seen to significantly change (P < 0.05) during storage, with changes being more prevalent in the pleopods. The pleopods are the key indicator of astaxanthin and colour loss in cooked black tiger prawns and preservation strategies are required to preserve astaxanthin and colour during frozen storage.
Colour and appearance of flowering plants and animals are discussed in terms of the three driving forces for colouration discussed in Part I. They are: first, the need to absorb incident radiation; second, the combination of reflection properties and visual characteristics; and third, incidental colouration caused because a biochemical, which has been optimised by an organism, happens to be coloured. Pigments and structures have evolved in both plants and animals to optimise colouration. Many flowering plants have evolved in conjunction with different flying creatures to enable pollination to occur. There are only two principles in animal colouration: Either the animal does not want to be seen or he does want to be seen (or does not mind being seen). The mechanisms by which these aims can be achieved are varied. There are three “dimensions” to the visual impact, or total appearance, which one animal has upon another: They are colour, pattern, and behavioural display.
1.1. Total lipid content of the flesh is similar in both species (around 1.5%); that of carapace is higher, especially in Aristaeomorpha foliacea (2.5%).2.2. Partial acylglycerides, free and sterified cholesterol, ubiquinone (Q4), triacylglycerides and glyceryl ethers have been identified and quantitatively estimated among nonpolar lipids. Free fatty acids are highly abundant, especially in carapace, and triacylglycerides represent not more than 30% of total lipid.3.3. Lisophosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine and cardiolipin have been characterized among phospholipids and its contribution to total lipid estimated. Plasmalogens and diether forms of all of the isolated phospholipids have also been identified.4.4. Each one of the identified components have been purified and its fatty acids composition studied. Phospholipids from carapace are in general more unsaturated than those from flesh.
Camouflage is exceptionally challenging in pelagic environments because of their featureless nature. Thus, it is perhaps no surprise that pelagic species have evolved highly sophisticated cryptic strategies, three of which-transparency, mirrors, and counterillumination-are rare or absent in other habitats. Pelagic visual systems are equally complex, and several visual capabilities, including UV and polarization sensitivity and intraocular filters, are thought to facilitate detection of camouflaged animals. This article reviews the optical nature of the pelagic realm and both the camouflage and camouflage-breaking strategies of its inhabitants, focusing primarily on underlying principles and what remains to be discovered. A theme throughout is that far more is known about the structures of the optical and visual systems involved than about their function, an imbalance that is due primarily to the rarity of observations of undisturbed behavior. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Marine Science Volume 6 is January 03, 2014. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Tiger prawns, Penaeus esculentus Haswell (mean wt 20.8 ± 0.3 g, range 13.9–27.7 g) contained 1–2% extractable lipid, 13% protein (biuret method) and 71–74% water (wet wt). In 21 days, the weight of fed prawns increased by 3% and that of starved prawns decreased by 4.4%. Protein was the major energy source during 14 days of starvation, with a loss of 550 mg of total protein compared with a loss of 84 mg of total lipid. The absolute amount of water present remained constant. Of three different tissue compartments, abdomen, cephalothorax, and digestive gland, the abdomen contributed the most protein (330 mg) and lipid (35 mg) during 14 days of starvation. Digestive gland, although containing the largest percentage wet wt of lipid, accounted for only 8.3% of the total lipid in the prawn, and contributed only 18 mg of lipid in 14 days of starvation. Lipid concentration in the digestive gland increased during early premoult (stage D4) and dropped in late premoult (stage D4). Resting oxygen consumption rate remained constant at ≈0.1 ml · g−1 · h−1 at 25°C during 21 days of starvation.
The red crab or "langostilla", Pleuroncodes planipes, is abundant in the Pacific coast upwelling system of Baja California. It feeds both on plankton in the pelagic realm and on detritus in the benthic habitat. Previous studies of stomach contents suggested variations with latitude and depth, and potential differences in productivity. The aim of this study was to use the lipid and astaxanthin contents as well as the fatty acid composition of the red crab as a measure of its nutritional condition and thus of the quality of their feeding areas. Crabs were collected in September 1991 using a shrimp trawl at 6 stations on the continental shelf off the west coast of Baja California between 26° and 24°N. All samples were sun-dried and homogenized by grinding, prior to the extraction of total lipids. Astaxanthin content was also measured at each location. The methyl esters of the total fatty acids were analysed by capillary gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (FID). Lipids and astaxanthin contents varied significantly from shallow to deeper locations, and both organic compounds were significantly correlated (p < 0.05). The C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2n-6, C18:3n-3, C20:4n-6, C20:5n-3, and C22:6n-3 fatty acids were identified and quantified. The most abundant fatty acid was C20:5n-3, ranging from 8.3 to 21.06 g/100 g TL, followed by C16:0 (3.4-14.10 g/100 g TL) and the C20:4n-6 (1.42-7.43). Fatty acids with the least statistical variation between locations were C18:3n-3 and C20:5n-3. Fatty acids from the different locations were found to be grouped into a latitudinal cline, suggesting red crabs are good indicators of areas with distinct food quality.
Micro-gravimetric determination of the lipid content of amphipods (Pontoporeia hoyi) obtained from a 45-m-deep Lake Michigan sampling site indicated that the mean lipid content of adult females was 30% on a non-lipid dry weight (NLDW) basis, and that juveniles and adult males contained 21 and 10% lipid (NLDW basis), respectively. Thin layer chromatography-flame ionization detection (TLC-FID) analyses revealed that lipids of females were composed primarily of triacylglycerols (81%), the principal energy storage lipid of amphipods. Lipids of juveniles were composed largely of triacylglycerols (41%) and phospholipids (44%). Adult male P. hoyi lipids consisted mostly of phospholipids (64%) and, secondarily, of triacylglycerols (12%). The relatively low triacylglycerol concentrations in males may be associated with the minimal requirements for energy stores to support metabolic needs during the male's brief (10 day) life span. By contrast, the high lipid content and marked abundance of triacylglycerols in adult females represents an important energy store supporting subsequent egg development, particularly since females appear to halt all feeding upon maturation. In juvenile P. hoyi, increased individual size (NLDW) was accompanied by increased lipid dry weight, implying that juveniles accumulate lipids during growth. Overall, the results demonstrated the importance of considering P. hoyi size, life stage, and sex when describing a population's lipid content or composition. This consideration is particularly critical when evaluating the role of P. hoyi in the transfer of energy and/or organic contaminants within the Great Lakes food web.
The characteristic orange-red pigments of whale fishes have been identified in Cetostomus regani, Gyrinomimus sp., Rondeletia bicolor and Barbourista rufa as the carotenoid pigment astaxanthin and its esters.
The decapods Pasiphaea scotiae (Stebbing), P. rathbunae (Stebbing), Petalidium foliaceum Bate and Acanthephyra pelagica (Risso) and the mysid Gnathophausia gigas (W.-Suhm) have been sampled from the Southern Ocean. Lipid contents were generally very high, 5 to 25% fresh weight in immature and male Pasiphaea scotiae, 7 to 17% in Acanthephyra pelagica and up to 20% in both Gnathophausia gigas and Petalidium foliaceum. Carotenoid pigment contents were also high compared with benthic decapods. In most species the major storage lipid was wax ester, although in Pasiphaea scotiae triacylglycerol was of equal or greater importance. Fatty acid compositions were typical of marine invertebrates from pelagic and shallow-water benthic habitats, although P. scotiae and Acanthephyra pelagica contained substantial levels of 20:1 in the triacylglycerol. Wax ester alcohol compositions were unusual in that both 20:1 and 22:1 were present as a suite of positional isomers. The variation in lipid content and composition with sex and season in both Pasiphaea scotiae and Acanthephyra pelagica indicated that the major factor influencing lipid storage in these organisms was the pattern of food availability, although they would clearly also benefit from the associated increased buoyancy. High-latitude midwater crustaceans contain much more lipid than the same or related species from lower latitudes. This parallels the increasing seasonally of production towards the poles, indicating that this seasonality influences the biology of the underlying mesopelagic community.
The major lipids of the Antarctic benthic hippolytid prawn Chorismus antarcticus (Pfeffer) were phospholipid and triacylglycerol. There were small amounts of free sterol and alkyldiacylglycerol and traces of free fatty acid, sterol ester, partial glycerides and, occasionally, wax ester. Triacylglycerol and other neutral lipids were stored primarily in the hepatopancreas whereas most of the phospholipid was contained in the abdominal muscle. Fluctuations in total lipid content appeared to be caused predominantly by variations in the amount of triacylglycerol. Carotenoid content and composition were similar to those of other marine decapods. Egg lipid was almost entirely triacylglycerol and phospholipid, the triacylglycerol mostly as free globules, the phospholipid and carotenoid largely bonded to protein. The dominant phospholipids were choline and ethanolamine phosphoglycerides, both rich in plasmalogens; there were smaller amounts of serine phosphoglyceride, sphingomyelin, and lysoethanolamine phosphoglyceride, and traces of lysocholine phosphoglyceride, phosphatidic acid, cardiolipin, inositol phosphoglyceride, and several glycolipids. The fatty acid compositions of triacylglycerol, total phospholipids, and choline and ethanolamine phosphoglycerides were typical of caridean decapods, though markedly unsaturated. The phospholipid fatty acids increased slightly in unsaturation in winter, the triacylglycerol fatty acids more so. The egg triacylglycerol and phospholipid fatty acid compositions were similar to each other and richer in monounsaturated acids than lipids in the adult prawn. Comparison with other crustaceans indicated that adaptation to the Antarctic marine environment has little effect on the lipid composition apart from an increase in muscle phospholipid content and an increase in both phospholipid and triacylglycerol fatty acid unsaturation.
Carotenoid pigments were used as markers to investigate the sources of energy to two deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities. Specimens of the hydrothermal-vent brachyuran crabBythograea thermydron were collected at 2 500 m depth from the Rose Garden vent site in the Galápagos Rift Valley in February, November and December 1979, and 2 600 m depth on the East Pacific Rise at 21°N in May 1982. Four carotenoids (astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, echinenone and beta-carotene) have been identified as the pigments responsible for the red color of the eggs of the crabs from the Galápagos Rift site. Consistent with the fact that animals are unable to synthesize carotenoidsde novo, precursors were not present in the crabs' tissues, affirming that these pigments are of dietary origin. The number of ovigerous female crabs and the concentrations of carotenoids in the eggs suggest a readily available source of these pigments in the Galápagos vent environment. In contrast, the developing eggs ofB. thermydron from the 21°N vent site were cream-colored, with only trace quantites of carotenoids and fewer types of carotenoids. Analysis of carotenoid distribution in both females and males in these two populations indicates a very low level of carotenoids in the diet of the 21°N vent crabs, and reflects differences in trophic interactions and primary production at the two vent sites. The few types and low concentration of carotenoids inB. thermydron indicate a diet that is different from non-vent, deep-sea crustaceans. We hypothesize that the source of carotenoids are bacteria within the vent community, and not ultimately from photosynthetic production.
1.1. The isomeric ratio of enantiomeric and meso astaxanthin (free and esterified) in the crustaceans Calanus finmarchicus, Euphausia superba, Thysanoessa inermis, Acanthephyra purpurea and Cancer pagurus is reported.2.2. The ratios observed in C. finmarchicus and T. inermis, both considered as important feed ingredients for wild salmon, are compatible with those reported by others for wild salmon and with recent evidence demonstrating that salmonids obtain the three optical isomers of astaxanthin from the diet.3.3. The origin of the three optical isomers of astaxanthin in zooplankton is discussed briefly.
1.1. The main carotenoids of four species of copepods found in the Great Barrier Reef have been separated by chromatographic techniques including reversed-phase HPLC and identified using chemical and spectroscopic methods and by mass spectrometry.2.2. The carotenoid component of the bluish caroteno-protein complex isolated from all four species was astaxanthin.3.3. The predominant carotenoids in Euchaeta russelli were phoenicoxanthin, β-doradexanthin, astaxanthin and its esters while in the other three species, astaxanthin and its esters were the most abundant.4.4. The following carotenoids have been characterised on the whole animal in the four species of copepods—astaxanthin and astaxanthin esters from Centropages furcatus, Undinula vulgaris and Temora turbinata; Euchaeta russelli was found to contain canthaxanthin, astaxanthin and astaxanthin esters, crustaxanthin, phoenicoxanthin, β-doradexanthin, β,β-carotene-3,3′,4-triol, and 2′-norastaxanthin ester.5.5. This is the first report on the occurrence of 2′-norastaxanthin ester in crustacea. The transformation of astaxanthin or its esters to 2′-norastaxanthin ester is discussed.
The Antarctic benthic prawn Chorismus antarcticus (Pfeffer) was sampled regularly for a year and its total lipid content measured. Immature and transitional prawns had very variable lipid contents but similar mean values (2.92 and 2.91 % fresh wt, respectively); the variation was, in part, due to fluctuations in lipid reserves associated with ecdysis. Maturation of the testes involved the synthesis of ≈ 1.8 mg lipid, and female prawns synthesized an average of 50 % of their own lipid content for the gonad. Fecundity did not appear to be limited by the demand for egg lipid and synchrony in the breeding cycle was probably related to the planktonic feeding of the newly-hatched larvae. Eggs showed an unusual increase in total lipid content during the early stages of embryonic development, followed by the more normal decrease; larvae probably hatch with some reserve lipid.Available data on lipid contents of Antarctic crustaceans are briefly reviewed. The high lipid contents observed in herbivorous Antarctic planktonic crustaceans are due to the patterns of feeding imposed by the strongly seasonal nature of primary production in Antarctic waters, rather than low temperature per se. There is no evidence from the benthos of any systematic elevation of lipid content in polar species, although there is an indication of an increased lipid content in the muscle of polar crustaceans.
The stomach oil produced by many marine birds of the order Procellariiformes is an important aspect of their breeding ecology. Fifty-seven samples of stomach oil from six species of subantarctic sea birds were examined by thin-layer and gas chromatography to determine the degree of variation in stomach oil composition between individuals of the same species. The wide variability detected, the typically marine composition of the component fatty acids and alcohols of the wax esters and triacyglycerols examined and the presence of pristane, squalene, and astaxanthin in the stomach oils all indicate that the bulk of the oil is derived directly from the food. This is in contrast to the nutritive fluids produced by secretion in several other groups of birds. Many of the stomach oils contain large amounts of wax ester and marine birds represent a significant link in the marine food web for the reconversion of zooplankton wax ester to triacylglycerol. No substantial offshore pollution by petroleum hydrocarbons was indicated by the samples; stomach oil samples from pelagic birds may be valuable in monitoring offshore pollution.
Specimens of the deep-sea benthic shrimp Nematocarcinus gracilis were collected from 900 m to 1000 m in the Arabian Sea, close to where the permanent oxygen minimum zone meets the sea floor. Lipid profiles, encompassing total lipid, lipid class and fatty acid composition, were compared with previously reported crustacean lipid assays and provided an insight into the life history of the species. The major storage lipid in N. gracilis was triglyceride, supporting the supposition that this species exists in benthic regions. Neutral lipid levels were commensurate with N. gracilis being an opportunistic feeder. Fatty acid composition was typical of an organism with a diet based on an ultimately photosynthetic source of organic carbon, but also reflected the reduction in the availability of labile organic carbon (in the case of lipid, highly unsaturated fatty acids) in the deep sea.
The eyes of larval and juvenile oplophorid shrimps are described for the first time. Variations in eye development occur depending on whether the zoeal stages are lecithotrophic or planktotrophic. In those genera where the first free-living stage is planktonic, the eyes are of the transparent apposition type seen in other decapod zoeas. However, where the eggs hatch after completion of the lecithotrophic zoeal stages, the eyes are laready developing the superposition optics found in the adult. In Oplophorus spinosus the changeover from hexagonal to square facets, indicative of superposition optics, proceeds from anterior to posterior. In Systellaspis debilis the square facets appear first on the lateral face of the eye. Eventually, in both species, only the most dorsal ommatidia retain apposition optics. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Eggs and larval stages of the caridean shrimps Crangon crangon and C. allmanni were collected to determine their lipid and fatty acid compositions. Specimens were sampled after the extremely mild winter of 1989/1990 and during the following year, 1991. The fatty acid composition of the zoeal stages of both C. crangon and C. allmanni from 1991 were predominated by the polyunsaturated fatty acids which are typical for marine organisms. In contrast, unsaturated fatty acids were absent in the early larval stages of C. crangon collected in 1990; however, advanced larval stages showed a similar fatty acid composition compared to larvae from 1991. The major phospholipid of eggs and larvae was phosphatidylethanolamine. Eggs contained also phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine, which are probably utilized during embryonic development until hatching because in the early larval stages, only phosphatidylethanolamine was found. In stage VII, again phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine occurred. The lipid and fatty acid composition seems to be an indicator for the survival chances of the planktonic stages. The absence of unsaturated fatty acids may be interpreted as a consequence of unfavorable nutritional conditions during the early developmental phase of the shrimps.
1.1. Thirty eight carotenoids have been identified and 16 partially characterized on carapace and flesh of Aristaeomorpha foliacea and Heterocarpus dorsalis caught in the Indian Ocean. Some of them (6′keto (?) hydroxy 5′hydro ψ α carotene,6′keto 5′6′dihydro ε ψ carttene, phoenicopterone and celaxanthin) have not been previously described in decapods.2.2. Astaxanthin, 6′keto (?) hydro y 5′hydoro ψ β carotene and hydroxy 6′keto 5′6′kihydro ε ψ carotene are the more abundant among the pigments found.3.3. Carapace is much richer than flesh in total carotenoids which are considerably more abundant as well, in both tissues, in Aristaeomorpha foliacea than in Heterocarpus dorsalis.
1.1. A qualitative and quantitative comparison between tegumentary carotenoids from the prawns P. edulis and L. seticaudata is given.2.2. Tegumentary carotenoids represent as much as 95% of the total carotenoids; the carotenoid content is 40–110 μ/g for P. edulis and 35–150 μ/g for L. seticaudata. The exuvia of P. edulis are two to three times more pigmented than those of L. seticaudata. At each exuviation, the prawn loses 3% of its carotenoids.3.3. Each erythrophore contains of astaxanthin in P. edulis and in L. seticaudata.4.4. Astaxanthin represents almost the totality of tegumentary carotenoids, most of it being esterified in the epidermis. In the cuticle, this pigment is not bound to calcium or lipids. β carotene is present in low amounts.
Luminescence in decapod crustaceans may be of two kinds. Either a secretion is ejected into the surrounding water as a luminous cloud, or specific light organs, which may be internal or superficial, glow steadily (Balss, 1944). There may be more than 150 photophores in some species of decapod, and the number, position and development of these organs in Systellaspis debilis and species of Sergia have been described by Coutière (1906), Kemp (1910a), Terao (1917) and Gordon (1935). The production of luminous clouds has been observed in the Oplophoridae, Pandalidae and Thalassocarididae of the Caridea, and in the Penaeidae of the Penaeidea (Table 1). Observations of the luminescence of specific light organs or tissues are much less numerous. Luminescence has been observed among the Oplophoridae from the photophores of species of Systellaspis and Oplophorus and from the liver of Hymenodora. The hepatic organs of Parapandalus of the Pandalidae have been seen to luminesce, and among the Penaeidea both the hepatic organs of Pesta of Sergestes and the superficial organs of Sergia have been seen to emit light (for references see Table 1). Undoubted hepatic light organs also occur in Chlorotocoides and Thalassocaris of the Thalassocarididae, and superficial organs in Hymenopenaeus debilis of the Penaeidae. Additional organs of doubtful function which have been described as possible photophores occur on the chelae of the homolid crab Hypsophrys, in the branchial chamber of Sergestes, the pleopods of Parapandalus and the uropods of Acetes (Table 2). There are unconfirmed reports of luminescence in the eye of Pasiphaea etarda (Kiernik, 1908) and in Polycheles (Alcock, 1902) and Leptochela (Chace, 1940), neither of the latter two cases being ascribed to a particular organ, though ‘a greasy glandular patch’ near the oviduct was implicated in Polycheles.
The vertical distribution of Decapoda (Crustacea) at deep-water stations in the Rockall Trough and the Porcupine Seabight is discussed and compared to the near-bottom distribution of Decapoda on the continental slope of the Seabight. The vertical distribution of some species is unaffected by the shallowing of the sea floor in the slope area. Other species are found in much higher concentrations near-bottom over the slope than at similar depths at the adjacent deep-water stations and at least one species extends its lower vertical range. It is suggested that the increased food availability near-bottom may be the principal factor influencing aggregation.
The effects of dietary astaxanthin supplemented at 0, 40, 80 or 150 mg astaxanthin kg−1 on growth, survival, moult frequency, osmoregulatory capacity (OC) and selected metabolic and haematological variables in Litopenaeus vannamei acclimated to low-salinity water (3 g L−1) were evaluated. Supplemented astaxanthin at 80 mg kg−1 improved growth, survival and moult frequency in shrimp. The lowest OC was also exhibited in shrimp fed with dietary astaxanthin at 80 mg kg−1. Shrimp haemolymph concentrations of glucose, lactate, haemocyanin and total haemocyte count were all significantly enhanced by feeding the diet supplemented with 80 mg astaxanthin kg−1 compared with shrimp fed with the other diets. On the basis of these results, dietary astaxanthin supplementation of 80 mg kg−1 is recommended for juvenile L. vannamei cultured in low-salinity water.
Necrophagous amphipods of the species Eurythenes gryllus were caught at distances up to 1400m above the sea floor during 23 deployments of baited trap lines. The fishing efforts at four abyssal stations along a transect of the central and North Pacific yielded a total of 718 amphipods in June and an additional 749 amphipods at teh westernmost station (CNP) in November 1982. E. gryllus was caught at higher altitudes in the deeper more oligotrophic stations of the central gyre area. Maximum catch rates occurred near the bottom at altitudes ⩽50 m, but decreased above 50 m at the three western stations. Catch rates in June, summed for all altitudes, were highest at Sta. F on the western boundary of the California Current [37.27 ± 15.38 amphipods (fishing day)−1 substation−1] and lowest at Sta. C, the station closest to the California coast [1.15 ± 1.09 amphepods (fishing day)−1 substation−1]. Larger animals were cuaght at the higher altitudes across the transect. Seasonal comparison of catch at the westernmost station (CNP) revealed higher catch rates in November than in June [81.01 ± 62.88 and 25.38 ± 17.99 amphipods (fishing day)−1 substation−1, respectively]. Given the observed vertical distribution of E. gryllus, we suggest a testable model in which deep-sea necrophagous amphipods detect and locate large food falls using a combination of mechanoreception and chemoreception. Other feeding strategies such as predation are also explored.
A double-development procedure employing first a polar and then a nonpolar solvent system is described for the complete separation by thin-layer chromatography of the main lipid classes encountered in natural lipids. For better quantification, long plates (34 cm) are employed. Diglycerides were separated from cholesterol, 1,2- from 1,3-diglycerides, and monoglycerides from phospholipids.
Small amounts of beta-carotene and lutein were found in Orconectes pellucidus pellucidus. Cambarus bartonii tenebrosus from the same cave contained much less carotenoid than surface crayfish. Astaxanthin, the principal carotenoid of most Crustacea, was absent from O. p. pellucidus, but accounted for 83 percent of the carotenoid of C. b. tenebrosus. These findings support other observations that pigmentation is dependent on the amount of carotenoid in the diet rather than on the presence of light. Furthermore, they suggest that O. p. pellucidus has lost or has never developed the ability to oxidize dietary carotenoids.
The carotenoid pigments of the hepatopancreas, ovaries and epidermis of Carcinus maenas were investigated. The following pigments were identified: β‐carotene, δ‐carotene, echinenone, isocryptoxanthin, canthaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, flavoxanthin and astacene. The relative abundance of these pigments in the three tissues and the presence of possible hydroxy and keto intermediates suggest the metabolism of astaxanthin from β‐carotene. The metabolic pathway in Carcinus is discussed in relation to recent studies on other invertebrates.
1. Besides astaxanthin, the presence of β-carotene, echinenone, canthaxanthin, dihy-droxy-pirardixanthin ester, phoenicoxanthin was confirmed in prawn. 2. A possible metabolic pathway from β-carotene to astaxanthin is proposed, and its sequence ist hus suggested: β-carotene→echinenone→canthaxanthin→phoenicoxanthin→astaxanthin.
1.1. The carotenoids of the prawn, Penaeus japonicus Bate, have been separated by absorption chromatography and further characterized by their absorption spectra and behaviour on the column.In some cases, reactions for specific functional groups were performed.2.2. The carapaces of the prawn contain astaxanthin, phoenicoxanthin, dihydroxy-piradixanthin, 3,3'-dihydroxy-ϵ-carotene, and traces of lutein, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, echinenone, and β-carotene.3.3. The major pigments of the internal organs of the prawn were found to be: astaxanthin, β-carotene, echinenone, canthaxanthin, 3,3'-dihydroxy-ϵ-carotene and the minor pigment in them was dihydroxypiradixanthin.4.4. The following metabolic pathway from β-carotene to astaxanthin was proposed:- β-carotene → echinenone → canthaxanthin → phoenicoxanthin → astaxanthin.
1.1. Small amounts of keto-carotenoids were found together with large amounts of astaxanthin ester and astaxanthin in the integumental tissues of the crayfish Orconectes rusticus.2.2. The conventional plant carotenoids β-carotene and lutein were the predominant pigments of the carcass and eggs. Eggs contained astaxanthin but in contrast to other tissues no astaxanthin ester. Vitamin A1 and retinene-1 were found along with astaxanthin ester and astaxanthin in the eyestalks of this crayfish.3.3. Major differences in the behavior of astaxanthin ester and astaxanthin fractions during chromatography on water-weakened alumina and silicic acid are described. The data suggest that alumina chromatography results in the partial hydrolysis of astaxanthin esters. Astaxanthin isomers are apparently oxidized to astacene during elution from alumina with methanolic potassium hydroxide.
Die Anteile der totalen und neutralen Lipide an den Organen des tropischen Birgus latro wurden gemessen. Beide Anteile waren niedrig in Kiemen und Därmen. In Kopfbrust and Scherenmuskeln war der totale Lipid-Anteil niedrig, der neutrale jedoch hoch. Die totalen und neutralen Lipid-Anteile waren hoch im Hepatopankreas und im Hoden. Offensichtlich besteht kein Zusammenhang zwischen der Umgebungstemperatur und den Lipid-Anteilen in den Organen von B. latro.
(1) To give themselves buoyancy several families of squid and
crustaceans accumulate large amounts of NH^+_4 ions in special
compartments within their bodies. This is often in high concentration,
approximately 0.5 mol/l, and very acid; sometimes two-thirds of the body
weight consists of such strong ammoniacal solutions. Possible mechanisms
for the accumulation of NH^+_4 are discussed. (2) Cephalopods using
chambered shells for buoyancy once dominated the seas, they included the
nautiloids, ammonites and belemnites. Three types of such shells can
still be found in living Sepia, Spirula and Nautilus. They differ
greatly in morphology but all function in the same way. While being
formed a chamber is full of a liquid isosmotic with sea water, later
this liquid is pumped out against the hydrostatic pressure of the sea.
It is shown that gases play no role in this pumping of salts and water
and an account of our knowledge of the processes involved in the pumping
is given.
Crustacyanin, the blue carapace pigment of the common lobster Homarus gammarus (L.), has been purified and crystallized. This chromoprotein has a minimum molecular weight of 36 000 based on the content of the carotenoid prosthetic group astaxanthin. The molecular weight in gel filtration measurements is about 650 000, corresponding to some 18 molecules of astaxanthin per molecule of protein. Crustacyanin, on dialysis against water, dissociates into particles of about 35 000 molecular weight, each apparently bearing one molecule of carotenoid. The dissociation is accompanied by a shift in the principal maximum of the absorption spectrum from 633 to 595 nm and is reversed upon addition of salt. Reversible dissociation also occurs in the presence of 3 M urea, 1 M potassium thiocyanate, 10% (v/v) dioxan or 10% (v/v) acetone. When the carotenoid is removed from crustacyanin with acetone, the resultant apoprotein has a mean molecular weight of about 20 000. It may be resolved by starch gel electrophoresis into several components of which two predominate. Crustacyanin, indistinguishable from the native material, can be reconstituted from apoprotein and carotenoid. Evidence from the behaviour of crustacyanin and its apoprotein at surfaces indicates that the tertiary and quaternary structures of the native protein are stabilized by the carotenoid. It is suggested that the quarternary structure of crustacyanin is induced by an interaction of the carotenoid molecules of the subunits, which in turn causes a change in configuration of the protein favourable to aggregation. The result is a micelle-like structure with a hydrophobic carotenoid core.
1.1. The carotenoid pigments found in Pleuroncodes planipes were β-carotene, two esters of astaxanthin.2.2. Pigment yields were estimated to be from 8·3 to 9·9 mg/100 g of whole animal.3.3. P. planipes appears to be a good source of carotenoids for fishes which can utilize dietary astaxanthin.
1.1. The blue carotenoprotein occurring in the stomach wall of Aristeus antennatus has been purified and obtained in a homogenous state by electrophoresis.2.2. The pigment was found to show resemblance, both in its properties and general strutural features, to α-crustacyanin, the lobster exoskeleton pigment.
Changes in the size and biochemical composition (glycogen, total carbohydrate, neutral fat, phospholipids, protein and non-protein nitrogen) have been followed throughout the year in the ovary and both male and female hepatopancreas of Carcinus maenas. Changes in size and biochemical composition of the hepatopancreas of Carcinus have also been examined throughout the moulting cycle.There are no clearly defined seasonal changes in either size or composition of the hepatopancreas; there is, however, a decrease in neutral fat levels in late autumn and winter in both sexes which may be due to decreased feeding at this time, and a second fall in late spring which may be caused by the recruitment to the population of previously berried and non-feeding females and recently moulted males.Carcinus appears to store less material before the moult than does Cancer and some animals appear to moult without having accumulated any appreciable reserves. In the summer, when the moulting cycle of Carcinus is characterized by ecdysis, the glycogen stores in crabs in stages C4 and D1 are larger than in the winter. Small, actively moulting premoult crabs when fed in captivity accumulate very large stores of glycogen in the hepatopancreas while larger, intermoult crabs in anecdysis store very little.On starvation the reserves of glycogen (and other carbohydrate material), neutral fat, and non-protein nitrogen decrease: in contrast, protein nitrogen remains constant, while phospholipid rises. On re-feeding such starved crabs on mussels the store of total carbohydrate is again rapidly established, glycogen and non-protein nitrogen fairly rapidly, and neutral fat only slowly.
1.1. By means of columnar and thin-layer chromatography, the presence of carotenoids and vitamin A in the antennae, eyestalks, carapace, muscles and intestines of the crayfish, Astacus leptodactylus (Esch.) was studied.2.2. As a result of the investigations the following carotenoids were found: β-carotene, echinenone, canthaxanthin, cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, keto-carotenoid and astaxanthin. Vitamin A was found in the antennae, eyestalks and intestines of A. leptodactylus.3.3. In the carapace, antennae, eyestalks and muscles of A. leptodactylus, astaxanthin predominates (49·75–82·51 per cent); in the intestines, however, β-carotene occurs in the largest amounts (55·0 per cent). As regards the total amount of carotenoids in A. leptodactylus, the greatest amount was found in the antennae (127·1 μg/g) and the least in the muscles (2·5 μg/g).
1.1. Among the pigments of the brachyuran Pinnotheres pisum investigated, β-carotene, echinenone, a monohydroxy monoketo β-carotene, canthaxanthin, astaxanthin ester, lutein and alloxanthin were isolated and identified.2.2. β-Carotene, lutein and alloxanthin predominated. All three may well have been assimilated directly from the algal food of the crab. No other pigments were found which are common to P. pisum and to the majority of algae.3.3. Oxidation of β-carotene to astaxanthin is discussed in relation to this work, and to other recent studies on invertebrates and certain vertebrates.
Zooplankton were captured for detailed lipid analyses from known depth intervals in opening-closing nets and in midwater trawls to 2500m at a station in the subtropical Pacific. Copepods were also collected from the upper 500 m of a second subtropical and a temperate station in the Pacific, and a station in the Arctic.At the subtropical station wax esters were a minor part of the total lipid (less than 10%) and triglycerides were the most important lipid of many copepods inhabiting the upper 325 m, whereas wax esters were the main lipid constituent (over 50% of the lipid) and triglycerides were a minor lipid component for all copepods examined from depths below 625 m. The 325–625 m depth interval appeared to be a transition zone. Wax esters also comprised over 40% of the lipid in most of the temperate and polar calanoids examined. Triglycerides tended to be replaced by wax esters as the main lipid component in copepods from deep water or cold water.All genera examined belonging to the families Calanidae, Euchaetidae, Lucicutiidae, Heterorhabdidae, and Augaptilidae had greater than 20% of their lipid as wax esters. The genera examined from these families generally occur in deep water or near-surface cold waters. Members of the families Candaciidae and Pontellidae contained less than 10% wax ester. They are primarily found at shallow depths from tropical to temperate waters. The families Eucalanidae, Aetideidae, Scolecithtricidae, and Metridiidae contained genera with varying amounts of wax esters. These families have both genera and species which inhabit various depth and temperature ranges.Experiments on the rate of lipid utilization for periods up to one week generally showed a slow decrease in the percentage lipid of the dry weight. Detailed lipid analysis of Gaussia princeps during starvation showed triglyceride was utilized while wax esters remained relatively unchanged.The depth and latitudinal distribution of lipid in marine copepods may generally be explained on the basis of temperature or the temporal distribution, relative abundance, and rate of supply of food. However, there some exceptions, and the importance of taxonomic affinity cannot be ignored.
Muscle tissue of the queen crab, Chionoecetes opilio, contained 0.75% lipid, 78.8% of which was phospholipid (chiefly choline phosphatides) and the balance mainly cholesterol. Viscera contained 13.6% lipid, the bulk of which was triglyceride. Fatty acid composition was generally similar to that of other marine species. However, 20:5ω3 was the major polyunsaturate (rather than the more usual 22:6ω3) and within the 18:1 series, the ω7 isomer was present in unusually large quantities.
The fatty acid composition of 20 species of marine animals, primarily fishes and crustaceans, was determined by gas–liquid chromatography. The species came from various depths down to 4400 m. The results showed that the medium-chain saturated and the long-chain polyunsaturated acids decreased with increasing depth, while oleic acid increased. It was thought that this indicated the presence of large amounts of wax esters. A benthic, mud-feeding holothurian Scoloplanes theeli was shown to have a fatty acid composition markedly different from that of pelagic species. This was attributed in part to the bacterial components of its diet.
The results of decapod lipid analyses have shown that females and gravid females generally contain high levels of monounsaturated acids and that the eggs of some of these decapods are composed mainly of phospholipid and triglyceride. These are probably present mainly as energy reserves. The percentages of saturated fatty acids are not found to vary with either maturity or sex, whereas the composition of the polyunsaturated acids are affected by both sex and maturity differences. Females are generally much lower in their content of polyunsaturated acids than juveniles and males, the males showing a greater requirement for 20:5 acid compared to the females.
For the euphausiids there is a slightly different picture, the monounsaturated acids appear as the stable fraction and for Euphausia krohnii the juveniles are similar to the females in their content of the polyunsaturated acids.
Neomysis integer is quite unlike the oceanic crustaceans showing a very specific difference in fatty acid composition between the males and females, the juveniles being rather intermediate in composition.
This study forms a contribution to a series (Angel, 1969; Clarke, 1969; Baker, 1970; Badcock, 1970) describing the biological results of a detailed investigation of the ecology of an oceanic area located in the eastern North Atlantic, close to the island of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands). The scientific background and objectives of the investigation, conducted during September to December 1965, have been described elsewhere (Currie, Boden & Kampa, 1969). Our main interest lay in the biological composition and acoustic characteristics of sonic scattering layers, and it was therefore considered essential to sample the principal elements of the pelagic fauna within the depth range 0–1000 m in as quantitative and detailed a manner as was technically possible. The resulting biological collections represent a unique body of material, the analysis of which is directly pertinent to the vertical distribution, diurnal migration and ecological interrelationships of the mesopelagic fauna.
Results are given for measurements of fat, vitamin A and carotenoids in groups of Meganyctiphanes norvegica, Thysanoessa raschii, Crangon allmani, C. vulgaris, Nephrops norvegicus and eyes of Homarus vulgaris , collected at regular intervals for a year or longer.
In both species of euphausiids vitamin A was consistently present mainly in the ester form and concentrated chiefly in the eyes. More than half the total astaxanthin was in the eyes. No other carotenoids were detected.
Astaxanthin and vitamin A were accumulated by the euphausiids more rapidly during the spring and autumn-feeding periods associated with diatom outbursts than at other seasons. There was a delay in Thysanoessa raschii , but not in Meganyctiphanes norvegica , between resumption of more rapid growth during spring and autumn and increase in concentration of vitamin A and astaxanthin. The difference was possibly due to differences in diet of the two species in relation to the seasonal biological composition of the plankton.
In the euphausiids, concentrations of vitamin A and astaxanthin were much higher in larvae and in adults over 30 mm long of M. norvegica , and in larvae and adults over 15 mm of Thysanoessa raschii , than in mature adults of Meganyctiphanes norvegica of 20–30 mm and Thysanoessa raschii of 13–15 mm, respectively. An inverse relationship between fat and vitamin A concentration was noted in both species throughout the year.
In Crangon spp. and Nephrops norvegicus there was no evidence of any seasonal variation of either vitamin A or carotenoids. Differences in the carotenoid metabolism of the two species of Crangon are discussed.
This paper represents the second and final part of a study of the depth distribution and diurnal migration of pelagic decapod crustaceans in an area of the eastern North Atlantic. Part I (Foxton, 1970) dealt with the Caridea; Part II now considers the Penaeidea. In the discussion the data as a whole are analysed and the resulting patterns of vertical distribution and migration discussed.
Planktonic, benthic and littoral Crustacea were collected from localities around the British coast, from Norwegian and Faeroese waters and from the Antarctic, and their content of preformed vitamin A and carotenoid pigments was measured.
Methods are described for the preservation of specimens, the extraction and separation of vitamin A and carotenoids and the measurement of vitamin A by chemical, physical and biological tests, and of carotenoids by physical tests.
Free-swimming euphausiids were found to contain, in addition to large quantities of astaxanthin, high concentrations of preformed vitamin A, but no β-carotene.
A new midwater trawl based on that designed by Tucker (1951) is described with details of opening and closing equipment, acoustic release gear and depth telemetering pinger. An account is given of the method used in operating the xtrawl from R.R.S. ‘Discovery’.
Vitamin A and carotenoids were measured in six species of Penaeidae and seven species of Sergestidae.
Vitamin A was present in at least one sample of all species except Gennadas borealis at concentrations mostly of the same order as previously found in other Decapoda, but usually higher in the Sergestidae than in the Penaeidae.
Carotenoids in the Penaeidae included astaxanthin and its esters, carotenes and xanthophylls, but only astaxanthin or its esters with occasional traces of xanthophylls were found in the Sergestidae.
Luminescence is very common among marine animals, and many species possess highly developed photophores or light-emitting organs. It is probable, therefore, that luminescence plays an important part in the economy of their lives. A few determinations of the spectral composition and intensity of light emitted by marine animals are available (Coblentz & Hughes, 1926; Eymers & van Schouwenburg, 1937; Clarke & Backus, 1956; Kampa & Boden, 1957; Nicol, 1957b, c, 1958a, b). More data of this kind are desirable in order to estimate the visual efficiency of luminescence, distances at which luminescence can be perceived, the contribution it makes to general back-ground illumination, etc. With such information it should be possible to discuss more profitably such biological problems as the role of luminescence in intraspecific signalling, sex recognition, swarming, and attraction or repulsion between species. As a contribution to this field I have measured the intensities of light emitted by some pelagic species of animals.
Analysis of the carotenoid pigment and lipid concentrations of groups of the smaller zooplankton organisms from different depths has suggested a midwater maximum for carotenoid concentrations and a slight depth-related increase in lipid content. Similar analysis of seventeen species of euphausiid has not indicated similar trends, but has shown a close relationship between size and pigment content in all species other than those of Stylocheiron, which have significantly lower pigment concentrations. Comparisons of the data of Fisher, Kon & Thompson (1964) on the pigment and lipid concentrations of copepods with the known depth ranges of the various species have suggested a midwater maximum in pigment concentrations, but no consistent trends in the lipid concentrations. A midwater pigment peak is explicable in terms of pigment accessibility and requirement for protective coloration, and the significance of the pigments is discussed.
Synopsis
The vertical distribution of pelagic decapods has been investigated at six positions, each located approximately at 10° interval of latitude between 11°N and 60°N in the eastern North Atlantic. An account of the day and night depth distribution of four mesopelagic species, Acanthephyra purpurea , A. pelagica , A. sexspinosa and A. acanthitelsonis , and four bathypelagic species, A. prionota , A. curtirostris , A. acutifrons and A. stylorostratis , is presented. The four mesopelagic species have vertical distributions which vary latitudinally in association with geographical gradients in temperature, the mesopelagic zone from about the latitude of 28°N cooling both polewards and equatorwards. It is concluded that environmental temperature is a major factor in controlling the vertical ranges of these species although other physical variables, principally light, must also be involved.
A faunal boundary exists in the region of 18°N, where the North Atlantic species A. purpurea and A.pelagica are replaced by the Central and South Atlantic species A. sexspinosa and A. acanthitelsonis. The nature of the physical boundary is not clear, but it is tentatively proposed that it represents a relatively broad area where the North Atlantic Central Water and South Atlantic Central Water meet.
Total fat, carotenoids, and vitamin A were determined physicochemically in sixty-nine species and fifteen generic groups of pelagic marine copepods.
Vitamin A was definitely present in Euchirella curticauda and Gaetanus kruppi and possibly so in Gaetanus pileatus and in a sample of Gaetanus spp. No vitamin A activity for vitamin A-depleted rats was found in fractions from a lipid extract of 1854 g of Calanus finmarchicus .
The significance of these findings is considered in relation to the high vitamin A reserves in many fish preying upon pelagic copepods.
These abundant Antarctic crustaceans were assayed for proximate composition by standard AOAC methods. Constituent fatty acids were determined by vapor phase chromatography; 19 amino acids were estimated by column chromatography, while cystine and tryptophan were assayed microbiologically. Munida contained 38% fat, with C16 and C18 acids predominating. The protein content of Euphausia, calculated from amino nitrogen determinations, was 37.8%. The amino acid composition of Euphausia resembles that of shrimp meat, though the protein of the former seems to be somewhat richer in phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine. Euphausids can be ground into a fine powder having pleasant organoleptic properties and nutritive values comparable with shrimp.
The carotenoid pigments of the hepatopancreas, ovaries and epidermis of Carcinus maenas were investigated. The following pigments were identified: β-carotene, δ-carotene, echinenone, isocryptoxanthin, canthaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, flavoxanthin and astacene.
The relative abundance of these pigments in the three tissues and the presence of possible hydroxy and keto intermediates suggest the metabolism of astaxanthin from β-carotene. The metabolic pathway in Carcinus is discussed in relation to recent studies on other invertebrates.
Analysis of 3 species of planktonic decapod, Acanthephyra, Gennadas and Sergestes from the Gulf of Aden suggested relatively high protein (∼60%); 2–3% carbohydrate; 12–29% lipid and 17–19% ash—all values % dry wt. Results are compared with earlier biochemical analyses of zooplankton.
1.1. Concentrations on the hemolymph lipids of Cancer magister were determined. Total hemolymph lipid concentrations ranged from 14·9 to 94·0 mg% and were highest in females with developing ovaries. The phosphatides, phosphatidyl ethanolamine and phosphatidyl choline, made up 65–82 per cent of the total hemolymph lipids. The concentrations in the hemolymph of seven neutral lipid classes were measured.2.2. The fatty acid composition of the triglyceride, diglyceride, free fatty acid and phosphatide fractions of the hemolymph were analyzed.3.3. Two lipoproteins were present in the hemolymph of male and sexually immature female specimens. An additional lipoprotein appeared in the hemolymph o of females undergoing vitellogenesis.4.4. Data are provided on the lipid class composition of tissues of male and female C. magister.5.5. The labeling pattern of tissue and hemolymph lipid classes following oral administration of 1-14C-palmitate to male and female C. magister is described and discussed.
1.1. The following caratenoids were isolated and identified from Emerita analoga: α-carotene, β-carotene, echinenone, canthaxanthin, zeaxanthin, diatoxanthin, alloxanthin and astaxanthin.2.2. The relative abundance and concentration of carotenoids in monthly samples of adults, carapace, ovaries, eggs and blood was measured.3.3. Incorporation of 14C-labelled carotenoids of the alga Ulva into Emerita provides evidence for the metabolism of ketocarotenoids from ingested β-carotene by a decapod crustacean.4.4. An orange carotenoprotein was found in ovaries, eggs and blood.5.5. There was no evidence for the utilization of carotenoids during egg development.6.6. The possible role of carotenoids in reproduction of Emerita is discussed.
IntroductionReview of ProceduresCriticism of MicromethodsRecommended Methods
1. Changes in chemical composition and caloric content as well as the cumulative efficiencies of yolk utilization have been studied in the developing eggs and freshly hatched protozoea of the shrimpCrangon crangon L.
2. Per unit dry weight of the fresh egg the following relative increases were observed during the development: 16.8% water, 5.9% ash, 10.6% protein, and 0.5% non-protein nitrogen. During the same period (fresh egg to freshly hatched protozoea) fat content decreased from 32.6% to 15.6% and energy content from 6443 to 5287 cal/g dry organic substance.
3. The cumulative efficiencies of yolk utilization for the different constituents varied; they were 70.3% for dry weight, 54.0% for total energy, 83.0% for protein, and 33.6% for fat.
4. Of the 0.0453 cal expended on the metabolic processes of the embryo, only 20.8% was drawn from the oxidation of protein, while fat oxidation contributed as much as 75.0%.
5. Considerable quantities of inorganic salts (0.29µg/egg) were absorbed from the surrounding sea-water by the egg during its development.
1. Chemical composition and caloric content of egg and zoea of the hermit crabEupagurus bernhardus have been determined and the cumulative efficiencies of yolk utilization calculated.2. The cumulative efficiencies of yolk utilization for different constituents were 70.0%, 55.3%, 79.4% or 35.0% for dry weight, caloric content, protein or fat.3. Since the efficiencies with which the different constituents of yolk utilized vary, the chemical composition of the developing eggs undergoes considerable changes. While fat and caloric content showed remarkable decreases, water, ash and protein contents of the eggs increased.4. Of 0.0722 cal expended on metabolic processes of the embryo, only 28.4% was drawn from the oxidation of protein, while fat contributed as much as 66.6%.5. Considerable quantities of inorganic salts (0.77g/egg) are absorbed from the sea-water by the developing egg.Im Laufe der vollstndigen Eientwicklung findet eine Zunahme von Wasser um 31,5%, Asche um 5,7%, Eiwei um 8,8% und Nicht-Eiwei-Stickstoff um 0,2% statt. In der gleichen Zeit sinkt der Fettgehalt von 29,5% auf 14,8% und der Energiegehalt von 6292 auf 5282 cal/g organischer Substanz. Der Kumulativ-Nutzeffekt der Entwicklung von einem Ei zur Zoea-Larve betrgt 70,0%, 55,3%, 79,4% bzw. 35,0% bezogen auf Trockengewicht, Kaloriengehalt, Eiwei bzw. Fett. Von den 0,0722 cal, die sich auf den Stoffwechsel der gesamten Entwicklung eines Eies beziehen, werden nur 28,4% aus Eiwei gewonnen; 66,6% werden durch Oxydation von Fett beigetragen.