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THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL (2003): Regulation no. 1830/2003: Regulation (EC)No. 1830/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 concerning the traceability and labelling of genetically modified organisms and the traceability of food and feed products produced from genetically modified organisms and amending Directive 2001/18/EC
... According to the Directive no. 18/2001/ECA [10], food based on GMOs must be labeled as a food containing genes, proteins or foreign DNA, or as food in which new genes have been removed by processing technology, but showing some compositional changes such that they cannot be considered natural food. ...
... Food containing GMOs raise wider socio-cultural and ethical issues at national and international levels [10,22] and the legislation in this area must take into account multiple policy objectives that may sometimes be conflicting; to protect the environment and biological diversity against the irreversible side effects of biotechnology; to protect the various cultural and religious traditions of food production and consumption; optimizing the biotechnological potential for improving food supply and their nutritional quality; and ensuring a fair social distribution of the benefits and biotech risks among farmers on global food markets [23]. ...
... The need to enforce such legislation is at the core of this research, which seeks to ensure that GM products are differentiated on the market, given that the legal limit of 0.9% has been established for food and feed products labelling, with respect to the accidental presence of approved GMPs [10,22]. ...
The aim of this paper is to trace genetically modified soybean in food and feed products present on the Romanian market by using molecular extraction, identification and quantification methodologies. Nine samples (3 food samples, 5 soybean samples and 1 soybean meal) were analysed using the classical and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. DNA-genetically modified organism (GMO) was not detected in two of the three analysed samples (food products). However, it could be found in four samples ranging below the limit of 0.9%, and in three samples, above the limit of 0.9%. The results obtained through real-time PCR quantification show that DNA-RRS was detectable in different amounts in different samples: ranging between 0.27% and 9.36% in soy beans, and reaching 50.98% in soybean meal. The current research focuses on how products containing GMO above the limit (it is common knowledge that it is necessary to label the products containing more than 0.9% Genetically Modified DNA) are differentiated on the market with a view to labeling food and feed products in terms of the accidental presence of approved genetically modified plants. The benefits brought by genetic engineering in obtaining genetically modified organisms can be balanced with their public acceptance and with certain known or unknown risks that they can bring.
... EU regulations demand both actively and implicitly (e.g. European Commision, 2003;European Union, 2001, 2003a, 2003b) the need of science-based measures on co-existence between GM and non-GM crops. Numerous studies have been performed on this matter (e.g. ...
... EU regulations demand both actively and implicitly (e.g. European Commision, 2003;European Union, 2001, 2003a, 2003b) the need of science-based measures on co-existence between GM and non-GM crops. Numerous studies have been performed on this matter (e.g. ...
The coexistence between GM and non-GM crops is still a major goal of the EU policy. However, in some member states, like Spain, national coexistence strategy is still lacking and regional attempts to regulate this issue have been unfruitful. A previous field study in Mediterranean insular conditions suggested that an isolation distance of 30 m between GM and non-GM maize fields might be sufficient to keep the adventitious presence below the EU threshold of 0.9% (see Vives-Vallés contribution in this congress). Nevertheless, this isolation distance was obtained in an experimental design where cross-fertilization was favored in terms of the synchrony of flowering between GM and non-GM fields. In view of this, we are currently undertaking a field trial to study the effect of flowering de-synchrony on cross-fertilization between MON810 GM and non-GM maize in Mallorca. In particular, our aim is to determine whether the delay in flowering might be an effective strategy to improve coexistence. We expect that the results of this study will be useful for a future regulation on coexistence based on the best scientific data.
... The European Union made the legislation to ensure the safety of feed and food before the placing on the market of any GMO, in which the labelling of food products sold in EU market made with GMO is mandatory (EU, 2001 [4]; EU, 2003 [5]; EU, 2003 [6]; EU, 2009 [7]; EU, 2011 [8]; EU, 2015 [9]). ...
... The methodology of this study followed all European Union, European Committee for Standardization and Romanian competent authorities' recommendations in the field of GMOs testing (EU, 2001 [4]; EU, 2003 [5]; EU, 2003 [6]; EU, 2009 [7]; EU, 2011 [8]; EU, 2015 [9]; EN/TS, 2006 [17]; ISO, 2006 [18]). ...
The paper describes the diagnostic methods used in Romania to detect the genetically modified organisms in soy feed and food and the results recorded between 2013 and 2019. The retrospective analyses of surveillance and diagnostic methods (qualitative and quantitative PCR techniques) developed for the genetically modified organisms detection in soy feed and food and of the transgenic Roundup Ready soybean line event 40-3-2 in Romania covered a total of 687 tests between 2013 and 2019 and revealed 32/131 GM events in 2013, 25/142 GM events in 2014, 24/117 GM events in 2015, 16/115 GM events in 2016, 6/97 GM events in 2017, 8/53 GM events in 2018, and 2/32 GM events in 2019.
... Establishment of tracking and tracing tools for the transgene insertion is an essential part of the deregulation process. Detection methods for GM identification and quantification, are not only important to ensure legality and traceability, but also to comply with GM labeling regulations (European Parliament, 2003). ...
... Development of detection techniques for new transgenic events are a prerequisite to comply with traceability and labeling requirement of GM plants for commercial realize (European Parliament, 2003) and in the management of co-existence frameworks in agricultural production systems (Putnam et al., 2016;Smith and Spangenberg, 2016). Therefore, development and validation of techniques capable of detecting, and quantifying the presence of GM forage crops at the farm gate, the processor, and the retailer level are necessary. ...
Implementation of molecular biotechnology, such as transgenic technologies, in forage species can improve agricultural profitability through achievement of higher productivity, better use of resources such as soil nutrients, water, or light, and reduced environmental impact. Development of detection and quantification techniques for genetically modified plants are necessary to comply with traceability and labeling requirements prior to regulatory approval for release. Real-time PCR has been the standard method used for detection and quantification of genetically modified events, and droplet digital PCR is a recent alternative technology that offers a higher accuracy. Evaluation of both technologies was performed using a transgenic high-energy forage grass as a case study. Two methods for detection and quantification of the transgenic cassette, containing modified fructan biosynthesis genes, and a selectable marker gene, hygromycin B phosphotransferase used for transformation, were developed. Real-time PCR was assessed using two detection techniques, SYBR Green I and fluorescent probe-based methods. A range of different agricultural commodities were tested including fresh leaves, tillers, seeds, pollen, silage and hay, simulating a broad range of processed agricultural commodities that are relevant in the commercial use of genetically modified pastures. The real-time and droplet digital PCR methods were able to detect both exogenous constructs in all agricultural products. However, a higher sensitivity and repeatability in transgene detection was observed with the droplet digital PCR technology. Taking these results more broadly, it can be concluded that the droplet digital PCR technology provides the necessary resolution for quantitative analysis and detection, allowing absolute quantification of the target sequence at the required limits of detection across all jurisdictions globally. The information presented here provides guidance and resources for pasture-based biotechnology applications that are required to comply with traceability requirements.
... Moreover, mislabeling may affect the eating habits of certain groups of consumers, such as abstinence on religious grounds or specific lifestyle choices such as vegetarianism. In order to fight against adulteration and the misbranding of food products, many regulations are currently enforced [3][4][5][6][7][8][9], outlining the requirement for complete and truthful information about food products that are being traded. ...
... More than 40 countries have recently adopted labeling regulations regarding GM food [127]. For instance, EU regulation mandates labeling of food and feed containing a 0.9% threshold for GM ingredients [4]. In the USA, although the FDA has refused to require labeling of GM foods since 1992, the development of a GM food labeling legislation is being reconsidered due to recent decisions by some food companies to require the labeling of all GMO products sold in its stores and to the development of GM animals for consumption [128]. ...
Unlabelled:
Consumers have the right to know what is in the food they are eating. Accordingly, European and global food regulations require that the provenance of the food can be guaranteed from farm to fork. Many different instrumental techniques have been proposed for food authentication. Although traditional methods are still being used, new approaches such as genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics are helping to complement existing methodologies for verifying the claims made about certain food products. During the last decade, proteomics (the large-scale analysis of proteins in a particular biological system at a particular time) has been applied to different research areas within food technology. Since proteins can be used as markers for many properties of a food, even indicating processes to which the food has been subjected, they can provide further evidence of the foods labeling claim. This review is a comprehensive and updated overview of the applications, drawbacks, advantages, and challenges of proteomics for food authentication in the assessment of the foods compliance with labeling regulations and policies.
Significance:
This review paper provides a comprehensive and critical overview of the application of proteomics approaches to determine the authenticity of several food products updating the performances and current limitations of the applied techniques in both laboratory and industrial environments.
... In Europe, EC General Food Law Regulation 178/2002 (European Commission, 2002 ), applied since 2005 and followed by further modifications concerning specific matters as for instance GMO (European Commission, 2003a, 2003b ), allergens (European Commission, 2003c), food hygiene (European Commission, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c), requires the establishment of a traceability system for all food products. The General Law clearly states that the detail of traceability is to be extended also to each ingredient of the food, defining traceability as " the ability to trace and follow a food, feed, foodproducing animal or substance intended to be, or expected to be incorporated into a food or feed, through all stages of production, processing and distribution. ...
... The composition-distance measures the difference of two products in terms of percentage content of supply-lots (raw materials), thus leading to a formal definition of homogeneity: two portions of product can be considered as homogeneous (and hence part of a single lot) if their composition-distance is less than a given quantisation level. This approach is in accordance with the current regulation for the management and traceability of genetically modified (GM) products (European Commission, 2003a, 2003b), which states that a product can be labelled as GM-free if its percentage of GM content is less than 0.9%. The management of homogeneous lots of products (referred to as cohorts) and of their flow inside the production line is then governed by means of compartmental models. ...
In recent years, traceability aspects have become recognised as an essential tool for guaranteeing food safety and food quality. On the other hand, the design of a traceability system requires a thorough rethinking and reorganising of the whole food supply chain. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review on the aspects of supply chain management that are influenced by traceability, which is herein considered fully integrated in the chain management and not kept separately. The objective of the paper is twofold: the first goal is to analyse how traceability concepts , requirements and technologies influence modern supply chain management and are handled by the ensuing optimisation principles. This analysis is based on an in-depth scrutiny of the state of the art, and it is supported by precise pointers to the literature on the subject. The second goal is to highlight what could be, in the authors' opinion, the future trends and perspectives in this field of research.
... This step was carried out in a way which would be expected to be performed by an applicant under Reg. (EC) No 1829/2003(European Parliament and Council, 2003 following the ENGL guidance document to demonstrate that defined method performance requirements are met. Although performance requirements tailored for the peculiarities of dPCR methods are still under elaboration and have not been published at the time of designing this study, the applicable metrics for real time PCR methods (ENGL, 2015) currently in force have been considered together with parameters which could be derived from other published literature, ENGL recommendations (Pecoraro et al., 2019) and an ISO standard (ISO, 2019a). ...
The authorisation of genetically modified food and feed in the EU is subject to the provision of evidence of safety and of the availability of reliable analytical methods. These methods represent an essential tool for official laboratories to enforce a harmonised market control.
Here the validation of droplet digital PCR (dPCR) methods has been performed for studying if the performance and acceptance parameters set by EU and other international guidelines for the analysis of genetically modified organisms (GMO) in food and feed are suitable and achievable also with such methods. The single-laboratory validation study showed that performance requirements set for GMO analysis by real time PCR can also be used to assess dPCR-based methods. Moreover, trueness and precision were assessed for both simplex and duplex formats in a multi-laboratory validation study organised according to international standards. Overall, the data on trueness, repeatability and reproducibility precision resulting from the collaborative study are satisfying the acceptance criteria for the respective parameters as stipulated in the EU and other international guidance such as the Codex Committee on Methods of Analysis and Sampling (CCMAS). For instance, the duplex droplet dPCR method for MON810 showed relative repeatability standard deviations from 1.8% to 15.7%, while the relative reproducibility standard deviation was found to be between 2.1% and 16.5% over the dynamic range studied. Moreover, the relative bias of the dPCR methods was well below 25% across the entire dynamic range.
In addition, other aspects supporting the application of digital PCR for the control of GMOs on the market were experimentally assessed such as the conversion of the measurement results from copy number ratio to mass fraction, the influence of the DNA extraction step and of the ingredient content. It was found that the DNA extraction step added only a limited contribution to the variability of the measurement results under the studied conditions. The decreasing amount of the target ingredient content may decrease the level of precision of the method, although within the acceptance range of GMO performance parameters.
... Complete biosafety or no risk is unachievable through risk assessment and management strategies. Bock (2005) suggests few risk management strategies regarding GM crops, which primarily include confinement strategies (permitting GM crops to be grown in protected greenhouses only), restricted use (restricting GM crops to certain geographical areas), monitoring following experimental/commercial release or monitoring GM food to identify predicted or unforeseen effects, adherence to guidelines and technical support (e.g., introduction of refuge areas to minimize resistance development of pests or advice for good agricultural practices such as crop rotation and weed control to avoid weediness of GM crops and GM volunteer plants), and record keeping [as foreseen in Regulation (EC) 1830/2003 on traceability of GM crops and food] (European Parliament and Council, 2003a). Male sterility, if introduced in GM cultivars, shall be an added advantage. ...
The biotechnological tools promise the delivery of genes or genomic fragments across the species, leading to the development of transgenic/ genetically modified organisms with unique and economically important traits. Since the achievements from technological advances run parallel with the intrinsic risks and with exponential growth of the technological power, as evidenced from the transgenesis strategies such as CRISPR/Cas9, the responsibilities of the scientific community also raise. The initial part of this chapter details the various risks associated with genetic modification, its assessment and management. Subsequently, the biosafety and bioregulatory mechanisms with respect to genetic modified (GM) crops in India, including the Acts and Rules, agencies involved, roles played by the statutory bodies, laboratory, greenhouse and field trials for GM crops and their Standard Operating Procedures and conditions for large scale seed production and environmental release of the crops, are discussed. This chapter also examines the bioregulatory mechanisms and biosafety protocols followed by the major global players in this area, the United States of America, European Union and Canada.
... However, in the great majority of cases, lots of bulk products are somehow mixed and/or they make use of the same facilities and plants, and are therefore naturally subject to thresholds. As an example, even the differentiation between non-GM from GM grains, which has important economical and ethical implications, is formally established and verified using a threshold where, in detail, EC Regulation No 1829/2003 (European Commission, 2003) for genetic modified (GM) and non-GM grains labelling guarantee that any food containing material that contains more than 0.9% of GM would be labelled as " contains GM " . The problem of the traceability of fluid products has been first addressed as fuzzy traceability by Skoglund and Dejmek (2007) where dynamic simulation of continuous processing is used to model the changeover of lots of liquid product, in a pipe. ...
Even though the main EU regulations concerning food traceability have already entered to force since many years, we still remark very wide and impacting product recalls, which often involve simultaneously large territories and many countries. This is a clear sign that current traceability procedures and systems, when implemented with the only aim of respecting mandatory policies, are not effective, and that there are some aspects that are at present underestimated, and therefore should be attentively reconsidered. In particular, the sole adoption of the so-called “one step back-one step forward traceability” to comply the EC Regulation 178/2002, where every actor in the chain handles merely the data coming from his supplier and those sent to his client, is in fact not sufficient to control and to limit the impact of a recall action after a risk notification. Recent studies on lots dispersion and routing demonstrate that each stakeholder has to plan his activities (production, transformation or distribution) according to specific criteria that allow pre-emptively estimating and limiting the range action of a possible recall. Moreover, these new and very recently proposed techniques still present some limits; first of all the problem of traceability of bulk products (e.g. liquids, powders, grains, crystals) during production phases that involve mixing operations of several lots of different/same materials. In fact, current traceability practices are in most cases unable to deal efficiently with this kind of products, and, in order to compensate the lack of knowledge about lot composition, typically resort to the adoption of very large lots, based for instance on a considered production period. Aim of this paper is to present recent advances in the design of supply chain traceability systems, discussing problems that are still open and are nowadays subject of research.
... not genetically modified) of Nicotiana glauca. The European Union (EU) has elaborated a legislation for genetically modified (GM) food control, which establishes both the legal basis for the approval procedure of GMOs and the post market traceability and labelling requirements for GMOs and GMO-derived food and feeds [55], [56]. In this perspective, the application of biosensors to real matrices analysis for GMOs detection has been successfully attempted, as well as the monitoring of the GM soya food processing (from seed to end product) in a pilot plan where the presence of target sequences in soya was followed over steps [57]. ...
In this paper real-time, label free sensing principle based on Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) and gravimetric, i.e. Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) are described and some applications to food analysis problems are reported. Affinity receptors are introduced and examples using antibodies, nucleic acid probes and biomimetic receptors i.e. molecular imprinted polymers (MIP) reported. In particualr pesticide, endotoxins, pathogens, Genetically Modified Organism (GMOs) detection and food origin analysis are reviewed.
... Therefore, how to build demonstration application features and networking with industry characteristics is critical to the success of the promotion of networking applications. Food safety traceability plays an irreplaceable role in people's health and social stability and development [11]. It is an important measure of food safety risk management and an effective technology to control the whole supply chain. ...
In order to improve the mutton traceability efficiency for Internet of Things and solve the problem of data transmission, analyzed existing tracking algorithm, proposed the food traceability application model, Petri network model of food traceability and food traceability of time series data of improved K-means algorithm based on the Internet of things. The food traceability application model to convert, integrate and mine the heterogeneous information, implementation of the food safety traceability information management, Petri network model for food traceability in the process of the state transition were analyzed and simulated and provides a theoretical basis to study the behavior described in the food traceability system and structural design. The experiments on simulation data show that the proposed traceability method based on Internet of Things is more effective for mutton traceability data than the traditional K-means methods.
Many developments in the bioeconomy depend on the use of genetically modified microorganisms (GMMs). GMMs are used in bioreactors to convert biomass into food, feed, and energy products. The recent judgment by the Court of Justice of the European Union on gene editing technologies has affected the use of GMMs. A heated debate has started on whether and under what circumstances GMMs should be considered genetically modified organisms. This kind of decision is extremely relevant, as it will have a strong effect on the innovation of sustainable supply chains in the bioeconomy. The question has been raised as to whether the regulatory policies on GMMs can be justified from a sustainability perspective and, in particular, whether they do not endanger the European Green Deal, the flagship policy strategy of the new European Commission under Ursula von der Leyen. This contribution will first provide an overview of GMMs and their importance for the development of the bioeconomy, followed by a theoretical framework for assessing investments in GMMs. The third part of the article includes a discussion of four scenarios for regulating GMMs in the future, derived from the EU legal environment. The potential implications of the scenarios are assessed by linking them with the benefits and costs of investments in GMMs, following a modified version of the model presented in Purnhagen and Wesseler (2019). The results show that reforms based on the current EU legal environment do not look very promising to further support the use of GMMs. This has important implications for reaching the objectives of the Green Deal, as more radical legal changes are needed for the success of the initiative.
Many argue that consumers possess a “right to know” when products contain ingredients derived from genetically modified organisms, on the grounds that it would protect consumer autonomy. In this paper, I critically evaluate that claim. I begin by providing a version of the “consumer autonomy” argument, showing that its success relies on ambiguities in the notion of autonomy. I then distinguish four approaches to autonomy and articulate the circumstances under which they would support active disclosure of a product property. I argue that none of these conceptions would support active disclosure of the presence of ingredients derived from genetically modified organisms.
This chapter concerns the evolution of food traceability matters in the current market of traditional foods and beverages. At present, traceability is only one of the many requirements food industries are forced to comply with. These challenges are: microbiological failures affecting food safety; chemical and physical contaminants into food products; other product-related (intrinsic) menaces against food safety, in terms of consumers’ health; the demonstrable evidence of risk assessment in terms of clear and reliable documentation concerning safety, integrity, and legal designation of food and beverage products; and the evidence of continuous improvement by means of clear standard operative procedures, good manufacturing practices, and the execution of corrective/preventive actions against unavoidable food-related failures. The intrinsic connection between ‘evidence’ or ‘demonstration’ on the one side and the existence of documentations able to trace the production of foods and beverages on the other side should be established. This topic can be discussed by different viewpoints: the regulatory angle; technological perspectives; mathematical theories (networks, hubs, and nodes); and the opinion of food consumers. In addition, traceable food products may be also an interesting legacy for many geographical and ethnic cultures.
To evaluate DNA fragmentation and GMO quantification during soya bean protein concentrate and isolate preparation, genetically modified soya bean event GTS 40-3-2 (Roundup Ready TM soya bean, RRS) was blended with conventional soya beans at mass percentages of 0.9%, 2%, 3%, 5% and 10%. Qualitative PCR and real-time PCR were used to monitor the taxon-specific lectin and exogenous cp4 epsps target levels in all of the main products and by-products, which has practical significance for RRS labelling threshold and traceability. Along the preparation chain, the majority of DNA was distributed in main products, and the DNA degradation was noticed. From a holistic perspective, the lectin target degraded more than cp4 epsps target during both of the two soya bean proteins preparations. Therefore, the transgenic contents in the final protein products were higher than the actual mass percentages of RRS in raw materials. Our results are beneficial to the improvement of GMO labelling legislation and the protection of consumer rights.
Since ancient times, honey has been consumed for its health benefits and nutritional value, and it has been used as an adjuvant in pharmaceutical formulations. This chapter discusses types of honey, the chemical composition of honey, the extraction and separation of honey protein, and the authentication of honey protein using proteomics. Honey can be classified in different ways depending on its production and/or presentation and its botanical and geographical origin. Honey is mainly composed of water and sugars. Honey also contains some important constituents such as vitamins, minerals, enzymes, flavors, free amino acids, and proteins; various volatile compounds are also present in trace amounts. Proteome technology has become the method of choice in the authentication of food products such as honey and wine. Liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry is used as a powerful tool for the identification and structural characterization of proteins and peptides in food products such as honey and wine.
Proteins and amino acids are minor constituents of wine and most wine proteins are in the range of 20–30 kDa. Proteins and amino acids make a significant contribution to the quality of wine, since they affect its taste, clarity, and stability. The proteomic technique is defined as the large-scale analysis of proteins and amino acids in a particular biological system at a particular time. The use of proteomics in wine authentication has opened up new opportunities to assess the entire grape-growing and wine-making process from a more holistic perspective to ensure wine quality. Mass spectrometry plays a very important role in the authentication of wine, owing to this technique’s analytical power in tracing and detecting molecular compounds such as amino acids, and aroma and polyphenolic compounds. Wine screening using targeted and non-targeted nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy has become the first method to be routinely applied in the field of alcoholic beverages.
This study evaluated the effect of reduced dietary energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) levels along with inclusion of a phytogenic feed additive (PFA) on gut microbiota composition and gene expression of Toll-like receptor(s) (TLR), tight junction proteins, and inflammatory cytokines expressed in secondary lymphoid organs. Depending on dietary ME and CP level down regulation and the inclusion or not of PFA at 125 mg/kg diet, 450 one-day-old male broilers were allocated in the following 6 treatments for 42 D according to a 3 × 2 factorial design: A: diet formulated optimally to meet broiler nutrient requirements; APh: A+PFA; B: suboptimal in ME and CP levels by 3%; BPh: B+PFA; C: suboptimal in ME and CP levels by 6%; CPh: C+PFA. Diet type and PFA supplementation were shown to affect mostly the mucosa-associated microbiota compared to the luminal ones. Ileal mucosa-associated total bacteria (PD= 0.005), Lactobacillus spp. (PD= 0.003), and Clostridium cluster XIVa (PD= 0.009) were affected by diet type with broilers fed diet B having lower levels compared to broilers fed diets A or C. Moreover, diet type affected cecal mucosa-associated Lactobacillus spp. (PD= 0.002) with broilers fed diet C having lower levels compared to broilers fed diets A or B. Supplementation with PFA resulted in higher levels of cecal mucosa-associated Bacteroides (PP= 0.031), Clostridium cluster IV (PP= 0.007), and Clostridium cluster XIVa (PP= 0.039). Diet type affected TLR2 (PD= 0.046) and claudin 5 (PD= 0.027) in cecal epithelium. Lower TLR2 (PP= 0.021) and higher zonula occludens 2 (PP= 0.031) relative gene expressions were seen in ileal epithelium following PFA supplementation. Moreover, in cecal epithelium, PFA supplementation resulted in lower TLR2 (PP < 0.001) and higher zonula occludens 2 (PP= 0.009), claudin 5 (PP= 0.005) and occludin (PP= 0.039) relative gene expressions. There were no significant diet type and PFA effects on cytokines in secondary lymphoid organs, except for a dietary effect on transforming growth factor beta 4 (PD= 0.023) in cecal tonsils. In conclusion, PFA inclusion beneficially modulated elements of gut microbiota, Toll-like signaling molecules and gut tight junction genes.
Over the past decade, the increasingly consumer demand for low-fat food products influenced by many health-related concerns has led modern food industry to research healthier products in order to reduce the amount of fat, salt and additives. Dairy manufacturers have answered with the development of cheese alternatives. Even not being harmful to health, these alternatives may give a lower nutritional benefit due to the reduction of calcium content and may contain different artificial flavours and colours. Therefore, many strategies have been proposed to improve low-fat cheeses such as making process modification and the use of fat replacers with the main objective of obtaining a reduction in the caloric value. At present, there are on the market both cheese substitutes and imitation products which can now unanimously be defined as products which clearly imitate cheese produced from milk by means of the partial or total substitution of milk components with non-dairy ingredients. The main advantages of these cheese types are related to the price and shelf-life values. Since many inexpensive ingredients can be used in its production, it is typically more interesting to manufacture these foods than traditional cheeses; the above-mentioned cheapness makes them attractive to food business operators. The European Legislator is aware that some products obtained from mixtures of dairy ingredients and some fats or protein matters from other sources are marketed as ‘cheese analogues’. Consequently, he has restricted the use of the designation ‘cheese’ to products which are manufactured from milk and from milk products and where milk ingredients are not replaced by a constituent not occurring naturally in milk. For this and other reasons, the traceability of similar foods is critical at present. The aim of this chapter is to give a description of these products from the European regulatory viewpoint.
The role of food traceability systems is critical because of required high standards for foods and beverages. With relation to the industry of cheeses, traceability tools have to take into account the existing regulatory framework, and the European Union has provided a significant contribution in this ambit concerning cheese products and dedicated food-contact materials for cheeses. The aim of this chapter is to provide a detailed overview of the current European regulatory framework. The approach to the European food legislation, regulated on multiple levels, seems to be very intricate because of the enormous amount of technical and very detailed provisions. This legislation can be analysed on two different levels. The first level concerns powers for public authorities and consequently the power of implementing and enforcing food law (information and risk communication, scientific risk assessment and emergency measures). The second one regards the requirements for food business operators. These requirements can be grouped into three different sub-categories: legislation concerning the product, legislation concerning the process (including withdrawal and recall procedures) and legislation with relation to the presentation of food products (labelling, publicity, risk communication). The last point is essential for the final consumer. The above-mentioned requirements, listed in the Regulation (CE) No 178/2002 (the backbone of the whole food security discipline in the EU), are critically discussed with concern to different topics: protection of consumers’ health, alerts at the European level, labelling requirements and traceability.
At present, the problem of traceability in food industries is one of the most important and emerging factors with notable influence on the management of food business operators. The sector of cheese products is an interesting example. However, there are ‘cheeses’—obtained from milk, salt, rennet and some minor additive(s)—on the one hand, and different products: ‘processed cheeses’ and ‘analogue cheeses’ or ‘imitation cheeses’ on the other side. The world of processed or melted cheeses is different enough from the sector of cheeses made from milk; however, new emergencies concerning food frauds and authenticity issues, or the undeclared presence of allowed additives with some specific food allergenic reaction, are observed in this ambit. In addition, the declared claims concerning ‘low sugar contents’, ‘low cholesterol amounts’, other health statements, etc., should be discussed in this area. The transformation of raw materials towards the final product(s) determines a complication in the traceability if compared to cheese obtained from milk (or curd). Moreover, durable products such as processed and analogue cheeses can remain on the market for extended period times, thus enhancing the temporal need of traceability data. The flow of input information has to be analysed, raw material per raw material; the same thing is true when speaking of output information concerning final products and by-products (sometimes defined as ‘off-line’ products). Generally, more than one processing food business operators are involved in the global process. The aim of this chapter is to describe in practice the complex operations—named jointly ‘traceability’—in this ambit by means of a software product—the ExTra tool—with reference to two simulated productions: a processed cheese and a general imitation cheese.
This chapter is explicitly dedicated to a particular and multi-faceted category of entering raw materials (input data) for the production of processed cheeses and cheese imitation products. The entering information in a traceability (tracking and tracing) system for these products has to concern many possible ingredients, including food additives. Different chemicals may be added with various functions when speaking of processed cheeses, but the production of analogue cheeses appears more interesting. In general, the classification of food additives takes into account the particular function(s) these compounds are expected to perform during the production and in the subsequent steps. Moreover, the proposed use of these compounds has to be declared on food labels. At the same time, traceability has to take these information—specific for each possible additive—into account. The aim of this chapter is to describe the complex operations—named joint ‘traceability’—with exclusive concern to ‘minor’ ingredients (food additives) by means of a software product: the ExTra tool. Discussed simulated products are a processed cheese and a general imitation cheese.
The liberalisation of the European Union food market and the globalisation have increased the need of safety guarantees in the area of food safety. Consumers demand enhanced safety and hygiene assurance. Transparency, product quality and safety along the dairy supply chain could be reached by the application of specific standards and proper mechanisms such as traceability tools. The role of traceability is critical in supply chain management. With peculiar reference to the milk and dairy sector, Europe has a leading position in this area. The essential segments of each dairy supply chain can be easily identified, including dairy farms, dairy processing companies, wholesalers, retailers and the final consumers. With relation to the traceability of cheese products only, a joint work of the interested food business operators is implicit. In some situations, the system may have a ‘chain leader’ coordinating the whole food supply chain; alternatively, different food business operators may cooperate without a leading subject. It has to be noted that information technology-assisted software may be helpful in the management of similar systems. In addition, the authenticity of raw materials may be assessed at the analytical level. Finally, the role of some national institutions should be considered when speaking of traceability: the Italian example (mandatory declaration of milk origin on cheese labels) is discussed.
The globalisation in the food industries contest requires more and more guarantees in order to protect consumers. Under these conditions, a good food traceability system can help to compensate for this loss of control minimising the production and the distribution of unsafe quality products as well as improving consumer confidence. The management of food product traceability depends on different factors. One of these factors is the consumer demand, which reflects the public need of food safety and security. In order to comply with this need, consumers must be reassured not only with concern to the origin of products and their traceability, but also on contaminants, which can be added to foodstuff. Because of the nature of contaminants and of the predictable negative impact on food quality and safety, the European Union has introduced a number of provisions to reduce these phenomena. For these reasons, this chapter is particularly focused on food-contact materials and the need of a mandatory traceability related to these materials. This analysis is performed from the European viewpoint, taking into account the existing regulatory and related provisions. Anyway, traceability of food contact materials is mandatory exactly as the same traceability for food products—including cheeses—and related ingredients. Because of the synergic food/packaging interaction in the ‘packaged food’ item, the same requirement is needed when speaking of edible ingredients and food contact materials at the same time.
The world of food-contact materials and objects is continually evolving at present because of different exigencies that could be defined ‘needs’, including extended shelf-life values, marketing targets and other minor factors. The role of these materials as accessory ingredients of a specific food product is no longer accepted, and the European Union has recently issued the (EC) Regulation No 1935/2004 in this ambit with concern to specific traceability systems and procedures for food-contact materials. As a result, the problem of traceability in food industries concerns food ingredients, additives and other substances that should be defined ‘edible’ and food packaging materials on the other hand. This innovation has an important impact on the management of food business operators, including non-food industries producing articles for the food industry. Traceability is one of the main pillars of the modern food safety strategy worldwide. In addition, because of the complexity of different food sectors and sub-sectors, foods and beverages cannot be managed in the same way when speaking of processed meats, eggs, seafood products, cheeses and so on. As a result, the matter is new enough and should be discussed critically, and the ambit of cheese products is interesting. With concern to packaged cheese products, the aim of this chapter is to describe in practice the complex operations—named jointly ‘traceability’—related to food-contact materials used. Three case studies are evaluated in this ambit, with concern to different cheeses and food packaging materials. The flow of input and output information is critically discussed and analysed when speaking of information complexity.
Food additives are substances deliberately added to food to fulfil specific technological functions. The use of additives in the modern food industries cannot be avoided in many ambits. Food production on a large scale is very different from the manufacturing on a small scale; the urgency of new industrial food production techniques has necessarily increased with the aim of developing many different kinds of food additives. Most of these additives solve a fundamental technological function, which actually improves product quality; others additives, as dyes and coating agents, are used to make the product more attractive for consumers. Considering their importance, systems of pre-market approval requirements have been introduced in Europe for synthetic substances added to foods. As a result, the European Union has set up a reliable food safety system that helps to ensure consumer protection against any possible food hazard such as the ones caused by side effects of preservatives and flavourings. For this reason, all food additives currently used in Europe have been examined for safety evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority, and before by its predecessor institution, the Scientific Committee on Food. The general system created by the European Union is based on the so-called positive lists. Only food additives included in the official positive list are allowed in foods and food formulations under specific conditions. With reference to the sector of cheese productions, peculiar additives—including microbial agents—have to be considered. The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the currently allowed additives in the ambit of cheese productions, according to European Union legislation.
At present, the problem of traceability in food industries is one of the most important and emerging factors with a notable influence on the management of food business operators. In fact, the mandatory requisite of traceability, both from raw materials to final products and vice versa, is mentioned in many legislative documents and in the most important voluntary food certification standards. The situation is continually evolving, and the most part of food and beverage sectors are trying to find different solutions. Traceability is one of the main pillars of the modern food safety strategy worldwide. The sector of milk and dairy productions can show an extremely variegated situation because of the many possible intermediate and final products associated with the original raw material: milk. The flow of input information has to be analysed, raw material per raw material; the same thing is true when speaking of output information concerning final products and by-products (sometimes defined ‘off-line’ products). One or more processing food business operators can be involved in the global process; the role of water has to be considered. The aim of this chapter is to describe in practice the complex operations—named jointly ‘traceability’—related to a peculiar sub-area of milk-based products: cow’s milk cheese by means of a software product—the ExTra tool—with reference to two simulated productions: Mozzarella cheese and a general semi-hard cheese.
The concept of ‘regulated non‐quarantine pest’ ( RNQP ) was introduced in the revised text of the FAO International Plant Protection Convention ( IPPC ) approved in 1997. Measures against quarantine pests (exclusion, eradication, containment) aim to prevent unacceptable economic, environmental and social impacts resulting from the introduction and/or spread of these pests. On the contrary, the concept of RNQP s is intended to prevent an unacceptable economic impact on the intended use of plants for planting by pests that are already present in the area. RNQP s have been introduced in the new EU plant health regulation, in line with available international standards. This regulation entered into force in December 2016 and will be implemented in the following 3 years. In this context, EPPO agreed to undertake a 2‐year project on RNQP s: the EU Quality Pest Project. The objective of this project was to develop a methodology and then to apply this methodology to a list of about 1400 pest–host combinations to identify which should be recommended as RNQP s.
This methodology is presented in this paper, as well as the main issues discussed during its development.
modified crops which brought up a controversy on the safety usage of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs). It has been implemented globally that all GMO products and its derived
ingredients should have regulations on the usage and labelling. Thus, it is necessary to develop
methods that allow rapid screening of GMO products to comply with the regulations. This
study employed a reliable and flexible multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for
the rapid detection of transgenic elements in genetically modified soy and maize along with
the soybean LECTIN gene and maize ZEIN gene respectively. The selected four common
transgenic elements were 35S promoter (35S); Agrobacterium tumefaciens nopaline synthase
terminator (NOS); 5-enolypyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (epsps) gene; and Cry1Ab
delta-endotoxin (cry1Ab) gene. Optimization of the multiplex PCR methods were carried out
by using 1% Roundup ReadyTM Soybean (RRS) as the certified reference material for soybean
that produced fourplex PCR method detecting 35S promoter, NOS terminator, epsps gene and
soybean LECTIN gene and by using 1% MON810 as the certified reference material for maize
that produced triplex PCR method detecting 35S promoter, cry1Ab gene and maize ZEIN gene
prior to screening of the GMO traits in various food products and animal feeds. 1/9 (11.1%) of
the animal feed contained maize and 1/15 (6.7%) of the soybean food products showed positive
results for the detection of GMO transgenic gene. None of the maize food products showed
positive results for GMO transgenic gene. In total, approximately 4% of the food products
and animal feed were positive as GMO. This indicated GMOs have not widely entered the
food chain. However, it is necessary to have an appropriate screening method due to GMOs’
unknown potential risk to humans and to animals. This rapid screening method will provide
leverage in terms of being economically wise, time saving and reliable.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a ubiquitously occurring cell constituent that provides highly specific information on organisms at every taxonomic level. This chapter outlines the basic principles, challenges and current developments in DNA-based detection of genetically modified (GM) crops. The European Commission's Reference Laboratory (EU-RL GMFF) provides official methods for the specific detection and quantification of material from different GMOs. Despite these valuable methods, major analytical challenges arise from the increasing number of authorised and unauthorised GMO, the lack of reference materials, and the need to determine GMO contents in composite and processed foods. The need to quantify the content of GMO in a product varies among different countries, depending on tolerance thresholds and labelling policies. The quantification in composed and processed products requires simultaneous assessment of the recombinant DNA and of a species- or taxon-specific reference gene.
This article addresses the relation between the current proliferation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) goods and services and the development of different kinds of risk assessments and policy documents. The ambition is to shed light on an, hithertho, less discussed aspect of the development of risk assessments and policy documents, namely the time span between the development of new technologies and the development of regulatory frameworks. The concept of risk and danger can be seen as a potential means through which we can start to think about the consequences of the delay between the increased generation of electronic waste (e-waste) and regulations to manage this increase. Using e-waste as a case study, this article provides the basis for a more general understanding of the relation between the development of new technologies and the development of regulatory frameworks. While it might be difficult to pin down the effects that this delay had/has for the subsequent development of ICTs, this article highlights the importance of taking into account, not only how and by whom risk assessments and policy documents are developed, but when they are developed in relation to the technologies that they serve to regulate.
Coexistence
, as defined by the European Union, involves simultaneous GM and GM-free crop and food production, assuming both products have passed regulatory risk evaluation. Much of the recent discussion about coexistence focuses on how governments can create it, or in some cases how to do it more efficiently and effectively. At one level, the issue of coexistence is a problem of market-making. But economic theory and commercial practice suggest that there are challenges with leaving market-making to private initiative. Meanwhile, given that the detection of the presence of an unapproved GM event results in the closing of borders to the import of commodities, the issue inevitably moves to the WTO. This chapter reviews the economic rationale for involvement by governments and other non-market actors and assesses the evidence of the impact of various interventions on practical coexistence.
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a widely used isothermal nucleic acid amplification method. Here we developed a new closed-tube colorimetric method for judging LAMP with a novel metal indicator. First, the metal indicator, acid chrome blue K (ACBK), was evaluated in the LAMP reaction with various combinations of reaction reagents, such as reaction buffer, dNTP mixtures, primer mixtures, or Mg²⁺. We found that the solution color of the LAMP reaction with ACBK changed from red to blue based on a decrease in the Mg²⁺ concentration in the reaction solution. We then optimized the LAMP with ACBK method for detecting the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S promoter. Further, the specificity of the new colorimetric assay using ACBK in the LAMP reaction for detecting the 35S promoter was tested with diverse transgenic events in different crops, and the sensitivity threshold of the assay was ∼50 copies for transgenic rice genomic DNA and 100 ng of 0.1 % DNA from rice, soybean, rapeseed, and maize. Finally, the applicability of the LAMP assay was successfully validated using practical maize samples. All the detection results could be easily discerned either by UV–vis spectroscopy or the naked eye.
The global cultivation area of genetically modified crops (GM crops) has been increasing every year. Cultivation of GM crops is not only beneficial to the economy but also has positive effects on the environment in decreasing the use of agrochemicals, chemical fertilizers, and agricultural machinery. However, there have been controversies about the admixture of GM crops and non-GM crops and the unintentional release of GM crops to the environment. Especially in Korea, where consumption of agricultural products is import-dependent, the economic importance of GM crops has been a significant issue. The Act on import and distribution of GM crops was established in 2001 to start the management of GM crops in Korea. Recently, the imported amount of GM crops to Korea has reached over 10 million tons and is increasing very rapidly; consequently, the potential environmental impact of GM crops is becoming a big issue in Korea. In Japan, the discovery of imported GM canola plants around ports in 2005 raised awareness of the unintentional release of GM crops. In Korea, GM maize plants were also found in port and feed factory surroundings from 2005 to 2007. It is now necessary to monitor imported GM crops by tracing distribution, transport process for practical environmental risk assessment. Possible gene transfer from GM crops to non-GM crops should also be investigated in the cultivation area and the surroundings as well.
The idea that certain foods provide health benefits above and beyond their nutritional value has been recognised for centuries by various cultures in many countries worldwide. The recognition and use of beneficial bacteria originated early in the 20th century; the term ‘probiotic’ only appeared in the 1960s, however. Although scientific definitions of this term have appeared in the literature since then there is, as yet, no internationally recognised legal definition of this term. It is widely accepted that the modern concept of functional food originated in Japan, arising from concerns regarding the severe malnutrition in certain sections of the Japanese population in the aftermath of World War II and the ageing of the Japanese population and the burden that this was likely to place on the state's finances. This led to Japan being the first country to seek to regulate such foods. However, as there was no coordinated international approach to such regulation from the outset, differences have arisen between the regulatory means used at national and regional levels throughout the world. This chapter addresses the present regulatory situation as regards functional foods in a number of regions of the world including Japan, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Australia/New Zealand and China. We also describe the progress that has taken place at an international level and, in particular, the role and status of Codex Alimentarius. Finally, some conclusions and possible future regulatory developments are considered.
The use of chemicals in the modern society is well known. With specific reference to food productions, plant protection products and veterinary medicines are pharmacologically active substances used to fight pests and animal diseases. Food additives prolong the shelf life of foodstuffs; colours and flavourings make foods more attractive than usual. The safety and the hygiene of food products are assured by containers that are constituted of chemical substances such as plastics, metals, glass or paper. On the other hand, a number of chemicals are present in the environment as pollutants; these contaminants may be unintentionally present in raw materials used for the production and the distribution of foods. At the same time, chemicals may damage the human health, the animal or plant safety and the environment. As a consequence, the detection of harmful- or questionable-chemicals in foods and feeds has to be considered a matter of public health. Modern regulatory patterns are based on the prevention and the management of risks: food laws in the European Union share the same ratio. This Chapter is mainly focused on food-related legislations and regulations with reference to the intentional use and the accidental detection of regulated substances in foodstuffs within the EU boundaries. In addition, a Section about chemical hazards and the crisis management in the European Union is available.
The coexistence of GMO and non-GMO crops points to the emergence of a new type of government of techniques, "technological pluralism" that enables farmers and consumers to make their decisions. This freedom of choice puts significant pressure on operators and an increase in such freedoms would lead to an increase in pressure. The key points raised by the organisation of coexistence are the issue of seeds that takes into account the preservation of GM-free genetic resources and that of farm-saved seeds, and traceability. It can be observed that animal feed markets are not particularly affected by GMO issues, and authorise major commodity movements. These movements are controlled by a very small number of operators who draw up the sales contracts and settle their disputes through arbitration. The article proposes a specific system of responsibility adapted to controversial technologies.
Adventitious mixing of GM material with a non-GM product can occur anywhere along the supply chain, from the field where the crop is grown through to thehandling and processing stages. In this paper, we present a simulation model of the coexistence between GM and non-GM material. The model considers physical flow of both types of crop from the field to the processing stage and accounts for the probability of admixture between GM and non-GM flows at each stage of the supply chain. In addition, the simulation model takes two kinds of decisions into account: batch scheduling at the collection, drying and processing levels, and the types of control of these batches. The results show that supply chain organization plays a crucial role in maintaining or improving non-GM product compliance with the regulated threshold. Knowledge of the quality of the upstream non-GM batches (farm gate) helps to implement better automatic strategies and may avoid unnecessary PCR testing. Such a strategy may increase the overall profit, but also necessitates a strong vertical coordination along the supply chain.
In 2002, before the introduction of the labelling legislation for GMOs in food and feed (European Commission 2003b, 2003c), Belgian compound feed manufacturers introduced a book of charge for the production of GMO-controlled compound feed (with a GMO threshold level of 0.9%). The measures taken to guarantee the production of GM and non-GM compound feed at the same plant are discussed, as well as the related additional costs and benefits. The main costs are linked to the feed components, segregation and rinsing during production, audits, and analysis. Some of the costs, related to sampling, traceability, monitoring, auditing, and training of personnel, should not be attributed entirely to co-existence, as they arise as a result of other legislative frameworks. This particular subchapter focuses on the use of soy in compound feed. The strategies, costs, and benefits for other stakeholders along the soybean supply chain are also discussed.
This chapter contains section titled:
This chapter presents the Co-Extra Decision Support System (DSS), a system for stakeholders involved in the food/feed supply chain who are faced with difficult decisions. The system, which has been developed through a model-driven and data-driven methodological approach, provides eight qualitative multi-attribute models that assess various aspects of analytical methods, sampling plans, food and feed products, and some processes of the maize production chain. These models capture and represent expert knowledge in the form of hierarchically structured variables and decision rules. The models also actively assess, evaluate and analyse decision alternatives, using decision-analysis tools such as 'what-if' and sensitivity analysis. The DSS also contains a database of methods, products, and operational taxonomy units,that is implemented on a server and accessible through a web-based user interface. The DSS functionality is targeted to a variety of potential users: policy makers, farmers, importers, transporters, feed/food producers, retailers, consumers, analytical laboratories, users of test reports from analytical laboratories, and operators and managers of official control.
Even if academics and practitioners identify coopetition as a winning strategy, a coopetition relationship appear to be difficult to sustain. Coopetition is relied to be a paradoxical and unstable interfirm relationship related with tensions. Academic works begun to study the causes and nature of tension in coopetition relationship but little is known about the way those tension is managed. The aim of this paper is to investigate, via in depth case studies, the management tools used to manage coopetition at the inter-organizational level. Through multiples case studies in the same industry (the French grain merchants industry), we reveal the existence of differing management tools of the coopetition relationships. Some tools found by our research (tacit conventions, mediation arenas, coopetition inducers) seem particularly novel in the coopetition literature. The use of tacit convention and social pressure epitomize the embeddedness and the social construction of the coopetition relationship. It shows that inter-firm coordination can exist in a direct and informal way, without being locked into a rigid structure and without collusion. Moreover, we found that an external party can induce the coopetition and bring rival firms to consider a coopetitive relationship. This finding reveals that some tools can change inter-firms dynamics and rationalities giving rise to coopetition. Those findings lead us to reveal the perspective of a managerial engineering of coopetition and to suggest some embryonic basis to open the way for its development.
The GMO-free Regions Network, created in 2003, brings together more than 50 European regional governments. Strongly committed to the support of quality agriculture, the Network has expressed its deepest concern about GMOs arriving through the feedstuff supplied to livestock. Extension of the GM commodity market puts quality agriculture at risk and threatens rural policies promoted by the Network's members. Since 2004 it has successfully undertaken action to secure a non-GM soya supply from America, Asia, and Eastern Europe by creating direct contacts between supply and demand. Since 2008 it has gone further, by promoting GM-free labels to meet European consumers' demand for GMO-free food from field to plate. This paper highlights the strategies, put into practise by the European regional governments to protect rural livelihood and maintain social, environmental, and economic benefits to quality agriculture in Europe.
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