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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from the combustion of crude oil on water
Abstract
This work involved an investigation of some of the factors necessary to assess the environmental impact of an in situ burn: the fraction of an oil layer that can be burned, the quantity of smoke, and the concentrations of 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the smoke, crude oil, and burn residue. Alberta Sweet crude in 2-, 3-, 5-, 10-, and 30-mm layers on water was burned and smoke samples were collected at elevated and ambient temperatures and analyzed by two independent laboratories. While burning the crude oil produced less total PAHs than were in the original crude oil, the concentrations of PAHs with five or more rings were 10-20 times greater in the smoke than in the oil. The organic carbon fraction of the smoke was in the range of 14-21%. As the fuel layer thickness was increased from 2 to 10 mm, the smoke yield increased from 0.035 to 0.080 g of smoke/g of fuel, and the percentage of oil residue decreased from 46 to 17%. By consuming much of the oil spill and reducing the amount of PAHs in the water, and by dispersing the combustion products over a larger area, in situ burning can mitigate the local environmental impact of an oil spill. There appears to be a range of conditions, such as in Arctic ice fields, where in situ burning might be the most viable cleanup method.
... Smoke was characterized as soot aerosols (particulate) and gases. Soot aerosol primarily consists of elemental carbon and organic carbon such as 3-6 ring PAHs, while gases are mainly composed of CO 2 and CO (Benner Jr et al., 1990;Booher and Janke, 1997;Fingas et al., 1996;Ross et al., 1996;Wang et al., 1999), as well as small quantities of volatile organic compounds, such as benzene and aldehydes (Booher and Janke, 1997), SO 2 (Ross et al., 1996), polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (Aurell and Gullett, 2010). ...
... The extent of impacts in the air and water are governed by spill size, the intensity of the fire and stability of the low atmosphere (Benner Jr et al., 1990;Booher and Janke, 1997;Fingas et al., 1996). Generally, the emitted contaminants of environmental concern are widely dispersed to concentrations below exposure limits (Benner Jr et al., 1990;Booher and Janke, 1997;Fingas, 2016;Fingas et al., 1996;Ross et al., 1996;Wang et al., 1999). ...
... The extent of impacts in the air and water are governed by spill size, the intensity of the fire and stability of the low atmosphere (Benner Jr et al., 1990;Booher and Janke, 1997;Fingas et al., 1996). Generally, the emitted contaminants of environmental concern are widely dispersed to concentrations below exposure limits (Benner Jr et al., 1990;Booher and Janke, 1997;Fingas, 2016;Fingas et al., 1996;Ross et al., 1996;Wang et al., 1999). Lower boiling point compounds were also eliminated from ISB residues. ...
Natural attenuation is an important process for oil spill management in marine environments. Natural attenuation affects the fate of oil by physical, chemical, and biological processes, which include evaporation, dispersion, dissolution, photo-oxidation, emulsification, oil particle aggregation, and biodegradation. This review examines the cumulative knowledge regarding these natural attenuation processes as well as their simulation and prediction using modelling approaches. An in-depth discussion is provided on how oil type, microbial community and environmental factors contribute to the biodegradation process. It describes how our understanding of the structure and function of indigenous oil degrading microbial communities in the marine environment has been advanced by the application of next generation sequencing tools.
The synergetic and/or antagonist effects of oil spill countermeasures such as the application of chemical dispersants, in-situ burning and nutrient enrichment on natural attenuation were explored. Several knowledge gaps were identified regarding the synergetic and/or antagonistic effects of active response countermeasures on the natural attenuation/biodegradation process. This review highlighted the need for field data on both the effectiveness and potential detrimental effects of oil spill response options to support modelling and decision-making on their selection and application.
... Highly efficient in-situ burns allow a significant mass of spilled oil to be removed from the spill site (leaving only a thin layer of residual oil), however they also increase smoke production and the total amount of PACs released in particulate and vapour phases (Benner et al., 1990). Ultimately, slick thickness is shown to have a substantial impact on ISB fire dynamics, burning efficiency, and concentrations of PACs in smoke and oil residue. ...
... The presence of a plateau in PAC concentrations at greater slick thicknesses suggests this phenomenon did not have the ability to dramatically reduce aqueous PAC concentrations through the destruction of PACs. In-situ burning destroys more PACs than it produces, but pyrogenic PACs can be produced via ISB (Benner et al., 1990;Fingas et al., 1995). The origin of PACs in our samples was verified using the pyrogenic index (Fig. 6), a diagnostic parameter that can more accurately report the presence of pyrogenic PACs than other diagnostic PAC ratios (Wang et al., 1999(Wang et al., , 2008. ...
In-situ burning (ISB) is the controlled combustion of an oil slick to remove large quantities of spilled oil from the aquatic environment. Prior to employing ISB as a remediation technique, an oil slick must often be corralled by physical or chemical means to achieve a sufficient thickness (typically >1 mm) for ignition. While ISB is an effective means to remove oil mass, less is known about the potential for ISB to mobilize polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) into the aquatic environment. The PACs are primary contaminants of concern in crude oil due to their environmental persistence and toxicity. We examined the potential for ISB to mobilize PACs into underlying waters in a series of small-scale burns conducted across a gradient of oil slick thicknesses (0–7 mm). Concentrations of PACs in underlying waters were evaluated and compared to reference conditions using an equivalent gradient of oil slick thicknesses that were not ignited. At thinner slick thicknesses (i.e. 0 – 4 mm) ISB enhanced the mobilization of total PACs, likely a result of heat transfer to underlying waters; this effect increased as slick thickness increased. Among thicker slicks (i.e. 4 – 7 mm), pyrogenic PACs became more prevalent and greater concentrations of 4-ring PACs were detected in underlying waters. The potential for PAC mobilization needs to be considered in scenarios where ISB may be the only viable oil spill remediation option (e.g. wetlands, marshes, or where oil is entrained) and in shallow systems susceptible to temperature changes.
... The phenanthrene/anthracene (P/A) ratio has often been used to distinguish between diverse origins of PAHs, sometime in association with the fluoranthene/pyrene (Fluo/Pyr) ratio (Sicre et al., 1967;Benner et al., 1990;Budzinski et al., 1997). Budzinski et al. (1997) suggested that P/A > 10 shows petrogenic inputs, and P/A < 10 shows pyrolytic sources. ...
... Budzinski et al. (1997) suggested that P/A > 10 shows petrogenic inputs, and P/A < 10 shows pyrolytic sources. However, Benner et al. (1990) have reported P/A values around 14 for crude oils. Sicre et al. (1967) suggested that the lower ratios (P/A < 15) may be related to incomplete combustion of organic matter such as coals. ...
The biomarker and aromatic compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), in three oil families composed of 29 crude oils from the Gippsland Basin, SE Australia were studied using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Environment-related parameters, such as the Pr/Ph ratio and the gammacerane index, indicate that all the oils originated from a lacustrine/fluvial-deltaic environment with fresh water. Thermal maturity-related parameters, including aliphatic and aromatic maturity indicators (e.g. C29 sterane isomerisation parameters, alkylnaphthalene indices, and methylphenanthrene index), show that all the oils from the GA1 oil family have a similar thermal maturity in the peak-late oil window. However, oils from the GA2 and GB families vary in thermal maturity and are interpreted to be mixtures of less mature and more mature crude oils. Source-related biomarkers (e.g. isopimarane, labdane and phyllocladane) and PAHs (e.g. retene and oleanane-/ursane-/lupane-derived aromatic triterpenoids) suggest that the GA1 oils were mainly derived from source rocks rich in conifer-derived organic matter. The organic matter source of the GA2 and GB oil families included both angiosperms and gymnosperms, with a relatively stronger angiosperm contribution to the organic matter in the source rock(s) of the GB oils, based on the PAH analysis. Moreover, higher plant-derived triterpenoids can be effectively used to correlate oil families across the study area, supplementing the n-alkane carbon isotope and biomarker data of the three oil families reported previously.
... The average PAH concentrations reported by different researchers for different locations distributed over appreciable geographical expanse show surprisingly close values. One exception was the three average PAH concentration values reported in one study by Westerholm and Li (1994), Wang et al. (1999), Schauer et al. (2001), Westerholm et al. (2001) 0.07 Crude oil Grimmer et al. (1983), Wise et al. (1988a), Benner et al. (1990) 0.22 Used engine oil Grimmer et al. (1981) 0.11 Gasoline combustion Li and Kamens (1993), Rogge et al. (1993b) 0.18 Coal tar combustion Wise et al. (1988a) 0.26 Wood soot Lee et al. (1977), Li and Kamens (1993) 0.37 Used engine oil, diesel car, truck and bus Grimmer et al. (1981) 0.22 Crude oil combustion Benner et al. (1990) 0.13-0.23 Grass combustion Jenkins et al. (1996) Fla/(Fla ? ...
... The average PAH concentrations reported by different researchers for different locations distributed over appreciable geographical expanse show surprisingly close values. One exception was the three average PAH concentration values reported in one study by Westerholm and Li (1994), Wang et al. (1999), Schauer et al. (2001), Westerholm et al. (2001) 0.07 Crude oil Grimmer et al. (1983), Wise et al. (1988a), Benner et al. (1990) 0.22 Used engine oil Grimmer et al. (1981) 0.11 Gasoline combustion Li and Kamens (1993), Rogge et al. (1993b) 0.18 Coal tar combustion Wise et al. (1988a) 0.26 Wood soot Lee et al. (1977), Li and Kamens (1993) 0.37 Used engine oil, diesel car, truck and bus Grimmer et al. (1981) 0.22 Crude oil combustion Benner et al. (1990) 0.13-0.23 Grass combustion Jenkins et al. (1996) Fla/(Fla ? ...
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered as one of the most important groups of organic environmental contaminants due to their toxicity, persistence and ubiquity. PAHs have been monitored in urban road dust at various locations worldwide in about last three decades. Resuspension of road dust containing PAHs is an important route of human exposure to PAHs. This paper collates the available information on reported concentrations of PAHs in urban road dust at various worldwide locations classified as industrial, residential, traffic, city and commercial and other areas, reported sources of PAHs and related interpretations. The available information has been reviewed and documented country-wise. Variation in PAHs concentrations over various worldwide locations have been scrutinized, and interestingly, most of the reported average PAHs concentrations were found to be distributed within a very narrow range of values, implying only little variation in average PAH concentrations in spite of great distances between locations, climatic variation and differences in anthropogenic activities.
... PAHs belong to the group of priority pollutants have become a subject of great concern due to its carcionogenicty, mutagenicity and tetratogenicity [2].They are found in the air, water, soil and recent marine sediments and can remain in the environment for months or years [1]. Certain industrial processes produce PAHs with characteristic distribution patterns due to their origins [9] including the metallurgical industries [10] and hydrocarbon spillage [11]. Atmospheric deposition after local and long range transport of PAHs due to emissions products from natural processes, such as forest fires and also as a result of human activity, such as production and processing of metals, coal, oil and gas are the main source of PAHs in soil. ...
... "Some Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) can also be derived from biogenic precursors such as pigments and steroids" (Wakeham et al.,1980). Polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soils can arise from a number of sources, and these include hydrocarbon spillage" (Benner et al., 1990), products of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. wood burning (Freeman et al. 1990), use of organic waste as compost and fertilizer (Smith et al. 2001) and power plants and blast furnaces (Van Brummel et al. 1996). ...
and physicochemical parameters were determined. The physicochemical parameters were done to ascertain water quality. The parameters determined did not exceed the permissible limit of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) and Nigeria (FMENV, 1992). The Total Dissolved Solid was 98.1±16.88 mg/l, Total Suspended Solid was 68.5±10.29 mg/l, Turbidity was 1.6±0.011 NTU and pH was 7.4±1.05. The mean concentration and standard deviation of PAH's across the sampled areas showed that Egbema sampled communities had 4.7±0.23 μg/l, with a range of 4.0-5.1 μg/l. The mean concentration and standard deviation for the study stood at 3.3±0.18 μg/l with a range of 1.4-6.0 μg/l.
... Previous studies on diesel, Albert sweet crude oil, Bunker C, Louisiana sweet crude oil, and other oils have demonstrated that the PAH concentration in soot can be one to several orders-of-magnitude less than in the original oil, with most of the light PAHs and their alkylated derivatives potentially being destroyed, while the heavy PAHs are generated or concentrated by the fire (Benner et al., 1990;Fingas, 2017b;Fritt-Rasmussen et al., 2015;Garrett et al., 2000;Gullett et al., 2016;Mullin and Champ, 2003;Saha et al., 2009;Shigenaka et al., 2017;Wang et al., 1999a). In the present work, for a better comparison of the PAH changes between the source SC and the SC soot samples, the unit concentration of PAHs was converted by using Eq. ...
The condensate spill accident from the Sanchi oil tanker collision in the East China Sea is unique in world history. To date, the spilled and burnt amounts of condensate remain unknown. The present study demonstrates the chemical fingerprints of a surrogate condensate (SC) from the same source, and of the carried heavy fuel oil (HFO) of the Sanchi accident. The evaporative features of the condensate are demonstrated by allowing the SC to naturally volatilize in a dark fume hood. In addition, the combustion emission of the SC is characterized by conducting a laboratory-scale combustion experiment. The evaporation experiment suggests that the volatilization process plays a significant role in the weathering of the condensate. The results show that the SC and HFO can be clearly distinguished based on their chemical fingerprints of C27–C35 hopanes and C9–C36 n-alkanes, along with priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their alkylated derivatives. The compositional data reveal that the light component is predominant in the SC, thereby supporting its high volatility and flammability. The greater amounts of heavy components in the HFO indicate its long-term degradation and potential ecological risks to the environment. Further, the trisnorhopane thermal indicator (Ts/Tm) and C29/C30 ratio of hopanes are validated for identification of the SC and the HFO. More importantly, the changes in the hopane ratios of the soot particles are analyzed for the first time in this study, and the results demonstrate the validity of using hopane ratios to fingerprint the condensate soot particles. The diagnostic ratios of 2-MP/1-MP, 9/4-MP/1-MP, and InP/(InP+BghiP) also show decent performance on source identification after the condensate evaporation and combustion processes.
... The InP/(InP + BgP) ratios confirmed that PAHs primarily originated from liquid fossil fuel combustion in the river networks, while these ratios in the river outlets showed that PAHs in this area were predominantly derived from a mixture of combustion sources. Fig. 5 also shows the values of PAH diagnostic indices from typical combustion sources (Yunker et al., 2002;Jenkins et al., 1996;Oros and Simoneit, 2000;Wise et al., 1988;Benner et al., 1990;Zhang et al., 2009) and compares them with those in this study. It was suggested that PAHs in the sediments from the river networks were mainly derived from the combustion of tobacco, raw coal, and diesel. ...
The pollution characteristics, sources, and ecological risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediment samples from the river networks and outlets of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) were investigated. The total PAH concentrations were in the range of 69.1-1297 ng g − 1 in river networks and 56.6-617 ng g − 1 in river outlets. The results of source identification showed that PAHs in sediments were mainly derived from combined sources of coke tar and liquid fossil fuel combustion, coal/wood combustion, and petroleum contamination. The ecological risks of PAHs were evaluated based on sediment quality guidelines (SQG), mean probable effects levels quotient values (PEL-Q), and the toxicity equivalence factor (TEQ BaP) method. The ecological risks of PAHs in sediments were at moderate levels in the Pearl River Delta. Although no high risk was found, regular and continuous monitoring of PAHs in sediments needs to be performed.
... [9] stated in his work that petrogenic sources give off organic particulates which are characterized by a high mole fraction of LMW PAHs. According to [6], LMW PAHs usually originate from petrogenic sources and [10] suggested HMW PAHs to originate from pyrogenic sources. LMW PAHs dominate petrogenic sources while pyrogenic sources are dominated by HMW PAHs [11]. ...
The presence of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the environment has been a concern due to risk to human health and the ecosystem. This study was carried out to assess the contamination level of PAHs in the soil around Ekeatai watershed, Eket, Nigeria. Soil samples (0-30cm) were analyzed for the presence of the 16 US-EPA priority PAH and human health risk. The identification and quantification of the PAHs in the soil samples were carried out using the Aligent 7890B GC-FID. The results of the analysis revealed that amongst the 16 US-EPA priority PAHs, seven (7) were detected in the soil samples. The total concentration of PAHs detected in the study area were: fluorene (9.5870mg/kg), benzo(a)anthracene (1.2862mg/kg), pyrene (0.2782mg/kg), acenaphthene (0.1805mg/kg), anthracene (0.1545mg/kg), chrysene (0.1288mg/kg), and fluoranthene (0.0885mg/kg). PAH diagnostic ratio showed possible sources of PAHs to be pyrogenic, petrogenic and petroleum combustion. Benzo[a]anthracene and chrysene detected in the study area are known to be carcinogenic. The BaPTEQ for ΣPAH carcinogen ranged from 0.00013-0.13mg BaPTEQ/kg and the BaPTPE calculated in the study area was 0.13mg/kg. The values were lower than the human health-based soil quality guidelines for PAHs based on Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk of the Canadian government.
... PAHs belong to the group of priority pollutants have become a subject of great concern due to its carcionogenicty, mutagenicity and tetratogenicity [2].They are found in the air, water, soil and recent marine sediments and can remain in the environment for months or years [1]. Certain industrial processes produce PAHs with characteristic distribution patterns due to their origins [9] including the metallurgical industries [10] and hydrocarbon spillage [11]. Atmospheric deposition after local and long range transport of PAHs due to emissions products from natural processes, such as forest fires and also as a result of human activity, such as production and processing of metals, coal, oil and gas are the main source of PAHs in soil. ...
... Furthermore, calculated molecular ratios of BaA/Chr (0.80-0.89) in surface sediments also showed petrogenic origins. BaA/Chr ratios in sediments were < 0.9, indicating petrogenic PAH sources (Benner et al., 1990). This finding was in agreement with the low ratio of Flu/ Flu + Pyr values (< 0.40) in the sampling sites. ...
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in the coastal region of Nemrut Bay, Eastern Aegean. Sediment and caged mussels were evaluated for sixteen PAHs. High contamination was observed in the sediment sampling sites next to the petrochemical refinery. Low molecular weight PAH levels were dominant in the sediments and the ratio LMW/HMW were higher than one, indicating petrogenic origin pollution. The m-ERM-q values of the sediments were classified as high-priority sites near the refinery while other sites were categorized as medium-low sites. 4-ring PAHs were found to be dominant in the mussels. PAHs were originated from petroleum and mixed sources (petrogenic, pyrogenic) both two transplantation experiments. The assessment of human health risk based on the Carcinogenic `Toxic Equivalents suggested that the mussels have high capability to give rise to carcinogenic risks. PAH levels in the mussels were above the Recommended Total Carcinogenic PAH limits set by the European Union.
... High PAH concentrations has been observed in commercial Turkish harbors, including the inside of the Turkish Strait System [18][19][20][21], Sea of Marmara [19,22], Istanbul Strait [19], Çanakkale Strait [20], Black Sea [18,23], and Aegean Sea [24][25][26][27] (Tables 1 and 2, Fig. 3). The ratios Phe/Ant and Flu/Pyr are used to categorize potential sources of PAHs globally [28]. The ratios of phenanthrene/anthracene Phe/Ant > 10 point out petrogenic source, and Phe/Ant < 10 indicates pyrolytic source; fluoranthene/pyrene Flu/Pyr > 1 and Flu/Pyr < 1 proposed pyrolytic source and petrogenic source, consecutively [29]. ...
Turkey, surrounded by sea on three sides with soils in Europe and Asia, has geopolitical importance. Turkish Straits are of great importance for the international maritime industry, especially the trade covering the Straits, Black Sea, Azov Sea, Sea of Marmara, Aegean Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. The interest in the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has risen markedly in Turkey as in the world during the last decades due to adverse public health effects with their potential toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic features. PAHs with their special chemical structures have such a characteristic that can be adsorbed in sediments and also accumulated in aquatic species. Pyrogenic and petrogenic origins are found to be the dominant PAH contamination sources in Turkish waters. MARPOL Convention recognized the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea as “special area” in 1983 for their importance as geopolitics and international maritime trade ways. Besides obeying to the international legislative, Turkey has also taken special legislative measures to prevent and/or mitigate the PAH pollution in waters. Some examples of these arrangements are given as follows: “Regulation on Waste Collection from Ships and Control of Wastes” (since 2004), “Marine Environment Pollution from Oil and Other Harmful Substances and Compensation for Losses in Emergency Response Situations” (since 2005), CleanSeaNet (since 2011), “Coastal facilities Contingency Plans” (since 2009), “Deep Sea Discharge Monitoring Circular” (since 2009), “Circular On The Preparation And Implementation Of Marine Litter Provincial Action Plans” (since 2019), and “Zero Waste Regulation” (2019).
... For example, phenanthrene to anthracene ratios (Ph/An) have been calculated to evaluate both petrogenic and pyrogenic (pyrolytic) PAHs. Petrogenic PAHs are often characterized by Ph/An ratios >10, whereas combustion processes that result in the production of pyrolytic PAHs are specified by low Ph/An ratios (<10) (Benner et al., 1990). Generally, fluoranthene to pyrene (Fl/Py) ratios greater than 1 come from pyrolytic origins while ratios of less than 1 seem to show petrogenic sources (Qiu et al., 2009). ...
Ascertaining the fate of eroded OM is critical for our understanding of the role of soil erosion in global and local carbon cycles on earth's system. In this review, we compiled critical information on isotopes and molecular biomarker approaches that are widely applied to identify sources of eroded OM. We highlight the benefits and shortcomings of each approach and provide a comparison of the different approaches to determine their suitability for application under different environmental conditions and land use. We find that the compound-specific stable isotope signature of biomarkers are superior in their potential to provide plant-specific information on compounds that are likely to be preserved during transport and may at least initially resist diagenetic alterations. Molecular biomarkers provide an ability to reconstruct paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic conditions due to their capacity to concurrently identify a wide range of sources from a mixture; while stable isotope analyses are also reliable tool to complement the biomarker's limitations for quantifying source identification.
... Ratios of fluoranthene to pyrene [19,22] or the low molecular weight (LMW-PAHs) to high molecular weight (HMW-PAHs) [23] are the two indexes most frequently used to assess the origin of PAHs. This is because concentrations of pyrene are much higher in the fossil fuels and their byproducts than fluoranthene concentration [24] and the petrogenic contamination are dominated with LMW-PAHs [25][26][27]; while pyrolytic contamination are characterized with HMW-PAHs [28]. The ratio of LMW-PAHs/HMW-PAHs ranged from 0.031-0.110 ...
... [9] stated in his work that petrogenic sources give off organic particulates which are characterized by a high mole fraction of LMW PAHs. According to [6], LMW PAHs usually originate from petrogenic sources and [10] suggested HMW PAHs to originate from pyrogenic sources. LMW PAHs dominate petrogenic sources while pyrogenic sources are dominated by HMW PAHs [11]. ...
The presence of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the environment has been a concern due to risk to human health and the ecosystem. This study was carried out to assess the contamination level of PAHs in the soil around Ekeatai watershed, Eket, Nigeria. Soil samples (0-30cm) were analyzed for the presence of the 16 US-EPA priority PAH and human health risk. The identification and quantification of the PAHs in the soil samples were carried out using the Aligent 7890B GC-FID. The results of the analysis revealed that amongst the 16 US-EPA priority PAHs, seven (7) were detected in the soil samples. The total concentration of PAHs detected in the study area were: fluorene (9.5870mg/kg), benzo(a)anthracene (1.2862mg/kg), pyrene (0.2782mg/kg), acenaphthene (0.1805mg/kg), anthracene (0.1545mg/kg), chrysene (0.1288mg/kg), and fluoranthene (0.0885mg/kg). PAH diagnostic ratio showed possible sources of PAHs to be pyrogenic, petrogenic and petroleum combustion. Benzo[a]anthracene and chrysene detected in the study area are known to be carcinogenic. The BaPTEQ for ΣPAH carcinogen ranged from 0.00013-0.13mg BaPTEQ/kg and the BaPTPE calculated in the study area was 0.13mg/kg. The values were lower than the human health-based soil quality guidelines for PAHs based on Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk of the Canadian government.
... The source of the PAHs Flu, IcP, and DBahA are related to vehicular emission (Khalili, Scheff, & Holsen, 1995;Tavakoly et al., 2014). The low molecular PAHs were loaded in PC-2 of urban and rural sites because of the petrogenic sources of contamination dominated with LMW PAHs (Berner et al., 1990;Neff, 1979;Wise et al., 1988). PC-2 shows the mixed source of vehicular emissions and petrogenic sources. ...
... With the help of fingerprint ratios, phenanthrene (Ph)/anthracene (An) and fluoranthene (Flu)/pyrene (Py), an overall idea of potential source of contamination can be achieved (Gschwend and Hites, 1981;Magi et al., 2002;Sicre et al., 1987;Yunker et al., 2002). The ratio, Ph/An N10 indicates petrogenic origin whereas the value b10 indicates pyrolytic origin of PAHs (Benner et al., 1990;Kafilzadeh, 2015;Wise et al., 1988), and in case of Flu/Py ratio, value N1 represents pyrogenic and b1 represents petrogenic origin of PAHs (Sicre et al., 1987). In this study, Ph/An and Flu/Py ratios of entire samples were (24.11/0) = ∞ and (18.31/13.17) ...
Biomonitoring of human breast milk is one of the best ways to identify body burdens of contaminants and associated risk estimation. The objectives of the current study were to evaluate milk concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), mainly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), associated exposure estimation, and the role of body mass index (BMI) in their bioaccumulation. A total of 45 breast milk samples were collected from 24 women with BMI > 30 (obese) and 21 women with BMI < 25 (18.5–24.9, normal) from 14 different counties surrounding Lubbock in west Texas/New Mexico (age range: 18–34 years). Samples were analyzed using high resolution gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. A total of 31/45 (69%) of samples tested positive for PAHs. Phenanthrene was the most frequently detected PAH followed by pyrene and fluoranthene. The mean of individual PAH concentration for all samples ranged from 0 to 25.1 ng/g milk fat; the sum of all means of individual PAHs was 146.9 ng/g milk fat. The mean concentration of total PAHs in the BMI > 30 group was 224.8 ng/g milk fat, which was approximately 4 times the mean concentration of total PAHs in the BMI 18.5–24.9 group (57.9 ng/g milk fat). None of the samples from the BMI 18.5–24.9 group contained higher molecular weight (5–6 rings) PAHs, while in the BMI >30 group, a total of 11 PAHs including listed EPA priority pollutants were observed. In this study, benzo(b)fluoranthene was found to contribute the highest percentage of carcinogenic PAHs (32.08%), yet it was not detected in any samples from the BMI 18.5–24.9 group. The estimated total PAHs intakes by infants via obese and normal mothers' milk were 1.26 and 0.32 (μg/kg/day), which are 0.049 and 0.003 (μg/kg/day) B[a]P equivalent, respectively. These findings suggest that breastfed babies from obese mothers are potentially at higher risk of exposure to carcinogenic PAHs.
... The most significant anthropogenic sources of PAH include heat and power generation from coal and other fossil fuels, coal production, petroleum refining, cracking of crude petroleum, incineration of industrial and domestic wastes and chemical manufacturing (Suess, 1976;Neff, 1979). PAH in soils can arise from a number of sources, and these include hydrocarbon spillage (Benner, et al., 1990), products of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, i.e. wood burning (Freeman and Catteil, 1990), use of organic waste as compost and fertilizer (Smith et al., 2001) and power plants and blast furnaces (Van Brummelen et al, 1996). There is also evidence to indicate that PAH are transported over long distances by atmosphere movement (Halsall et al., 2001). ...
Egypt has crisis of water and a special after the construction of the Nahda Dam.So, finding other sources release clean water for use in other sectors special wastewater. This research was conducted on the El-Mohate drain (Marioteya Canal) west of Cairo, to determine the differences temporal and spatial persistent organic, non-organic and microbial population during the whole year.Samples were taken from different locations along the waterway under study, as well as some samples of plant and soil (surface layer) and sediment have been sampling to determine the status of pollution along the drain. The obtained results revealed that El-Mohate drain EC ranged between 0.53 and 5.26 dS/m in winter season, while it reached 1.26-6.72 dS/m in dry season. Ammonia concentration values ranged between 0.93-46.2 mg/l in the wet season and 2.2-21.32 mg / l in dry season. While, nitrates reached concentration of 0.18-26.6 and 0.73-23.52 mg / l in both wet and dry seasons, respectively. The concentrations of heavy metals (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, cobalt, boron, chromium, nickel, cadmium, lead) were less than the limits. As for persistent organic pollutants (Aromatic hydrocarbons) have given the highest concentrations during the wet season compared to that phenols has given the highest concentration during the dry season. Total coliform bacteria counted higher numbers in summer season than wet season and numbers were higher than WHO guidlie specially in locations 9 to 20. Also, data cleared that, Escherichia coli, Salmonella and Shigella numbers were increased in summer season than winter season. Total and suspended solids, chemical and biological oxygen demand were significant higher values in summer season than the winter season in El-Mohat drain water. Different selected sites showed less concentration in the content of heavy metals were less than the allowable limits increase the concentration of phenol in the dry season than in wet season on the reverse hydrocarbons has been focused in the wet season higher than the dry season. The results indicated that phenol content of plants during wet and dry season was in order of the plants as follows: draw> zeamaize> zucchini >pepper. The concentration of hydrocarbon was the focus as follows: zeamaize <draw <pepper< zucchini.
... Generally, PAHs of petrogenic origin are more available than the pyrolytic ones, because the former is introduced directly into the marine environment in dissolved, colloidal forms or fairly associated with suspended matter, whereas the PAHs of the second group are probably strongly associated with the particles originated from pyrolytic sources (Zuloaga et al. 2013). Besides, the PAH profile in environmental media dominated by LMW PAHs is an indication of the abundance of petrogenic isomers (Wise et al. 1988;Berner et al. 1990). Therefore, in this study, the dominance of LMW PAHs in the tested seafood samples may indicate that the petroleum hydrocarbons are more potential contributors to the PAH contamination in this area compared to that of pyrolytic origin. ...
Levels, distribution, possible sources and potential risks of 16 USEPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated comprehensively in frequently consumed seafood species collected from the coastal areas of Bangladesh. Samples were collected in winter and summer, 2015. The total concentration of PAHs (∑PAHs) in the examined seafood was 184.5–2806.6 ng/g wet weight (ww) in winter and 117.9–4216.8 ng/g ww in summer, respectively. The levels of ∑PAHs were comparable to or higher than those reported from other coastal areas. Seasonal variation was not significant for the majority of the monitored PAHs. Spatial distribution revealed that the seafood collected from areas with recent urbanization and industrialization (Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar and Sundarbans) was more contaminated with PAHs than those from the unindustrialized area (Meghna Estuary). Low-molecular-weight isomers dominated the PAH composition. Molecular ratios suggested the abundance of mixed sources of PAHs in the Bangladeshi coastal areas with a slight imposition toward the petrogenic origin. A preliminary evaluation of human health risk indicated that the dietary PAH exposure from consumption of Bangladeshi seafood would certainly induce adverse health effects. This finding suggests the need to enhance risk management regarding seafood consumption through public advisory in Bangladesh.
... The most significant anthropogenic sources of PAH include heat and power generation from coal and other fossil fuels, coal production, petroleum refining, cracking of crude petroleum, incineration of industrial and domestic wastes and chemical manufacturing (Suess, 1976;Neff, 1979). PAH in soils can arise from a number of sources, and these include hydrocarbon spillage (Benner, et al., 1990), products of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, i.e. wood burning (Freeman and Catteil, 1990), use of organic waste as compost and fertilizer (Smith et al., 2001) and power plants and blast furnaces (Van Brummelen et al, 1996). There is also evidence to indicate that PAH are transported over long distances by atmosphere movement (Halsall et al., 2001). ...
... Several early studies noted that the concentrations of PAHs were about the same in the residue as in the starting oil (Benner et al., 1990;Fingas, 1991, Fingas et al., 1993, 1994, 1995Li et al., 1992). The observations at the burn experiments reported at these trials included: 1) that generally the PAH concentrations in the residue and the starting oil were similar, 2) that for diesel burns there appeared to be more larger PAHs present in the residue and 3) test of the volatile emissions showed low concentrations of PAHs. ...
PAHs or Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons are ubiquitous in the environment and are found in crude oils. Many environmental PAHs are derived from combustion of many types including forest fires and barbeques. Some PAHs are toxic to biota and man. The concern addressed in this paper is the fate of PAHs found in crude oils when that oil is burned.
Crude oil burns result in PAHs downwind of the fire, mostly adsorbed to particulate matter, but the PAH concentration on the particulate matter, both in the plume and the particulate precipitation at ground level, is often an order-of-magnitude less than the concentration of PAHs in the starting oil. This includes the concentration of multi-ringed (5 or 6 rings) PAHs, which are often created in other combustion processes such as low-temperature incinerators and diesel engines. There is a slight increase in the concentration of multi-ringed PAHs in the burn residue. When considering the mass balance of the burn, however, most of the PAHs are destroyed by the fire. Destruction efficiencies are typically 99 % or greater.
Diesel fuel contains significant levels of PAHs of smaller molecular size, the 2 to 3-ring PAHs predominating. Burning diesel results in a greater concentration of pyrogenic PAHs of larger molecular sizes. Larger PAHs are either created or concentrated by the fire. Larger PAHs, some of which are not even detectable in the diesel fuel, are found both in the soot and in the residue; however, the concentrations of these larger PAHs are low and often just above detection limits. Overall, more PAHs are destroyed by the fires than are created. As with crude oil burns, the destruction efficiencies for diesel burns are typically 99 % or greater, but often less than those for crude oils. This paper will help to answer the question, are more PAHs destroyed by the fires than are created?
... F, P, Chry, BbF, BkF and BaP were detected in most of the selected samples (unburnt and charred litter). The detected PAHs were classified according to their molecular weight in low molecular weight (LMW PAHs 252 g/mol; 4-ring PAHs) including F, P and Chry, and in high molecular weight PAHs (HMW PAHs > 252 g/mol; 5-ring PAHs), BbF, BkF and BaP (Muel & Saguem, 1985;Berner et al., 1990). There are few studies about the evaluation of PAH levels under the influence of burnt conditions. ...
Since forest fires are source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the influence of burnt conditions is of paramount importance and has not been thoroughly studied yet. In this study, two types of forest stands (Pinus nigra and Pinus pinaster) and two shrubland systems (Erica arborea and Ulex europaeus), differing in litter properties (composition and flammability) were considered. Changes in PAHs levels were analysed in unburnt and charred litter and they were related to different levels of soil burn severity (SBS) and the organic matter (OM) composition of the charred litter, including charcoal and/or ashes. For monitoring PAHs levels, an analytical method to determine them in unburnt and burnt woodland samples by pressure liquid extraction (PLE) using a solid phase extraction (SPE) clean-up was optimized. The highest levels of PAHs were found in the charred litter of Pinus pinaster (especially at SBS= 200-400°C), followed by Ulex europaeus, which presented similar concentration than Erica arborea, and finally Pinus nigra. An association between the LMW PAHs and T50 DSC supports the idea of fire smoke as the main source of LMW PAHs in charred biomass generated at temperatures of 200-400°C. Instead, the fraction of HMW PAHs is related to H/C and O/C AFDW, with charring depending on their organic matter content in the burnt material. PAHs mobility will depend on the solubility of the organic matter, which is higher at higher pHs. The higher risk is the transport downstream to rivers or wet systems.
... Therefore PAH diagnostic ratios (DRs) have been widely used to qualitatively distinguish source assignments of PAH due to the frequent and userfriendly application (Zhang et al. 2015b). it could initially narrow the PAH source candidates and to conduct crude and qualitative source apportionments of PAHs, such as diesel and gasoline combustion emissions, different crude oil-processing products, and biomass burning processes, including bush, savanna, and grass fires (Benner et al. 1990;Budzinski et al. 1997;Pandey et al. 1999). ...
The presence of urban surface pollutants washed off by stormwater is a growing concern due to their adverse effects on receiving water quality. The stormwater quality mitigation strategies, therefore, should be based on the knowledge of the distribution and source apportionment of pollutants on urban surfaces. This study showcases the distribution of particulate-associated PAHs as a function of surface characteristic. Samples were obtained from six sites in the city of Dresden, Germany, using a wet vacuum sample-taking method. Both surface load (mg/m²) and solid-phase concentration (mg/g) of PAHs were determined. Results show that the highest surface load of ∑16PAHs was found at a natural stone-paved pedestrian path with 34.5 μg/m². By contrast, the highest solid-phase concentration occurred at a high traffic load road with 36 mg/kg. Through a combined qualitative diagnostic ratio and quantitative principal component analysis with stepwise multiple linear regression (PCA-MLR) source apportionment, two significant contributors to PAH at vehicular roads were primarily identified as pyrogenic and petrogenic sources; 81.6% of the PAH burden was ascribed to pyrogenic sources including vehicle emission, coal, and wood combustions; 18.4% was attributed to petrogenic sources, such as spilled engine oil and vehicular tire debris. To minimize the adverse influence of surface sediments adsorbed PAHs to the receiving waters via stormwater runoff, a surface pavement-based city street sweeping strategy could be planned and optimized to remove hazardous materials from the impervious urban surfaces.
... Petrogenic pollution is categorized by the majority of LMW PAHs (tri-and tetra-aromatics) (Benner et al., 1990;Wise et al., 1988), while the predominance of higher molecular weight (HMV) PAHs indicates the pyrolytic PAH contamination (Muel and Saguem, 1985). LMW/ HMV > 1 were found in all sites of Shadegan wetland, indicating the occurrence of petrogenic contamination from refined petroleum products or fuel oil (Soclo et al., 2000). ...
The distribution and sources of PAHs and n-alkanes were determined in the surface sediments from 202 locations in Shadegan international wetland with 537,700 ha. The concentrations of total n-alkanes and PAHs ranged from 395.3 to 14933.46 μg g− 1 dw and 593.74 to 53393.86 ng g− 1 dw, respectively. Compared with other worldwide surveys, the concentration and contamination of sedimentary hydrocarbons were classified very high. A common petrogenic hydrocarbon source was strongly suggested in all sites by n-alkanes' profile with a Cmax at n-C20, Pr/Ph and CPI ratios < 1 in all sites, and high percentage of UCM. Typical profile of petrogenic PAHs with alkyl-substituted naphthalenes and phenanthrenes predominance, various PAH ratios and multivariate analysis indicated that PAHs were mainly derived from petrogenic source. Naphthalene-derived compounds in all sites were significantly above their ERL, and adversely affected benthic biota. 92% of the sites had mean ERM values < 0.1, indicating high ecological risk on the wildlife of the wetland.
... PAHs contaminate, while Berner et al. (1990) reported that PAHs of the low molecular weight predominance as an indication of petrogenic origin. The values of LMW/HMW ratio were lower than 1 (ranged between 0.15 and 0.65 with a mean value of 0.33) indicating pyrolytic origin. ...
Petroleum hydrocarbons were identified and quantified in the surficial sediments of El-Mex Bay, Alexandria during 2013 and 2014. The results were compared with a previous study in 1995. Contamination by aliphatic hydrocarbons in the sediments of the Bay was found to be magnified by about 3 folds from the former study. It was found that the two n-alkanes C21 and C32 were the highly concentrated aliphatic among all the other alkanes with mean concentrations approaching 300ngg⁻¹drywt., while PAHs in the surficial sediments appeared to be clearly magnified to about 17-fold. The total PAH concentrations at the different stations in the Bay ranged between 1123 and 8654ngg⁻¹drywt. Various PAH concentration diagnostic ratios: LMW/HMW, Fluo/Py, Fluo/[Fluo+Py] and the isomeric ratios BbF/BaP against BkF/BaP were applied to identify the source of pollution by PAHs in the sediments of the Bay. All the above mentioned ratios were indicating pyrolytic origin of PAHs in the sediments with very weak evidence of petrogenic sources at few sites. Natural n-Alkanes Ratio (NAR) was used to assess the origin of aliphatic hydrocarbons.
The contribution of urban non-point source (NPS) pollution to surface water pollution has gradually increased, analyzing the sources of urban NPS pollution is of great significance for precisely controlling surface water pollution. A bibliometric analysis of relevant research literature from 2000 to 2021 reveals that the main methods used in the source analysis research of urban NPS pollution include the emission inventory approach, entry-exit mass balance approach, principal component analysis (PCA), positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, etc. These methods are primarily applied in three aspects: source analysis of rainfall-runoff pollution, source analysis of wet weather flow (WWF) pollution in combined sewers, and analysis of the contribution of urban NPS to the surface water pollution load. The application of source analysis methods in urban NPS pollution research has demonstrated an evolution from qualitative to quantitative, and further towards precise quantification. This progression has transitioned from predominantly relying on on-site monitoring to incorporating model simulations and employing mathematical statistical analyses for traceability. This paper reviews the principles, advantages, disadvantages, and the scope of application of these methods. It also aims to address existing problems and analyze potential future development directions, providing valuable references for subsequent related research.
In the present study, we studied the concentrations and proportions. We identified the potential sources and health risks of 12 probably carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rice grain from 31 sites in Thailand and Myanmar. The findings showed that PAH concentrations in rice grain samples from Thailand and Myanmar were in the range of 0.09 to 37.15 ng.g-1 with an average value of 18.22 ± 11.76 ng.g-1 and 0.07 to 150.73 ng.g-1 with an average value of 34.70 ± 40.57 ng.g-1, respectively. The majority group of PAHs in the rice grain samples from Thailand were the five-ring PAHs (78%), followed by four-rings (12%) and three-ring PAHs (9.5%), respectively, while for Myanmar was the five-ring PAHs were the majority (64.02%), followed by six-rings (15.22%) and four-ring PAHs (13.58%), respectively. The diagnostic ratio analysis suggested that pyrogenic origin is a major source of PAHs, and principal component analysis (PCA) identifies the incomplete combustion of fuel as likely the primary source of emissions source of PAHs contamination in rice grain samples. The total values of incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) of PAH content of rice grain for children and adults were 1.95 × 10-8 and 1.44 × 10-8, respectively, for Thailand and 1.83×10-7 and 1.35×10-7 for Myanmar, which showed that the incremental lifetime cancer risk from rice grain was lower than the baseline set is considered to be safe levels.
Atmospheric concentrations of 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in a rural area in northern Spain. Both the gas phase and particulate fraction were determined to evaluate the types and abundance of PAHs taken up by vegetation and the historical record of PAH deposition in an ombrotrophic peatland over the last 300 years. The total atmospheric PAH concentration was ca. 2.5 ng m−3, a value that is slightly lower value than those found in other rural areas, consistent with those of remote areas (Pyrenees, Alps, and Caledonian Mountains), and much lower than those recorded in urban areas. The particulate fraction showed a greater content of high molecular weight PAHs, whereas the gas phase was enriched in low molecular weight homologues. The concentration of total PAHs in the gas phase was higher than that in the particulate fraction (ca. 80%) and similar to that found in other localities in remote areas. PAHs showed seasonal variability. In this regard, the highest concentrations in the gas phase occurred in winter and autumn, whereas in the particulate fraction they were found in winter and spring. Of note, the concentrations of PAHs increased in the particulate fraction during the years in which fires occurred. The PAH content in peat-forming plants in this area showed a similar distribution to that of the gas phase. The historical record of the depositional fluxes of PAHs in an ombrotrophic peatland in the study area, which was dated radiometrically, allowed to reconstruct the changes in pollutant content between 1775 and the present. In general, the PAHs detected were of pyrogenic origin (fossil fuels and wood combustion). The concentrations of these pollutants increased from uniform background levels at the turn of the second half of the 19th century, which were linked to industrial development, to maximum values during the first half of the 20th century until the beginning of the 21st century, when the extraction and combustion of coal was extensive close to the study area. In contrast, in the uppermost part of the record, PAH concentrations decreased. This reduction is attributed to the implementation of environmental policies, although the concentrations of these pollutants were still greater than during the preindustrial period. To gain a detailed understanding of the deposition and evolution of PAHs in the study area, here it is reported on a new method that integrates current atmospheric data on PAHs with information on their accumulation in plants and the historical peat record of a rural area in Spain. The methodology described herein could be applied to other scenarios in the context of PAH pollution.
The city of Nizhnevartovsk is one of the centers of oil production in Western Siberia (Russia). A survey of the contents of trace metals and metalloids (TMMs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the snow cover was conducted there. It was aimed to study insoluble particles in the snow where the predominant fraction of pollutants in urban areas is concentrated. In contrast to the background area, the deposition of TMMs in Nizhnevartovsk increases by 1–2 orders of magnitude. The deposition of V and Mn increases by 37 and 88 times, respectively, and the deposition of W increases at most (by 98 times). Abrasion of spikes of winter tires, abrasion of metal parts of vehicles, and combustion of motor fuels cause the pollution with W, Co, and V, respectively. The total content of 12 EPA PAHs in the particulate fraction of snow in the urban area averaged 148.2 ng l−1, and the deposition rate was 17.0 μg/m2. In contrast to the background area, the fraction of high molecular weight 5–6-ring PAHs significantly increases in the city, especially dibenzo(a,h)anthracene (DahA). The indicative ratios of PAHs showed that the snowpack composition was influenced by both petrogenic and pyrogenic sources. The proportion of pyrogenic sources is the highest in the low-rise residential area due to fuel combustion to produce heat and burning of household waste. The impact of motor transport is also major and is manifested in the maximum pollution in areas of heavy traffic. No emissions of PAHs from oil spills from the nearby Samotlor oil field have been identified. It is concluded that the hydrocarbon pollution of the atmosphere from the field weakens during the winter period compared to the warm season. Application of the integral TDF index characterizes the majority (72%) of the studied samples as lowly polluted, 24% of the observation sites are classified as moderately polluted, and one (4%), as highly polluted. The maximum TDF values are observed in the industrial area. The data obtained during the study allowed us to identify the central areas and sites along the roads with the heaviest traffic as the most contaminated areas of the city. This study can be a reference for air pollution monitoring in Nizhnevartovsk.
Some of Russia’s large industrial cities are sources of hazardous contamination in the environment. Tyumen is one of the most rapidly developing cities in Siberia due to oil and gas extraction in the northern Tyumen Region. Concentrations of 14 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)s deposited with the particulate matter (PM) of snow in the city of Tyumen were determined by liquid chromatography. In the background area, the rate of atmospheric particulate deposition was shown to be low, and the mean total content of 14 PAHs had a value of 6.2 ng L−1, which is lower than many unpolluted areas on Earth. In the city of Tyumen, the mean content of PM was five times higher and the mean total content of 14 PAHs was twenty times higher as compared to the background. The contents of chrysene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, and benzo(a)pyrene were increased by multiples of 78, 77, and 32, respectively. The rates of ∑14 PAH deposition with airborne PM over the winter ranged from 1.1 to 65.5 μg m−2. Calculations of BaP toxic equivalent showed maximal toxicity within the transport zone. Both analysis of spatial distribution and diagnostic ratios showed that the PAHs were mainly from coal combustion and vehicle emissions.
The city of Nizhnevartovsk is one of the centers of oil production in Western Siberia (Russia). A survey of the contents of trace metals and metalloids (TMMs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the snow cover was conducted there. It was aimed to study insoluble particles in the snow where the predominant share of pollutants in urban areas is concentrated. In contrast to the background areas, the deposition of TMMs in Nizhnevartovsk increases by 1–2 orders of magnitude. The deposition of Co, V, Mn, and As increases by 50–93 times, and the deposition of W increases at most (by 184 times on average). Abrasion of spikes of winter tires, abrasion of metal parts of vehicles, and combustion of motor fuels cause the pollution with W, Co, and V respectively. The total content of 12 EPA PAHs in the particulate fraction of snow in the urban area averaged 148.2 ng l ⁻¹ , and the deposition rate was 17.0 µg/m ² . In contrast to the background areas, the share of high molecular weight 5-6-ring PAHs significantly increases in the city, especially dibenzo(a,h)anthracene (DahA). The indicative ratios of PAHs showed that the snowpack composition was influenced by both petrogenic and pyrogenic sources. The proportion of pyrogenic sources is the highest in the low-rise residential area due to fuel combustion to produce heat and burning of household waste. The impact of motor transport is also major and is manifested in the maximum pollution in areas of heavy traffic. No emissions of PAHs from oil spills from the nearby Samotlor oil field have been identified. It is concluded that the hydrocarbon pollution of the atmosphere from the field weakens during the winter period compared to the warm season. Application of the I geo index characterizes the majority of the studied samples as unpolluted, 24% of the observation sites are classified as moderately polluted, and one (4%), as highly polluted.
Objectives
The paper evaluated the benefit and risk for human health associated with consumption of sea cucumber H. polii from Italian coasts (Central Mediterranean Sea).
Materials and Methods
body wall-BW, internal tunic-ITu, muscle bands-MB, alimentary canal-AC, gonad-Gd and respiratory tree-RT of H. polii were analyzed for proximate composition. Moreover, aminoacids, fatty acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined with HPLC UV/Vis, GC-FID and GC-MS, respectively.
Results
Differences in the contents of Total Aminoacids (TAA) occurred based on tissue and sex, with AC and MB of female and Gd of male showing higher contents (range 47.8 -60.2 g/kg ww). Glycine and glutamic acid were the most abundant. Polyunsaturated (PUFA) was the major class of fatty acids and Arachidonic and Eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acids were the predominant PUFA. n-3 PUFA showed higher content in Gd, AC and RT indicating a higher quality. A favorable n-3/n-6 in the range 1.04-1.67 was observed. PAHs showed values ranged from 23 to 207 µg/kg ww with the highest levels in Gd-AC tissues and the lower in BW. Benzo[a]Pyrene, the most toxic compound, was detected in all tissues, of both sexes, at levels of 1.5-18 µg/Kg ww.
Conclusion
All tissues of H. polii, although with differences among them, are valuable food and can contribute for a healthy diet. Excess Cancer risk (CR) values for Gd and AC tissues, were above the considerable CR threshold of one in ten thousand established by USEPA, for high ingestion rate of these seafood.
The combustion efficiency of simulated at-sea surface oil burns (in situ burns) was determined in a 63 m³ tank while testing varied boom configurations and air-assist nozzles in the presence and absence of waves. Combustion efficiencies of Alaska North Slope oil based on unburned carbon in the plume emissions ranged from 85% to 93% while values based on oil mass loss ranged from 89% to 99%. A four-fold variation in PM2.5 emission factors was observed from the test conditions. The most effective burns in terms of reduced emissions and post-burn residue concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbons were those that had high length to width boom ratios resulting in higher flame front surface area exposure to ambient air. The amount of oil mass lost was not related to any combustion efficiency parameters measured in the plume, representing a potential tradeoff between unburnt oil and air pollution.
The first atmospheric PAHs levels and associated inhalation cancer risk were assessed over southwest Buenos Aires region by deploying PUF disk PAS samplers. Eight sampling location included coastal zones, touristic beaches, and rural inland areas were considered. PUF disks were fortified with surrogate standards and extracted by automated Soxhlet prior to GC–MS analysis. Σ16 PAHs ranged from 1.13 to 44.5 ng m−3 (10.3 ± 9.8), while urban locations showed up to 10 times higher PAH levels than rural or beach locations. Direct sources of PAHs, such as intensive vehicle traffic, heating, and general combustion activities, were identified. PAHs with four to six rings (46.62%) were predominantly Flt, Pyr, BbF, and BkF, and carcinogenic risk was expressed by BaP (0.10 ± 0.07 ng m−3) and BaPTEQs (0.26 ± 0.22 ng m−3). Inhalation ECR (2.23E-5, WHO) presented the lowest risk at beach locations. Molecular ratios and PCA showed a strong dominance in pyrolytic sources, such as biomass and coal combustion, with a particular signature in fires at inland locations. Overall, this study demonstrated that PUF disk passive air sampling provided a sound and simple approach for tracking air PAHs, their sources and public health risks, bringing a cost-effective tool for pollution control measures, even at small and remote towns. This is particularly relevant in extensive countries with medium or low income, such as Argentina.
Shipments of Bakken crude oil by rail have increased in concert with the production of unconventional crude oil in the Williston Basin over the past 10 years, during which time multiple fiery train derailments resulted in tragic loss of life and/or environmental impacts. In this study the compositions of Bakken oil burn residues from a derailment fire(s) are compared to fresh and laboratory-evaporated Bakken crude oil. The absolute and hopane-normalized concentrations of n-alkanes, unsubstituted and substituted PAHs, and petroleum biomarkers and their percent depletions and enrichments (relative to hopane) are reported. Bakken oil burn residues lost 67–78% of their total chromatographable mass (C5 to C44) and exhibit chemical trends distinct from naturally-evaporated oil, including (1) the shape of their UCM profiles, (2) depletion of n-alkanes up to (at least) n-C30, (3) enrichment of priority pollutant (pyrogenic) PAHs, specifically favoring PAH isomers containing three or more linear aromatic rings (anthracene or benz[a]anthracene) or 5-member rings (fluoranthene or indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene), and (4) depletion of some lower boiling petroleum biomarkers (C23-C25 tricyclic terpanes). Despite relative enrichment of most priority pollutant PAHs the absolute concentrations of both total PAH (TPAH50) and priority pollutant PAH (PPAH16) in the burn residues were depleted 69–78% and 41–48%, respectively, compared to fresh Bakken oil. These results demonstrate the changes and range of compositions among fresh, evaporated, and variably-combusted residues of Bakken crude oil, the latter of which are important in assessing the potential effect(s) of burn residues on the environment proximal to train derailment fires.
Internal combustion engines are among the main sources of soot particles, especially when non-homogeneous and high fuel-air ratio conditions are achieved in the combustion chamber (both diesel and direct injection spark ignition engines). Environmental regulations for the road transportation limit the number and mass of particles significantly, making the use of diesel and gasoline particle filters -DPF, GPF- essential for trapping and burning off, or regenerating, the soot. The tendency of soot to be burnt is called oxidative reactivity, which depends on the combined effect of all its properties and characteristics. The reactivity of soot particles was considered a detrimental characteristic in the past, prompting atmospheric reactions that form more harmful pollutants or lubricant oil degradation. However, some beneficial effects of this characteristic are now acknowledged, such as reducing the number of active filter regeneration events, and thus fuel consumption, driver annoyance and filter thermal stress. This review summarizes the results of soot characterization by applying different analysis techniques. These techniques have been categorized in structural, chemical and thermal, depending on the type of soot property they look into. Structural techniques, such as Raman spectroscopy and electron energy loss spectroscopy, analyze the defects in the graphitic nanostructure, or describe the bulk patterns of the graphitic nanostructure (X-ray diffraction spectrometry) or the porous microstructure (physisorption or chemisorption). Also, microscopic techniques provide valuable information about the visible nano- and microstructure. Chemical techniques, such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, or magnetic nuclear resonance describe the chemical oxidizing state, mainly on the soot surface. Other techniques, such as thermogravimetry and differential calorimetry directly analyze the thermal or mass response of soot under a hot and oxidizing environment. Finally, soot is oxidized in particulate filters during active or passive-active regeneration processes depending on its structural and chemical characteristics. These characteristics have been found to be associated with both engine conditions (mainly engine load) and type of fuel (with preferential effect of oxygenated fuels). However, it has been demonstrated that different soot characteristics may contribute to opposite trends in reactivity, and therefore, a partial analysis of soot characteristics may lead to incorrect conclusions.
In the present study chemical fingerprinting approach (isomeric ratios), a receptor-oriented model (principal component analysis with multiple linear regression, PCA/MLR) and a probabilistic health risk framework were employed to characterization, source appointment and carcinogenic risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in street dusts of Karaj urban area (northern Iran). Thirty street dusts samples were collected from the different functional areas in the city of Karaj and analyzed for PAHs by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GS/MS). The results obtained showed that ∑16PAHs concentrations varied widely from 16.2 to 1236.2 with a mean of 624 μg/kg and decreased in the following order of functional areas; traffic> residential > green/park areas. PAHs profile in the majority of dust samples were dominated by 5–6 rings PAHs, accounting for 25%–95% of the total PAHs. Qualitative source apportionment using the molecular isomeric ratios indicated mixed sources of PAHs in street dusts while PCA/MLR receptor model quantitatively identified three major sources with following relative contributions to the total dust PAH burden; 51% for pyrogenic-traffic sources, 32% for traffic-stationary sources and, 16% for petrogenic sources. The results of health risk assessment based on probabilistic model indicated that at the 95% percentiles, total cancer risks for children and adults are 8.43 × 10−4 and 3.34 × 10−5, respectively which both are higher than the acceptable baseline (10−6) indicating potential carcinogenic risk for local residents. It was also revealed that dust ingestion pathway is the most important contributor to the total carcinogenic risks of PAHs for both children and adults although the cancer risk level for adults through dermal and inhalation was 10 times greater than that for children. Based on the sensitivity analysis using the Monte Carlo simulation, benzo[a]pyrene equivalent concentration, exposure duration, dermal exposure area and ingestion rate were found to be the most sensitive exposure parameters which could introduce uncertainties into the cancer risk estimated.
Soils in urban and industrial areas, especially in larger metropolitan areas such as the Ruhr area, Germany, are commonly characterized by severe anthropogenic overprinting due to urbanization processes including land development measures. Such urban soils often contain various anthropogenic substrate admixtures, like ash, coal, tailings, building rubble, industrial waste materials, as well as urban dust, soot, fly ash, and others. These admixtures often carry higher contents of pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Whereas elevated PAH concentrations are commonly attributed to non-point pyrogenic carbon sources like soot and particulate matter, petrogenic PAH sources are still largely neglected in this context.
In this study, an extended sample set of 62 samples of PAH source materials and urban soils containing anthropogenic substrate components was investigated by combining extended PAH analysis of 59 PAH, alkylated PAH distributions and benzene polycarboxylic acid (BPCA) analysis with regard to petrogenic and pyrogenic PAH source identification. For more reliability of source apportionment by a more integrative signal, the alkylated PAH distributions of different PAH groups were combined according to their degrees of alkylation. Based on this combination, a new PAH alkylation index (ΣC0/(ΣC0+ΣC2)) was derived, which considers, in contrast to commonly used single PAH ratios, a series of non-alkylated and alkylated PAH.
By comparison of this PAH alkylation index with the degree of aromatic condensation a new robust and economic method for identifying petrogenic, pyrogenic and mixed PAH sources within soil samples and sediments was developed. It is shown that coal and coal ash particles are a not negligible PAH source in urban soils of mining-dominated regions and can make up a large proportion of the anthropogenic substrate components encountered.
Further analyses of samples with defined levels of petrogenic and pyrogenic PAH are necessary to finally evaluate the usefulness of this proposed new PAH-BPCA approach.
Hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous compounds, which have posed high risk to the human health and ecological systems. In this study, conspicuous crude oil contaminated water samples from regions around seven derricks of the Ese-Odo Offshore, Nigeria were homogenized and analyzed for suspected PAHs. Analytes were simultaneously extracted by Liquid-Liquid extraction using dichloromethane and analyzed by gas chromatograph coupled with mass spectrophotometer (GC-MS). The concentration of PAHs in water sample range from 0.07-113.16 ppm with ΣPAHs of 381.06 ppm, having Biphenylene (0.018%) and Fluoranthene (29.696%) as the least and most abundant respectively. The average PAH-homologue concentrations are 4 rings ( Fluoranthene; 1113.16 ppm) >2 ring (Naphthalene; 58.67 ppm and its derivative; 48.05 ppm) >3 rings ( Fluorene ; 45.45 ppm) > 5 ring (Benzo[a]pyrene; 1.73 ppm). Generally, PAHs concentration at the ppm range is quite alarming with results pointing more at petrogenic than pyrogenic or mixed origin. Estimated PAHs like benzo[a]; 1.73 ppm, benzo [b] fluoranthene, 16.08 ppm, benzo [ghi] perylene; 2.09 ppm and Dibenz [a,h] anthracene; 4.72 ppm has properties that are either carcinogenic, toxic, mutagenic or teratogenic and are therefore dangerous to health.
The present study was conducted on the Tigris River in Baghdad Governorate which starting from Al-Muthana bridge to Al-Zaufurania City before it’s jointed with Diyalla River. Six Sites were chosen on Tigris River along Baghdad Governorate. Surface water samples were collected bimonthly from January to December 2013 to measuring the concentrations and distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) once every two months and predicting their source of the samples of surface water. The lowest of total PAHs value was 0.007 ppm which recorded during October 2013 at Site 3 where as the highest value was 0.279 ppm which recorded during August 2013.The lowest value of 0.0002 ppm was recorded for Fluorene and Fluoranthene while the highest value of 0.2 ppm for Naphthalene was recorded at Site 3.The composition patterns of PAHs in water were determined. The lowest and highest value of 0.0037 and 0.204 ppm was recorded for 2-ring PAHs at site 3 and 6 during summer and winter of 2013, respectively. Whereas the lowest and highest value of 0.001 and 0.095 were recorded for 3-ring PAHs at site 5 and 6 during winter and summer 2013, respectively. On the other hand, the lowest and highest values of 4-ring PAHs were 0.001 and 0.078 which recorded at site 4 and 6, respectively, during summer 2013. The lowest and the highest concentration of 0.0023 and 0.179 were observed for 5-ring PAHs at site 1 during winter and spring 2013, respectively. The highest concentration of 6-ring PAHs was 0.03 ppm which recorded at site 1 in summer 2013 whereas the lowest concentration was 0.0031 ppm which recorded at site 1 and 3 in winter and spring 2013, respectively. According to the values of ratios (Phen/Ant, Flur/Py, LMW-PAHs/HMW-PAHs), the distribution of PAHs in water may have the origin from different source pyrogenic and petrogenic at site 4 and 5 and from pyrogenic and urban air in other sites of the present study.
PAHs in sediment cores have been investigated as a useful proxy of historic fire events in the watershed of an estuary. Oxygen poor and anoxic lake bottom conditions in estuarine brackish lakes Shinji and Nakaumi could prevent the oxidization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and preserve a record of PAHs in sediments. PAHs emitted from wood and/or grass burning have been analyzed for composition and concentrations during the last ∼300 years. Carbonized plant material which remained after artificial agricultural fires and heating experiments have been used to estimate fire temperature. The equation relating maximum temperature and hydrogen to carbon (H/C) atomic ratio of the charcoal is as follows: Temp (°C) = 317 x (H/C)−0.708 (R² = 0.924, 200–700 °C).
These experiments and the gas chromatography - mass spectrometry analysis of PAHs on the charcoals suggest that PAHs were primarily produced at temperatures less than 500 °C in the burning of wild plants.
The PAHs contents in the two sediment cores were not related to total organic carbon (TOC) contents and emission of industrial waste, and were directly due to fire events in this region. Although TOC contents of the sediments were constant at about 0.5% in Lake Shinji and 1.0% in Lake Nakaumi before ca. 1900 CE, and increased up to about 4% due to recent nutrient discharge, the profiles of PAHs contents were completely different. The sediment cores contained the following PAHs: phenanthrene (P), fluoranthene (Fla), pyrene (Py), benz[a]anthracene (BaAn), benzofluoranthenes (Bflas), benzo[e]pyrene (BePy), indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (InPy) and benzo[ghi]perylene (BghiP). The contents of 6-ring InPy and BghiP, high temperature markers, are lower than those of the other low ring Py, BaAn, Bflas and BePy, showing low to medium intensity/temperature fire events. Relatively higher BaAn contents suggest that the PAHs were carried and deposited in the sediments for a short period after the fire. The PAHs peak groups B (1830–1870 CE) and C (1920 CE) may be attributed to the burning of wood buildings in Matsue City, and the PAHs peak group period D (1970–1980 and 2000–2007 CE) could be mainly due to forest fires. The general increase in PAHs after 1850 CE could be caused by climate change after the Little Ice Age. The PAHs with maximum total peak concentrations at 30–34 cm depth (1850 CE: 4890 ng g⁻¹) in Lake Shinji and at 8–12 cm depth (1970–1980 CE: 2030 ng g⁻¹) in Lake Nakaumi are not at a toxic level.
Regulating the synthesis of photocatalytic materials at the molecular level could affect the absorption of light and guide the synthesis of highly efficient photocatalysts for the photocatalytic degradation organic pollutants. The results of UV-Visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy(UV-Vis DRS), zeta potential and the photocatalytic degradation of phenanthrene in water both proved that the stronger the electron-donating groups in MIL-101(Fe)-X and UIO-66-X (X = -OH, -NH2, -COOH, -NO2 and -H), the better the photocatalytic efficiency, and the catalytic efficiency followed the order of -OH > -NH2 > -COOH > -NO2 > -H. This order was due the electronegativity regulation of the MIL-101(Fe)-X and UIO-66-X by the electron-donating groups in their structure. The XRD, UV-Vis DRS and XPS studies of MIL-101(Fe)-X and UIO-66-X showed that the structure of these two series of MOFs remained unchanged after the photocatalytic degradation of phenanthrene. The above results provide a direction for the synthesis of highly efficient photocatalysts.
The chapter highlights the comprehensive account of congener profiles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in intertidal bivalve mollusks (Meretrix meretrix, Macoma birmanica, and Sanguilonaria (Soletellina) acuminata) of Indian Sundarban mangrove wetland. The main aim of this work was to use the bivalves as bioindicators of the contamination of the 16 USEPA PAH. The PAH profile in bivalves is largely dominated by a petrogenic fingerprint, with over-imposition of pyrolytic PAH sources, as evidenced by diagnostic molecular ratios. Bioaccumulation factors (BAF) of individual compounds from the sediments were calculated, and it reveals overall higher values in the visceral mass of the bivalves. S acuminata showed significantly higher levels of PAHs, especially the high-molecular-weight (HMW) PAHs, compared to the other two species as a sensitive indicator of trace organic stress in future monitoring programmes.
We present a facile and continuous approach to prepare polyHIPE monoliths for efficient reclamation of spilled oils. The polyHIPE monoliths were produced from a light induced polymerization of an ionomer, namely sulfonated polystyrene stabilized high internal phase emulsions (SPS-HIPEs). The SPS-HIPEs consisted of seawater as the dispersed aqueous phase and inexpensive monomers such as butyl acrylate and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) as the continuous phase. Sulfonated polystyrene was from used foams, realizing a sustainable transformation of waste polystyrene. PolyHIPE monoliths from SPS-HIPEs (SPS-polyHIPEs) reached a high gel fraction of 93 % with exposure to UV light for only 5 minutes, providing a possibility to produce them continuously. SPS-polyHIPEs are much greener in comparison to those from surfactant- or particles-stabilized HIPEs, and no purification is required prior to use. SPS-polyHIPE monoliths exhibit interconnected macro-porous structures, and the sizes of pores as well as pore throats can be controlled simply by the volume fraction of the dispersed phase. These monoliths are hydrophobic with a water contact angle over 140o. Excellent performances have been verified for oil spill reclamation, including high absorption capacity to a series of organic solvents or oils, high absorption rate of reaching saturated absorption in 3 to 5 minutes, a high recovery rate over 85% and a high reusability over 20 times. A continuous process has been illustrated using SPS-polyHIPEs as absorbents for oil spill recovery.
This paper is a review of petroleum chemistry. The traditional separation of Saturates, Aromatics, Resins and Asphaltenes (SARA) oil components is summarized. Details 011 these groupings and many compounds within the groupings and where available, the typical amounts found 111 some oils, is given. A detailed look at compounds found 111 oil and the amount of these is presented. The compounds are related to the overall composition and the SARA composition. Details of more than 500 compounds will be given 111 the paper. The composition can be related to bulk properties and bulk composition. Examples of this are given.
Several mesoscale burns were conducted in 1994 in Mobile Bay, AL, to study various aspects of diesel fuel burning in situ. Samples were taken from the oil, residue and the smoke plume during each burn and analyzed by capillary GC-MS. The burn residue and soot produced from the burns were estimated to account for 0.1-0.3% and 8-14% of the diesel by weight, respectively. The high molecular weight PAH with five or more rings were found largely generated by combustion. A simple model based on mass balance of individual petroleum PAH pre- and post-burn was proposed to estimate the destruction efficiencies of the total petroleum PAH. The total destruction efficiencies of target PAH were > 99% for all three scenarios. Using this model, 27.3 kg of the diesel PAH, mainly 2- and 3-ring PAH and their alkylated homologues, were destroyed when 1000 kg of diesel were burned. In addition to the conventional criteria (the predominance of higher molecular weight PAH over the 2- and 3-ring PAH, and the predominance of the unsubstituted parent PAH over the alkylated homologues and decrease in relative abundances with increasing levels of alkylation), a new diagnostic ratio was proposed as a quantitative indicator for identification of pyrogenic PAH and for differentiating pyrogenic PAH from petrogenic PAH. The ratio was significantly greater in the soot samples than in the starting oil. This ratio could also be used as a screening tool to distinguish heavy oils and heavy fuels from most crude oils and light petroleum products. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the 21st Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program, AMOP Technical Seminar (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 6/10-12/98).
INTRODUCTION An unprecedented volume of crude oil was burned during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill response (Figure 1), with an estimated 220,000-310,000 bbl of surface oil consumed by in-situ burning over a ten-week period in 2010. Most of the resultant burn residue from these large-scale operations sank in the relatively deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico. In late 2010, the deep-water royal red shrimp fishery operating north of the Macondo wellhead and the primary burn zone encountered tarballs at 200 m (Figure 2). At that time, some of these tarballs were tentatively sourced as Deepwater Horizon in-situ burn residue (Figure 3). This apparent intersection of the fishery with burned oil suggested a need to better understand the characteristics of burned crude oil and the changes that occur to oil during the combustion process.
Export Date: 23 September 2013, Source: Scopus
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Combustion processes are responsible for the vast majority of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that enter the environment. This review presents and discusses some of the factors that affect the production (type of fuel, amount of oxygen, and temperature) and environmental fate (physicochemical properties, biodegradation, photodegradation, and chemical oxidation) of combustion-derived PAHs. Because different combustion processes can yield similar assemblages of PAHs, apportionment of sources is often a difficult task. Several of the frequently applied methods for apportioning sources of PAHs in the environment are also discussed.
The use of water as an ancillary combustion control technique has recently received renewed interest. This paper historically reviews the applications of water addition to practical combustion systems and discusses in detail the fundamental aspects of combustion which are affected. Combustion properties of water-in-fuel emulsions are elaborated upon, and several potentially favorable applications which require additional research are identified.
Sampling of the smoke plumes from the BP Deepwater Horizon surface oil burns led to the unintentional collection of soot particles on the sail of an instrument-bearing, tethered aerostat. This first-ever plume sampling from oil burned at an actual spill provided an opportunistic sample from which to characterize the particles' chemical properties for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organic carbon, elemental carbon, metals, and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs) and physical properties for size and nanostructure. Thermal-optical analyses indicated that the particulate matter was 93% carbon with 82% being refractory elemental carbon. PAHs accounted for roughly 68μg/g of the PM filter mass and 5mg/kg oil burned, much lower than earlier laboratory based studies. Microscopy indicated that the soot is distinct from more common soot by its aggregate size, primary particle size, and nanostructure. PM-bound metals were largely unremarkable but PCDD/PCDF formation was observed, contrary to other's findings. Levels of lighter PCDD/PCDF and PAH compounds were reduced compared to historical samples, possibly due to volatilization or photo-oxidation.
In situ burning is a method by which oil is burned at a spill site under controlled conditions, and this method is subject to increased interest due to its applicability in the Arctic. This paper reviews the literature regarding the characterization and environmental effects of burn residues in Arctic waters. The results of a systematic literature search indicate that only a very limited number of studies have arctic pertinence. From the review, it is also indicated that the properties and composition of the residues depend on the efficiency of the burning and the oil type. Furthermore, the studies within the frame of the literature search reach consensus that in situ burning may increase the concentrations of large poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; high ring number) while reducing small PAHs (low ring number). There are very few toxicity studies of burn residues on aquatic and arctic organisms, and to enhance the knowledge base, more organisms as well as oil types must be studied. Furthermore, there is a lack of studies investigating the potential effect of sinking burn residues on benthic organism and the smothering effects of the more viscous burn residues on birds and other organisms related to the sea surface. More knowledge regarding environmental fate and effect of residues is crucial to complete a robust net environmental benefit analysis prior to an oil spill response operation in arctic waters.
The identification of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as priority pollutants by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 has been a primary driver for analytical methods development for the determination of PAHs. In this article, the historical development of methods in liquid chromatography (LC) and gas chromatography (GC) to separate these 16 PAHs is discussed. In LC a significant effort was the search for and the fundamental understanding of the unique stationary phase capable of achieving the desired separation of the 16 EPA PAHs. For GC methods, the focus on stationary phase development has been the separation of critical isomers with a broader scope than the 16 EPA PAHs. The current routine LC and GC methods for the 16 EPA PAHs are well established; however, new advances in analytical techniques beyond LC and GC are discussed. Many analysts are now interested in more than just the 16 EPA PAHs (e.g., higher molecular mass PAHs and alkyl-substituted PAHs) and analytical methods have emerged to address these needs. Reference materials and their use in the determination of PAHs are discussed.
A series of 12 mesoscale burns were conducted in 1997 to assess fire-resistant booms and to study various aspects of in-situ burning of diesel oil. Combustion gases, including CO2, did not reach exposure level maximums. The particulates were emitted at low levels by the smaller burns and the maximum extent of hazardous levels was ∼ 50 m in terms of PM-10 (particulates of size less than 10 μm). Both electronic instruments and standard filter-collection devices were used at six stations for TSP (Total Suspended Particulate) for PM-10 and PM-2.5. The amount of the TSP corresponded to the amount of both PM-10 and the PM-2.5. The amount of the smaller particulates was generally larger than expected, indicating that particles are broken down by the instrumentation. This was especially true of the DataRAM. The electronic measuring instruments, the RAM and DataRAM, yielded relatively good results for total particulate, if corrected by using background readings taken before and after the burns. They were less reliable than standard instruments for measuring PM-10 and PM-2.5. CO2 was measured at 13 stations, and at 7 of these stations was measured at 4 different elevations to establish the three-dimensional distribution. The highest concentrations of CO2 were found most frequently at the lowest levels or at the 2-m level depending on ambient conditions. The distribution of CO2 was fitted to a three-dimensional model. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the 21st Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program, AMOP Technical Seminar (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 6/10-12/1998).
A series of 12 mesoscale burns were conducted in 1997 to assess fire-resistant booms and to study various aspects of diesel oil burning in situ. Extensive sampling and monitoring of these burns were conducted to determine the emissions. Particulate samples in air were taken and analyzed for PAH. Water under the burns was analyzed; small amounts of PAH were found. The burn residue was analyzed for PAH as well. PAH were at about the same concentration in the residue than in the starting oil; however there was a slight differential concentration increase in some higher molecular weight species in the residue. The overall concentration of the alkylated PAH is about the same in the starting diesel and the residue. The concentration of CO2 measured using long-path IR corresponded very well to that measured by conventional instruments. The CO levels were at threshold levels and correlated with the CO2 levels, indicating that drift conditions are similar also at threshold levels. Significant amounts of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone, propionaldehyde, methyl ethyl ketone, resulted from diesel fires, although the amounts were variable and measurements depended on local meteorological conditions. Fires emitted many VOC, but in lesser quantity than when the oil is not burning. The VOC compounds released in greatest amounts were hexane, toluene, dodecane, propane, butane, etc. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the 22nd Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program, AMOP Technical Seminar (Calgary, Alberta, Canada 6/2-4/99).
Export Date: 23 September 2013, Source: Scopus
Experimentation and analysis were performed to quantify the combustion of crude oil on water. The burning behavior of three crude oils -- ALBERTA SWEET, LA ROSE, and MURBAN, were studied using 1.2-m-diameter pool burns; in 0.6-m-diameter pool fires using ALBERTA SWEET, combustion products were collected for extensive chemical analysis. The analysis showed that about 10% of the crude oil was converted to smoke in the combustion process. The CO concentration was a factor of 25 lower than the primary gaseous product COâ, and the emission of NO and NOx were less than one thousandth the concentration of COâ. The PAH content of the smoke was enriched in the larger molecular weight species in comparison with the original fuel. A methodology was developed with which the down-wind dispersal of smoke generated by one or more oil-spill fires in close proximity may be predicted.
Troll B crude oil was weathered under Arctic conditions with different ice coverage: open water, 50% ice and 90% ice. Samples (100mL) were taken during the experiment and tested for ignitability in a burning cell. From each burning a residue sample was taken for analysis. The burning process removed the light compounds eluting before C13. No effect from the prior weathering time or the different ice coverage was seen in the burn residue composition. The content of selected Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) was determined and it was noted that the concentration of PAHs with more than 4 rings were increased. The source origin of the PAHs was investigated by use of relative ratios of PAH isomers and indicated that some formation of PAHs was additionally taking place during burning.
Recent field trials and tanker accidents have shown that burning crude oil at sea can be an effective response for marine oil spills. Nevertheless, there is concern that the residue may have elevated levels of potentially toxic pyrogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. We have simulated a marine oil slick burn using Statfjord crude oil, a light paraffinic North Sea crude. The burn was over seawater to an efficiency of 85%, typical of efficiencies achieved in the field. We have used gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to examine the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present in the crude oil burn residue and used hopane as a conserved internal marker in the oil to allow us to quantify the generation of pyrogenic compounds. The concentrations of several of the pyrogenic aromatic compounds were somewhat enriched in the residue, but these increases were outweighed by the mass of oil consumed in the burn. In situ burning substantially reduced the total amount of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons left on the water surface after the spill.
This volume is based on a symposium jointly sponsored by the Division of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology and Environmental Chemistry in Las Vegas in August 1980. Some of the topics covered include a characterization of source and air quality measurements, application of factor analysis to urban aerosol resolution, composition of source components needed for aerosol source apportionment, some measurement techniques, and finally the results of some field studies.
In-situ burning of spilled oil, which receives considerable attention in marine conditions, could be an effective way to cleanup wetland oil spills. An experimental in-situ burn was conducted to study the effects of oil type, marsh type, and water depth on oil chemistry and oil removal efficiency from the water surface and sediment. In-situ burning decreased the totaltargeted alkanes and total targeted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the burn residues as compared to the pre-burn diesel and crude oils. Removal was even more effective for short-chain alkanes and low ring-number PAHs. Removal efficiencies for alkanes and PAHs were >98% in terms of mass balance although concentrations of some long-chain alkanes and high ring-number PAHs increased in the burn residue as compared to the pre-burn oils. Thus, in-situ burning potentially prevents floating oil from drifting into and contaminating adjacent habitats and penetrating the sediment. In addition, in-situ burning significantly removed diesel oil that had penetrated the sediment for all water depths. Furthermore, in-situ burning at a water depth 2 cm below the soil surface significantly removed crude oil that had penetrated the sediment. As a result, in-situ burning may reduce the long-term impacts of oil on benthic organisms.
Com-bustion: An Oil Spill Mitigation Tool. PNL-2929; Final report
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Experimental Measurements of Emissions From Residential Wood-Burning Stoves. In Residential Solid Fuels: Environmental Impacts and Solutions
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Characterization of Emissions from Residential Wood Combustion Sources In Residential Solid Fuels: Environmental Impacts and Solutions
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Soot Production from In-Situ Oil Fires: Review of the Literature, Measurement and Estimation Techniques and Calculation of Values from Experimental Spills
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The Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment: Further Results of Emissions Measurement
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The Measurement of Volatiles, Semi-Volatiles and Heavy Metals in an Oil Burn Test
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