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Domestication of honey bees was associated with expansion of genetic diversity
Abstract
Humans have been keeping honey bees, Apis mellifera, in artificial hives for over 7000 years. Long enough, one might imagine, for some genetic changes to have occurred in domestic bees that would distinguish them from their wild ancestors. Indeed, some have argued that the recent mysterious and widespread losses of commercial bee colonies, are due in part to inbreeding. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Harpur et al. (2012) show that the domestication of honey bees, rather than reducing genetic variance in the population, has increased it. It seems that the commercial honey bees of Canada are a mongrel lot, with far more variability than their ancestors in Europe.
... Domestication history of honey bees has been investigated through molecular datasets that highlight several domestication events followed by introgression between subspecies [90,113,114]. Although the honey bee domestication history has been regarded as a directed pathway [10], the evolution from early beekeeping practices to modern apiculture practices can been seen as similar to the prey pathway in which game-keeping strategies turns into control over movements, feeding, and reproduction. ...
... Although the honey bee domestication history has been regarded as a directed pathway [10], the evolution from early beekeeping practices to modern apiculture practices can been seen as similar to the prey pathway in which game-keeping strategies turns into control over movements, feeding, and reproduction. However, it is likely than directed and prey pathways occurred during honey bee domestication history since several domestication events happened [90,113,114]. ...
... Many authors acknowledge (often without justification) the domesticated status of A. mellifera (e.g., [10,16,47,58,89,102,[115][116][117]). In contrast, A. mellifera has been considered as never properly domesticated but only as managed species by other authors (e.g., [110,114]; however, some of these scientists acknowledge an ongoing domestication process) because (i) their biology, physiology, and behavior are seen as largely unchanged from their wild counterparts [114], (ii) honey bees are able to survive without human's help [118], (iii) there is extensive gene flow between wild/feral and managed bees in native range due to the difficulties to achieve controlled mating [119]. However, these points should be reconsidered. ...
Domestication has irrevocably impacted human evolution. The domestication process/pathways have been the focus of abundant research for plants and vertebrates. Advances in genetics and archaeology have allowed tremendous progresses in the understanding of domestication for these organisms. In contrast, insects’ domestication has comparatively received far less attention to date. Yet, insects are the most common animal group on Earth and provide many valuable ecosystem services to humans. Therefore, the aims of this chapter are (i) to provide an overview of main ancient and recent insect domestication histories and (ii) to reread them by the light of the domestication process, pathways, triggers, and consequences observed in other animal species. Some of the considered species (i.e., silkworm and honey bee) have been chosen because they are among the few insects commonly acknowledged as domesticated, while others allow illustrating alternative domestication patterns. The overview of current literature shows similar human directed pathway and domestication syndrome (e.g., increased tameness, decreased aggressiveness, modified reproduction) between several insect species.
... Domestication history of honey bees has been investigated through molecular datasets that highlight several domestication events followed by introgression between subspecies [90,113,114]. Although the honey bee domestication history has been regarded as a directed pathway [10], the evolution from early beekeeping practices to modern apiculture practices can been seen as similar to the prey pathway in which game-keeping strategies turns into control over movements, feeding, and reproduction. ...
... Although the honey bee domestication history has been regarded as a directed pathway [10], the evolution from early beekeeping practices to modern apiculture practices can been seen as similar to the prey pathway in which game-keeping strategies turns into control over movements, feeding, and reproduction. However, it is likely than directed and prey pathways occurred during honey bee domestication history since several domestication events happened [90,113,114]. ...
... Many authors acknowledge (often without justification) the domesticated status of A. mellifera (e.g., [10,16,47,58,89,102,[115][116][117]). In contrast, A. mellifera has been considered as never properly domesticated but only as managed species by other authors (e.g., [110,114]; however, some of these scientists acknowledge an ongoing domestication process) because (i) their biology, physiology, and behavior are seen as largely unchanged from their wild counterparts [114], (ii) honey bees are able to survive without human's help [118], (iii) there is extensive gene flow between wild/feral and managed bees in native range due to the difficulties to achieve controlled mating [119]. However, these points should be reconsidered. ...
... Thailand. By contrast, the honey bee (Apis mellifera) can forage and survive in the wild, because it has never been properly domesticated (Oldroyd 2012). Indeed, humans have learned to manage this bee for 7000 years -"albeit in sophisticated ways -by providing them with artificial hives, and sometimes also providing them with sugar solution as a substitute for nectar, to rob them of their honey and wax." ...
... In addition, several naturally evolved species are nearly extinct in the wild, and currently exist predominantly as domesticates, as instanced by the Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) (Gattermann et al. 2001). Despite the 7000 years' history of exploitation by humans, the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) remains wild (Oldroyd 2012). ...
A large number of Green discourse blames the human species for the current ecological crisis. However, this description of humanity as the ecocidal culprit serves to conceal the role of humans, in both past and contemporary pre-industrial societies, as custodians of biodiversity. Indigenous societies are known to have conserved their natural resource base for posterity, by instituting cultural norms and institutions against exhaustive resource use. In addition, pre-industrial societies also increased biodiversity on taxic and genetic levels, by domestication of many wild biota, and on the ecosystem level with agroforestry. While Darwin gave much importance to the process of domestication of plants and animals by means of artificial selection, modern science and agriculture curricula tend to neglect this aspect of the history of human civilization. The novel taxa, created in the process of domestication, are characterised by many morphological and behavioural traits never found in the wild progenitor species. Further selection of favourable traits of the new species created an abundance of distinctive crop landraces and animal breeds. The increment in diversity at the ecosystem, taxic and genetic levels, by the process of domestication and in ancient agroforestry systems, began to reverse with industrial development over the past two centuries. Indeed, industrial development has been the chief driver of the continuing process of biodiversity erosion and habitat loss worldwide. Industrial agricultural systems, signposted by the Green Revolution (GR), has severely truncated the on-farm crop species and genetic diversity, which characterised traditional multi-crop farming and agroforestry systems in native agrarian cultures. Over the past six decades, the continual replacement of hundreds of landraces with a handful of GR cultivars, combined with the institutional apathy toward in situ landrace conservation efforts, has led to the disappearance of the importance of genetic purity of landraces from breeding programs and heirloom crop conservation discourse. Most of the modern farmers, predominantly dependent on the industrial supply of crop seeds, have forgotten the methods of genetic purity maintenance, resulting in the rapid loss of the hundreds of crop landraces with distinctive properties, which were selected centuries ago for diverse agronomic, gustatory, and aesthetic qualities. A recognition of the value of the custodian role of ecosystem people in creating and conserving biodiversity, vis-a-vis the current industrial decimation of biodiversity on all levels, will likely promote biodiversity conservation ethos in modern societies, and the value of genetic purity of the extant crop landraces.
... Thailand. By contrast, the honey bee (Apis mellifera) can forage and survive in the wild, because it has never been properly domesticated (Oldroyd 2012). Indeed, humans have learned to manage this bee for 7000 years -"albeit in sophisticated ways -by providing them with artificial hives, and sometimes also providing them with sugar solution as a substitute for nectar, to rob them of their honey and wax." ...
... In addition, several naturally evolved species are nearly extinct in the wild, and currently exist predominantly as domesticates, as instanced by the Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) (Gattermann et al. 2001). Despite the 7000 years' history of exploitation by humans, the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) remains wild (Oldroyd 2012 Aside from direct economic utility, cultural and religious values also have encourage domestication, leading to conservation of several biota. The sacred basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), for instance, is ritually planted in millions of Hindu households in India, but is scarcely found in the forest (Deb & Malhotra 2001); the major reason of its decimation in the wild is the colonial silvicultural practice since the 1860s, in which all "minor species" were eradicated to promote the growth of commercially valuable timber species in native forests (Deb 2014). ...
A large number of Green discourse blames the human species for the current ecological crisis. However, this description of humanity as the ecocidal culprit serves to conceal the role of humans, in both past and contemporary pre-industrial societies, as custodians of biodiversity. Indigenous societies are known to have conserved their natural resource base for posterity, by instituting cultural norms and institutions against exhaustive resource use. In addition, pre-industrial societies also increased biodiversity on taxic and genetic levels, by domestication of many wild biota, and on the ecosystem level with agroforestry. While Darwin gave much importance to the process of domestication of plants and animals by means of artificial selection, modern science and agriculture curricula tend to neglect this aspect of the history of human civilization. The novel taxa, created in the process of domestication, are characterised by many morphological and behavioural traits never found in the wild progenitor species. Further selection of favourable traits of the new species created an abundance of distinctive crop landraces and animal breeds. The increment in diversity at the ecosystem, taxic and genetic levels, by the process of domestication and in ancient agroforestry systems, began to reverse with industrial development over the past two centuries. Indeed, industrial development has been the chief driver of the continuing process of biodiversity erosion and habitat loss worldwide. Industrial agricultural systems, signposted by the Green Revolution (GR), has severely truncated the on-farm crop species and genetic diversity, which characterised traditional multi-crop farming and agroforestry systems in native agrarian cultures. Over the past six decades, the continual replacement of hundreds of landraces with a handful of GR cultivars, combined with the institutional apathy toward in situ landrace conservation efforts, has led to the disappearance of the importance of genetic purity of landraces from breeding programs and heirloom crop conservation discourse. Most of the modern farmers, predominantly dependent on the industrial supply of crop seeds, have forgotten the methods of genetic purity maintenance, resulting in the rapid loss of the hundreds of crop landraces with distinctive properties, which were selected centuries ago for diverse agronomic, gustatory, and aesthetic qualities. A recognition of the value of the custodian role of ecosystem people in creating and conserving biodiversity, vis-a-vis the current industrial decimation of biodiversity on all levels, will likely promote biodiversity conservation ethos in modern societies, and the value of genetic purity of the extant crop landraces.
... Thailand. By contrast, the honey bee (Apis mellifera) can forage and survive in the wild, because it has never been properly domesticated (Oldroyd 2012). Indeed, humans have learned to manage this bee for 7000 years -"albeit in sophisticated ways -by providing them with artificial hives, and sometimes also providing them with sugar solution as a substitute for nectar, to rob them of their honey and wax." ...
... In addition, several naturally evolved species are nearly extinct in the wild, and currently exist predominantly as domesticates, as instanced by the Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) (Gattermann et al. 2001). Despite the 7000 years' history of exploitation by humans, the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) remains wild (Oldroyd 2012). ...
A large number of Green discourse blames the human species for the current ecological crisis. However, this description of humanity as the ecocidal culprit serves to conceal the role of humans, in both past and contemporary pre-industrial societies, as custodians of biodiversity. Indigenous societies are known to have conserved their natural resource base for posterity, by instituting cultural norms and institutions against exhaustive resource use. In addition, pre-industrial societies also increased biodiversity on taxic and genetic levels, by domestication of many wild biota, and on the ecosystem level with agroforestry. While Darwin gave much importance to the process of domestication of plants and animals by means of artificial selection, modern science and agriculture curricula tend to neglect this aspect of the history of human civilization. The novel taxa, created in the process of domestication, are characterized by many morphological and behavioural traits never found in the wild progenitor species. Further selection of favourable traits of the new species created an abundance of distinctive crop landraces and animal breeds. The increment in diversity at the ecosystem, taxic and genetic levels, by the process of domestication and in ancient agroforestry systems, began to reverse with industrial development over the past two centuries. Indeed, industrial development has been the chief driver of the continuing process of biodiversity erosion and habitat loss worldwide. Industrial agricultural systems, signposted by the Green Revolution (GR), has severely truncated the on-farm crop species and genetic diversity, which characterised traditional multi-crop farming and agroforestry systems in native agrarian cultures. Over the past six decades, the continual replacement of hundreds of landraces with a handful of GR cultivars, combined with the institutional apathy toward _in situ _landrace conservation efforts, has led to the disappearance of the importance of genetic purity of landraces from breeding programs and heirloom crop conservation discourse. Most of the modern farmers, predominantly dependent on the industrial supply of crop seeds, have forgotten the methods of genetic purity maintenance, resulting in the rapid loss of the hundreds of crop landraces with distinctive properties, which were selected centuries ago for diverse agronomic, gustatory, and aesthetic qualities. A recognition of the value of the custodian role of ecosystem people in creating and conserving biodiversity, vis-a-vis the current industrial decimation of biodiversity on all levels, will likely promote biodiversity conservation ethos in modern societies, and the value of genetic purity of the extant crop landraces.
... A case in point is the domestic silk worm, Bombyx mori [30] . The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is considered a domesticated insect, but in reality, has never been properly domesticated [31] . Instead, humans have learned to manage them for 7000 years -albeit in sophisticated ways-by providing them with artificial hives, and sometimes also providing them with unnatural sugar solution as a substitute for nectar, that make it easier to rob them of their honey and wax. ...
... wheat are examples. In addition, several naturally evolved species are nearly extinct in the wild, and currently exist predominantly as domesticates, as instanced by the Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) [39] and the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) [31] . Aside from direct economic utility, cultural and religious values also encourage domestication, leading to conservation of several biota. ...
A large number of Green discourse blames humans as a species for the current ecological crisis. However, this description serves to conceal the role of humans, in both past and contemporary pre-industrial societies, as custodians of biodiversity. Indigenous societies are known to conserve their natural resource base for posterity, by instituting cultural norms against exhaustive resource use. In addition, pre-industrial societies also increased biodiversity on species and genetic levels, by domestication of wild species. While Darwin gave much importance to the process of domestication of plants and animals by means of artificial selection, modern science and agriculture curricula tend to neglect this aspect of the history of human civilization. The novel species, created in the process of domestication, are characterized by many morphological and behavioural traits never found in the wild progenitor species. Further selection of favourable traits by of the new species created an abundance of distinctive crop landraces and animal breeds. An unfortunate consequence of agricultural modernization is the erosion of on-farm genetic diversity of crop and livestock species worldwide. Most of the modern farmers, predominantly dependent on the industrial supply of crop seeds, have forgotten the methods of genetic purity maintenance, resulting in the rapid loss of the hundreds of crop landraces with distinctive properties, which were selected centuries ago for diverse agronomic, gustatory, and aesthetic qualities. A recognition of the value of the custodian role of humans in creating and conserving biodiversity will likely promote biodiversity conservation ethos in modern societies, and the value of genetic purity of the extant crop landraces.
... Moreover, the wide use of migratory beekeeping, queen trade and breeding beyond the native ranges led to many events of human-mediated hybridization (De la Rúa et al., 2009;Requier et al., 2019). While admixture can increase genetic diversity in the immediate term (Harpur et al., 2012;Oldroyd, 2012), it may also lead to large scale homogenization and the subsequent decrease of genetic diversity driving the loss of local adaptations (De la Rua et al., 2013;Espregueira Themudo et al., 2020). Some of these changes, sometimes intentional for managed stocks, can have significant repercussions for the fitness of wild local populations as wild queens and managed drones mate together (Neumann and Blacquière, 2017). ...
... Nevertheless, many beekeepers tend to abandon their original local bee stocks or often allow input of genetic material from distant areas (Meixner et al., 2010). Had the genetic diversity of managed honey bees been increased through admixture before (Harpur et al., 2012;Oldroyd, 2012), the consequent homogenization might ultimately drive the loss of local adaptations (De la Rua et al., 2013). Recent studies showed that, since the 2nd half of the 20th century, the genetic diversity of several European honey bee populations has significantly decreased in their native range (Espregueira Themudo et al., 2020;Tanasković et al., 2021). ...
Many parts of the globe experience severe losses and fragmentation of habitats, affecting the self-sustainability of pollinator populations. A number of bee species coexist as wild and managed populations. Using honey bees as an example, we argue that several management practices in beekeeping threaten genetic diversity in both wild and managed populations, and drive population decline. Large-scale movement of hive stocks, introductions into new areas, breeding programs and trading of queens contribute to reducing genetic diversity, as recent research demonstrated for wild and managed honey bees within a few decades. Examples of the effects of domestication in other organisms show losses of both genetic diversity and fitness functions. Cases of natural selection and feralization resulted in maintenance of a higher genetic diversity, including in a Varroa destructor surviving population of honey bees. To protect the genetic diversity of honey bee populations, exchange between regions should be avoided. The proposed solution to selectively breed all local subspecies for a use in beekeeping would reduce the genetic diversity of each, and not address the value of the genetic diversity present in hybridized populations. The protection of Apis mellifera’s, Apis cerana’s and Apis koschevnikovi’s genetic diversities could be based on natural selection. In beekeeping, it implies to not selectively breed but to leave the choice of the next generation of queens to the colonies, as in nature. Wild populations surrounded by beekeeping activity could be preserved by allowing Darwinian beekeeping in a buffer zone between the wild and regular beekeeping area.
... Because of this history, it is now often stated, and widely accepted in popular circles, that KI contains the 'last pure strain of Ligurian bee' (Clifford's Honey Farm Website 2009;McAdam & McAdam 2009;Rowe 2011;Biosecurity SA 2013b;Amazing Bees Website 2014;Tour KI Website 2014), and this is exploited to promote tourism and to argue for special foraging access in conservations regions and imposition of a public levy to protect the bee (Clifford 2007;Kangaroo Island Beekeepers Association 2007). However, it is clear from scientific literature that the extreme level of hybridisation to which A. mellifera has been subjected over thousands of years (Parker et al. 2010;Harpur et al. 2012;Oldroyd 2012) means that determining the 'strain', 'purity' and origin of a given bee population is far from trivial, notwithstanding contemporary molecular analyses that have been applied (Koulianos & Crozier 1996, 1997Franck et al. 2000a;Whitfield et al. 2006;Dall'Olio et al. 2007;Oxley & Oldroyd 2009). These analyses can differentiate groups based on very small differences, such as variability of short repetitive sequences (e.g. ...
... Mitochondrial analyses are useful as they are not subject to sexual recombination as for nuclear DNA, and therefore less 'noisy' when used to infer phylogenetic relationships. It should also be considered that the nuclear genome of A. mellifera has been subjected to several thousand years of significant human-induced hybridisation (Oldroyd 2012), meaning that very few populations exhibiting long-term genetic isolation now exist and that subspecieslevel determinations based on morphology alone are virtually impossible (Koulianos & Crozier 1997;Franck et al. 2000a;Dall'Olio et al. 2007;Oxley & Oldroyd 2009;Parker et al. 2010). ...
Humans have had a long association with the honeybee Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758, which has been exploited for production of honey and for the crop pollination services it provides. This association facilitated movement of this species to such a degree that it is now virtually ubiquitous in all areas with flowering plants and available water. On Kangaroo Island (KI), a ‘sanctuary’ was created for the Ligurian bee subspecies A. mellifera ligustica, which is exotic to Australia and the entire New World. The Ligurian Bee Act was enacted in 1885 on the basis of perceived genetic purity and isolation of KI honeybee populations, and was updated in 1931 and 1997. It supports biosecurity protocols preventing importation of bees, bee-keeping equipment and bee-related products such as honey and wax. This represents a rare example of legislative protection for an invertebrate in Australia. This legislation and the apparent isolation of KI bees from mainland bees in the time since its enactment have led to the popular assertion that KI honeybee populations represent the last ‘pure’ genetic population of A. mellifera ligustica. However, historical accounts of bee introductions to KI show that A. mellifera mellifera-like bees were present on KI prior to the introduction of A. mellifera ligustica, and that multiple A. mellifera ligustica introductions to KI occurred using bees of mixed heritage. Indeed, DNA sequence analyses of KI honeybees clearly indicate that while there is limited genetic diversity (supporting the assertions of limited introductions and recent geographic/genetic isolation), they are in fact hybrids and share more similarity with the A. mellifera mellifera subspecies. Therefore, the relevant state legislation should be updated to remove any mention of Ligurian or other honeybee strains. However, the biosecurity protocols relating to KI should continue due to the low incidence of some honeybee diseases and the threat posed by Varroa mite.
... Prominent examples of mass-reared and domesticated insects include the honeybee (Apis mellifera) (Oldroyd 2012), silkworm (Bombyx mori) (Sun et al. 2012), and the lac insects (Kerria spp.) (Bashir et al. 2022). Examples of recent domestication histories include species used for waste management, animal feed production, and food production, such as the black soldier fly (Rhode et al. 2020), yellow mealworm (Eriksson et al. 2020), and house cricket (Acheta domesticus) (Lecocq 2018). ...
Insect production for food and feed presents a promising supplement to ensure food safety and address the adverse impacts of agriculture on climate and environment in the future. However, optimisation is required for insect production to realise its full potential. This can be by targeted improvement of traits of interest through selective breeding, an approach which has so far been underexplored and underutilised in insect farming. Here we present a comprehensive review of the selective breeding framework in the context of insect production. We systematically evaluate adjustments of selective breeding techniques to the realm of insects and highlight the essential components integral to the breeding process. The discussion covers every step of a conventional breeding scheme, such as formulation of breeding objectives, phenotyping, estimation of genetic parameters and breeding values, selection of appropriate breeding strategies, and mitigation of issues associated with genetic diversity depletion and inbreeding. This review combines knowledge from diverse disciplines, bridging the gap between animal breeding, quantitative genetics, evolutionary biology, and entomology, offering an integrated view of the insect breeding research area and uniting knowledge which has previously remained scattered across diverse fields of expertise.
... This has made it possible to efficiently produce honey, wax, and other bee products, and to use honey bee colonies to provide pollination services for agricultural crops [27]. However, bee domestication did not affect honey bees as much as it did other Agriculture 2024, 14, 805 7 of 9 domesticated species, as bees maintained in hives still closely resemble those found in the wild [28]. ...
Honey bee colonies rapidly decline when confined to greenhouses, increasing pollination rental costs as they need to be replaced frequently. We tested a hive system with entrances that can be manipulated to direct bees inside or outside greenhouses containing a zucchini crop. In one greenhouse, the bees could only forage inside for 15 days; in another, bees were directed to the inside from 5 to 9 a.m., after which they only foraged outside. This procedure was repeated two more times in each greenhouse with new hives. Data were collected on how the number of bee flower visits affected fruit production, the frequency of flower visits, and the amount of bee brood and food in the hives. Flowers visited by bees four times or more set more and larger fruit. The frequency of flower visits by bees from the hives confined to the greenhouse was reduced after eight days; it was not reduced in the greenhouse with bees that could forage outside. The bee brood area was reduced in the colonies that were confined to the greenhouse, while it was maintained in the semi-confined hives. The hives with controllable entrances proved effective for pollination, while causing less damage to the bees.
... Furthermore, the contributions made by wild pollinators are often vastly underestimated, even though these species provide the majority of pollination services for crop and non-crop species alike (Breeze et al., 2011;Garibaldi et al., 2013;. Additionally, wild pollinators can greatly enhance crop quality and quantity (Klein et al., 2007;Oldroyd, 2012;Winfree et al., 2011). ...
Pollinator diversity plays an important role in improving the resilience of pollination services. However, agricultural intensification is causing declines in pollinator diversity. Such losses could be mitigated and even reversed by agroforestry systems, whose structural complexity exceeds that of intensive agricultural systems. Research, primarily conducted in tropical regions, suggests that efficiently managing agroforestry systems can increase pollinator diversity.
We performed a global meta‐analysis to explore how coffee agroforestry management practices affect the diversity of bee pollinators. We employed 137 sets of results from 20 studies that had been conducted at widely distributed locations across four of the seven continents. More specifically, we investigated the impact of augmenting floral resources (60 sets of results) and shade‐tree cover (43 sets of results) and reducing the distance to natural forests (34 sets of results). Additionally, we examined key moderating factors, including climatic conditions, pollinator sociality, the metrics used to describe pollinator diversity, pollinator sampling methods, the metrics used to characterise the effects of management practices and floral resource type.
We observed that bee pollinator diversity broadly increased as local floral resources increased in tropical coffee agroforestry systems. Shade‐tree cover and proximity to natural forests did not broadly influence bee pollinator diversity. However, the strength and direction of the relationships between the agroforestry management practices and bee pollinator diversity were moderated by different factors, mainly climatic conditions and pollinator sociality.
Our findings underscore the importance of managing coffee agroforestry systems to maximise bee diversity, which is crucial for coffee plant pollination. The broader objective should be to ensure the availability of resources that promote pollinator fitness, effective pollination and, as a consequence, crop yields.
... Bien que quelques espèces d'abeilles du genre Apis spp produisent du miel, l'évolution vers l'apiculture moderne s'est développée en majorité avec Apis mellifera (Cardinal and Danforth, 2011;Crane, 1992Crane, , 2013. Les abeilles ont alors été échangées et sélectionnées pour améliorer la production de miel mais aussi les qualités de travail de l'apiculteur : douceur, limitation des fausses constructions, essaimages... Aujourd'hui l'abeille la plus répandue est l'abeille mellifère (Oldroyd, 2012). ...
Varroa destructor is a honeybee ectoparasite that leads to colony collapse within few years if the infestation is too high. Beekeepers have several acaricide substances authorized in France to control the infestation. Tau-fluvalinate was widely used in the 90s until varroa developed resistances significantly reducing the effectiveness of treatments. The second most used acaricide substance is amitraz. Annual treatment was sufficient to maintain low infestation. But in recent years, observations of decreased efficacy have been observed by beekeepers and the application of a second winter treatment is becoming common. Several parameters can influence the efficacy of treatments. We will focus on the study of Varroa resistance to tau-fluvalinate and amitraz.
First, we tried to detect the presence of varroas resistant to acaricides in France. A phenotypic sensitivity test was used to detect the presence of resistant mites in a population. Using sensitive reference populations, we selected the discriminant concentration method (LC90) to determine the proportion of resistant mites in a population. We established three sensitivity classes according to the results obtained: sensitive (Mortality>76%), moderate resistance (Mortality 75-41%) and high resistance (Mortality <<40%). In France, out of 59 samples collected, 45% and 66% of populations are moderately or highly resistant to tau-fluvalinate and amitraz, respectively.
Then, using a model, we analyzed the impact of various parameters, including the presence of resistant varroa on the efficacy of Apivar treatment. A moderately resistant population will result in a loss of efficacy of 5-10% while a highly resistant population will result in an efficacy of less than 78%. Highly resistant populations observed in the field confirmed these simulated model results. We also found that initial infestation, treatment period and treatment formulation influenced the efficacy of treatment.
The management of varroa by beekeepers must now include resistance management. For this, control strategies proposed by the Insect Resistance Management (IRM) could limit the spread of resistant mites. Pharmaceutical laboratories may also contribute to the reduction of resistance by developing treatments that reduce their duration and optimize the dose of acaricide. In this context, we propose to develop a Varroa Resistance Management (VRM) that corresponds to the different actions to be carried out to control resistance in the current state. IN addition to VRM, the beekeeper must also maintain a low infestation in its colonies to ensure sufficient treatment efficacy. The development of resistance to mites complicates the management of honeybee colony infestation, requiring beekeepers to adapt and develop new control strategies.
... European honey bees (A. mellifera) have been domesticated for approximately 7000 years (Oldroyd, 2012). In addition to honey bees, stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) have a long history of domestication across the globe. ...
Neonicotinoid insecticides are among the most widely used agrochemicals globally. Given the critical importance of bees for biodiversity, crop productivity, and human health, recent decades have seen substantial interest in the impacts of neonicotinoids on bees and the pollination services they provide, both among researchers and the public. Social bees (e.g. honey bees, stingless bees, and bumble bees) are especially important for supporting crop productivity, yet significant knowledge gaps remain in understanding the impacts of neonicotinoids on colony health. Here, we review current knowledge on how neonicotinoid exposure affects social bees, including how direct effects on individuals can impact colony performance, as well as the potential roles of colony state and collective behaviour in modulating these effects. We focus in particular on challenging aspects of predicting real-world impacts of neonicotinoids (including stressor interactions, life history, complex routes of exposure, and taxonomic considerations) that have practical relevance for regulatory decisions, and highlight current knowledge gaps. Finally, we provide an overview of emerging issues and methods, and highlight the potential for mutually beneficial outcomes for crop production and biodiversity conservation.
... Le premier aspect sur lequel ce domaine est différent est lié à sa récence : il s'agit d'une tentative originale et pionnière de domestication d'une espèce d'insectes pour l'agro-alimentaire. La plupart des élevages sont très anciens dans l'histoire humaine, à l'image du cheval en -3500 (Outram et al., 2009) ou encore -6000 pour les poules (West and Zhou, 1989) et même la domestication des abeilles qui remonte à 7000 ans avant notre ère (Oldroyd, 2012). A contrario, les premiers élevages de 185 mouches soldat noires, n'ont vu le jour qu'au cours des dernières décennies . ...
Hermetia illucens, la mouche soldat noire, est un diptère de la famille des Stratiomyidae. Cet insecte détritivore est de plus en plus utilisé en élevage de masse pour réduire les biodéchets et produire de la nourriture à destination des élevages aquacoles et avicoles. Elle est originaire du nord de l'Amérique Latine et s'est répandue sur une grande partie de la planète. Depuis une dizaine d'années, un nombre croissant d'entreprises élèvent et transforment des larves dans une optique d'économie circulaire. Cette thèse CIFRE a pour but d'améliorer les connaissances génétiques et génomiques sur la mouche soldat noire pour l'amélioration des performances et de la sélection. Nous nous sommes concentrés, dans un premier temps, sur l'obtention et l'analyse d'un génome de référence, pour l'espèce en utilisant du séquençage hybride. Nous avons également travaillé sur la diversité génétique et l'histoire invasive de la BSF. Nous l'avons fait au moyen d'un échantillonnage mondial en utilisant à la fois le gène CO1 et l'assemblage d'une soixantaine de génomes mitochondriaux complets. Nous avons montré la complexité des scénarios d'invasion de la mouche soldat noire combinant à la fois un processus ancien de dispersion naturelle sur le continent Américain ainsi que, l'importance des introductions humaines, notamment en raison des élevages industriels. Enfin nous nous sommes également intéressés aux variations structurales des génomes, induites par les éléments transposables dans les populations naturelles d'Hermetia illucens, afin de déterminer les éléments les plus actifs dans les génomes ainsi que leurs dynamiques évolutives. Ce travail a révélé une étonnante et inattendue diversité génétique et génomique au sein de l'espèce. Il ouvre de nouvelles perspectives vers des expérimentations de sélection et d'amélioration sur la mouche soldat noire pour l'industrie entomocole.
... The number of orthologous groups under positive selection within each branch varied significantly (Chi-squared test, p < 2.2 × 10 −16 ) and ranged from 10 to 114 with 10, 27, 45, 78, and 114 for A. mellifera caucasica, A. mellifera mellifera, A. mellifera spp., A. mellifera carnica, and A. mellifera ligustica, respectively (Table S1). Such a variation in the number of genes under positive selection among the different A. mellifera subspecies may highlight a fast pace of adaptation or directed domestication in A. mellifera carnica and A. mellifera ligustica compared with others [65,66]. However, this result could also be the consequence of different population structures among A. mellifera subspecies with differential gene flow and introgression levels. ...
The technology of long reads substantially improved the contingency of the genome assembly, particularly resolving contiguity of the repetitive regions. By integrating the interactive fragment using Hi-C, and the HiFi technique, a solid genome of the honeybee Apis mellifera carnica was assembled at the chromosomal level. A distinctive pattern of genes involved in social evolution was found by comparing it with social and solitary bees. A positive selection was identified in genes involved with cold tolerance, which likely underlies the adaptation of this European honeybee subspecies in the north hemisphere. The availability of this new high-quality genome will foster further studies and advances on genome variation during subspeciation, honeybee breeding and comparative genomics.
... Une colonie classique d'abeilles domestiques Apis Melifera héberge en moyenne quelques dizaines de milliers d'individus, 50 000 est un nombre qui revient souvent. Tous ces individus ont des besoins en nourritures et en eau, mais le couvain, regroupant tous les stades de vie de l'abeille avant sa phase adulte, demande un tout autre niveau d'attention : nourriture spéciale, température précise, cellules de cires propres, etc. Tous ces besoins créent une chaine logistique impressionnante, que des apiculteurs observent depuis des milliers d'années [74]. En effet, les abeilles (et bien d'autres insectes sociaux) arrivent à survivre et même à s'épanouir sans aucun contrôle central, aucun individu spéciaux chargés du management d'équipe ou de la surveillance des stocks. ...
Nous décrivons dans cette thèse une simulation de colonie d'abeilles. Nous proposons un modèle de répartition des tâches à base de seuils agrémenté de concepts de motivations internes permettant d'élargir le champ d'actions de ces modèles. Un agent réactif peut ainsi décider d'interrompre une action en cours en fonction de ses performances. Notre première version de colonie d'abeilles virtuelle demande à nosagents de se répartir automatiquement entre deux activités principales, le soin au couvain et le butinage, adaptant leurs physiologies à l'aide d'hormones et de phéromones. Différents moyens de visualisations et d'interactions avec cette simulation sont proposés par une application interactive découplée du simulateur, échangeant tous deux des informations via le réseau. Un graphique en 3 dimensions permet de rendre compte de l'état physiologique de chacun des agents, rendant visibles les mécanismes complexes régissant l'autoorganisation de notre colonie virtuelle. Une expérimentation réalisée en coopération avec le GDSA29 nous encourage à poursuivre nos efforts tant au niveau simulation qu'au niveau visualisations et interactions.
... Bien que quelques espèces d'abeilles du genre Apis spp produisent du miel, l'évolution vers l'apiculture moderne s'est développée en majorité avec Apis mellifera (Cardinal and Danforth, 2011;Crane, 1992Crane, , 2013. Les abeilles ont alors été échangées et sélectionnées pour améliorer la production de miel mais aussi les qualités de travail de l'apiculteur : douceur, limitation des fausses constructions, essaimages... Aujourd'hui l'abeille la plus répandue est l'abeille mellifère (Oldroyd, 2012). ...
BACKGROUND
Varroa destructor is a parasite of honeybees. It causes biological damage leading to the colony collapse in the absence of treatment. In recent years, acaricide resistance has emerged in Varroa mites, leading to a decrease in treatment efficacy. We modelled the action of Apivar (amitraz) treatment, using three input parameters: treatment duration, treatment period, and daily mortality due to the treatment. The output parameters were cumulative mite mortality during treatment, the residual number of Varroa mites, and treatment efficacy, expressed as a percentage.
RESULTS
The model was validated by monitoring efficacy in the field, in 36 treated hives. According to the model, treatment in the absence of brood is optimal. For a long period without egg laying during the winter, an initial infestation of 100 mites and a start date for treatment of August 7, a minimal treatment efficacy of 98.8% is required for stabilization of the mite population for year to year. More effective treatment is associated with lower cumulative numbers of dead Varroa mites over the entire treatment period. Thus, the total number of dead mites observed during the monitoring of field efficacy provides information about more than just the initial level of colony infestation. The proportion of resistant mites can be modelized by a decrease of daily mortality rate influencing treatment efficacy. Management of the initial Varroa mite infestation of the colony by the beekeeper can compensate for the decrease in treatment efficacy for resistance thresholds of up to 40% of resistant mites.
CONCLUSION
Treatment efficacy depends on several parameters, including initial level of infestation, treatment period and the presence of acaricide resistance. Amitraz resistance may lead to treatment failure, even if the beekeeper is able to keep initial infestation rates low. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
... More information about the domestication of honey bees can be found in publications of Crane (1975Crane ( , 1984. Generally, domestication of honey bees did not harm their genetic diversity (Oldroyd, 2012). On the other side, humans enhanced the characteristics of honey bees by selective breeding and by hybridization between honey bee subspecies (Abou-Shaara and Bayoumi, 2019). ...
Animal domestication depends on complex relationships between humans and animals. There are many
questions related to the domestication still incompletely solved especially since animal domestication occurred
at specific regions in the past, and the percentage of domesticated animals is low. It is not easy to change
characteristics and behaviors of wild animals, and humans can only train them to do specific tasks in most
cases. Some species of honey bees, genus Apis, are wild and others are domesticated. In this article,
domestication steps of honey bees by humans were used as a model to explain the early domestication process
for other animals and to present answers to unsolved questions.
... More recent practices, such as the commercial mass rearing of queens, artificial selection of behaviours favouring honey production, and the presence of thousands of bees in limited spaces, may have altered the natural processes and affected the genetic diversity of domestic and wild (or feral) hives, increasing their susceptibility and the transmission rate of diseases between bees 7 . There is an ongoing debate about whether European honeybees are domesticated (in the sense that selective breeding over generations has led to artificial selection) or not [8][9][10] . Traits favourable to beekeepers, such as docility, lack of propensity to swarming, honey yield, and others may be selected for, but as it is difficult to have controlled mating, this is usually done through the import of stock from other areas, where these traits are more frequent. ...
The European honeybee (Apis mellifera) is a key pollinator and has in the last decades suffered significant population decline. A combination of factors, including decrease in genetic diversity and introduction of Varroa mites, have been suggested to be responsible for these losses, but no definitive cause has yet been appointed. In Europe not only have wild colonies been severely affected, but managed hives have had a massive decline in numbers. To test the hypothesis that honeybees’ genetic diversity has decreased in the recent past, we used reduced representation genome sequencing of 40 historical honeybee specimens collected in Natural History collections across Europe and compared them to genomic data from 40 individuals from extant populations (collected post 2006). Our results are consistent with the existence of five evolutionary lineages as previously described, and show a decrease in genetic diversity between historical and extant individuals of the same lineage, as well as high levels of admixture in historical specimens. Our data confirm that a loss of genetic diversity has occurred during the last century, potentially increasing honeybees’ vulnerability to contemporary ecological and anthropogenic stressors.
... The western honey bee in large scale apicultural settings was found to have a very high genetic diversity, higher than in 'original' endemic populations in Europe (Harpur et al. 2012;Oldroyd 2012), caused by mixing colonies from different original lineages, e.g. M lineage (A. m. iberica and A. m. mellifera) and C lineage (A. m. carnica and A. m. ligustica) from Europe (Honey bee Genome Sequencing Consortium 2006). ...
Established invasive species can pose a continuous threat to biodiversity and food security, thereby calling for sustainable mitigation. There is a consensus that the ubiquitous ecto-parasitic mite Varroa destructor, an invasive species from Asia, is the main biological threat to global apiculture with Apis mellifera. V. destructor has almost completely wiped out wild European honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations. The only remedy for apiculture, to date, is frequent control measures against the mite throughout the season, which prevents possible adaptations. While targeted breeding efforts have, so far, not achieved the selection of tolerant or resistant bees, natural selection approaches have succeeded at least seven times. Here, we propose to take advantage of natural selection for honey bee resistance by stopping mite treatment in managed colonies. The main principles are within population mating of the colonies' own virgin queens and drones and selection based on survival and proliferous development of colonies. Being used for 10 years, it has shown to result in grosso modo 'normal' colonies with a high level of resistance to V. destructor. Here, we call for local groups of beekeepers and scientists to join a novel natural selection program that has started so far on three locations. This will eventually lead to several locally adapted V. destructor resistant honey bee populations around the world, and help global apicul-ture becoming more sustainable.
... The western honey bee in large scale apicultural settings was found to have a very high genetic diversity, higher than in 'original' endemic populations in Europe (Harpur et al. 2012;Oldroyd 2012), caused by mixing colonies from different original lineages, e.g. M lineage (A. m. iberica and A. m. mellifera) and C lineage (A. m. carnica and A. m. ligustica) from Europe (Honey bee Genome Sequencing Consortium 2006). ...
Established invasive species can pose a continuous threat to biodiversity and food security, thereby calling for sustainable mitigation. There is a consensus that the ubiquitous ecto-parasitic mite Varroa destructor, an invasive species from Asia, is the main biological threat to global apiculture with Apis mellifera. V. destructor has almost completely wiped out wild European honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations. The only remedy for apiculture, to date, is frequent control measures against the mite throughout the season, which prevents possible adaptations. While targeted breeding efforts have, so far, not achieved the selection of tolerant or resistant bees, natural selection approaches have succeeded at least seven times. Here, we propose to take advantage of natural selection for honey bee resistance by stopping mite treatment in managed colonies. The main principles are within population mating of the colonies’ own virgin queens and drones and selection based on survival and proliferous development of colonies. Being used for 10 years, it has shown to result in grosso modo ‘normal’ colonies with a high level of resistance to V. destructor. Here, we call for local groups of beekeepers and scientists to join a novel natural selection program that has started so far on three locations. This will eventually lead to several locally adapted V. destructor resistant honey bee populations around the world, and help global apiculture becoming more sustainable.
... This happened independently at different geographical hotspots, such as the Fertile Crescent (i.e. the crescent-shaped fertile region of western Asia, the Nile Valley and Nile Delta), India, the People' s Republic of China, Africa and the Americas (5,6). A wide range of mammals (dogs, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, alpacas, buffaloes, camels, cats, rabbits and others), birds (chickens, turkeys, quails and others), fish, and invertebrate species, such as the silkworm and honeybee, became domesticated (7,8). ...
The contribution of farm animals to human health and welfare cannot be properly addressed without reflecting on the impact that animal domestication has had upon human civilisation. About 14,000 years ago, the Neolithic revolution started with the domestication of animals and plants, resulting in the emergence of the main agricultural breeds of livestock and crops. In contrast, the breeding of new animal species for biomedical research, such as small rodents and other model species, is a relatively recent activity. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of inheritance have only been understood over the past few decades and translated into approaches to improve breeding success. In recent years, seminal discoveries in the fields of cellular reprogramming, genetic engineering, and whole-genome sequencing have accelerated this development. The first therapeutic proteins produced by biopharming in livestock have been approved to treat human patients. The suitability of pluripotent stem cells as a source for cell replacement therapies is currently being investigated, using farm animals as informative preclinical models. Disease modelling in farm animals allows systematic testing of effective treatments. Within the context of these developments, this concise review will focus on the contribution of farm animals to human health and welfare.
... Obwohl sie seit langem vom Menschen gehalten werden, bleiben Honigbienen eine grundsätzlich wilde Art (Oldroyd, 2012). Die Honigbiene ist in vielen Ländern kaum domestiziert worden, in anderen Ländern gab es dagegen Bemühungen, sie zu selektieren und zu züchten. ...
This article provides a translation in German of the Open Access article in Bee World (2018): Tjeerd Blacquière & Delphine Panziera (2018) A Plea for Use of Honey Bees’ Natural Resilience in Beekeeping, Bee World, 95:2, 34-38, DOI: 10.1080/0005772X.2018.1430999 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0005772X.2018.1430999
Zusammenfassung
Die Honigbiene ist in Europa eine endemische und wilde Art, mit regionalen Unterarten und vielen lokalen Anpassungen. Obwohl Unterarten und Populationen hybridisiert wurden und trotz einiger selektiver Zucht, verhält sich die Honigbiene immer noch natürlich und erhöht ihre Fitness durch kontinuierliche lokale Anpassung. Um mehr Widerstandsfähigkeit gegen die Varroamilbe, eine große Bedrohung, zu entwickeln, gibt es zwei Möglichkeiten: (1) gezielte Selektion und Zucht im großen oder regionalen Maßstab und (2) natürliche Selektion für die Fitness in Gegenwart der Varroa-Milbe. Während die Erfolgsquote bei der selektiven Züchtung noch gering ist, hat die natürliche Selektion in relativ kurzer Zeit einige beschriebene Resistenzen hervorgebracht.
Die Resilienz eines Organismus gegenüber Parasiten und Krankheiten kann durch Resistenz (die Krankheit / der Parasit wird in seiner Entwicklung und Fitness behindert) und durch Toleranz (der durch die Krankheit oder den Parasiten verursachte Schaden wird vermieden oder gehemmt) erreicht werden. Resistenz und Toleranz können gleichzeitig wirksam sein. Ein ausgewogenes Verhältnis zwischen Wirt und Parasit kann sich durch Resistenz und Toleranz entwickeln, und eine wichtige Voraussetzung für ein solches Gleichgewicht ist, dass die Krankheit oder der Parasit vertikal übertragen wird: von der Mutter auf den Nachwuchs. Wenn ein Parasit horizontal übertragen wird, wird sich ein solches ausgewogenes Verhältnis nur schwer entwickeln können. Bei der natürlichen Vermehrung von Honigbienenvölkern werden Parasiten vertikal auf die neue Generation übertragen. Die Methode (2) der natürlichen Selektion stört diesen Übertragungsweg nicht. Durch Replikation oder Verjüngung von Bienenvölkern mit der Einweiselung von fremden Königinnen (Methode (1)) erfolgt die Übertragung weitgehend horizontal. Die gleichen Prinzipien gelten auch für die Übertragung von Nützlingen (Symbionten) in einer Kolonie.
Neben der Vermehrung der Bienenvölker und der selektiven Zucht stehen viele andere Methoden der Imker im Widerspruch zum Verhalten der Bienenvölker und ihren Eigenschaften der Resilienz gegen Parasiten und Krankheiten.
Die Anpassung der imkerlichen Methoden an die natürlichen Eigenschaften und Fähigkeiten der Bienen sowie die Entscheidung, mit der Selektion - gezielte oder natürliche - zu beginnen, sollte mit Umsicht erfolgen, um unnötige Kollateralschäden zu vermeiden.
... Even though they have long been held by humans, honey bees remain a principally wild species (Oldroyd, 2012). While in some countries there are efforts to select and breed honey bees, in many others, bees have hardly been domesticated or have not been domesticated at all. ...
The honey bee is in Europe an endemic and wild species, with regional subspecies and many local adaptations. Although subspecies and populations have been hybridized, and despite some selective breeding, the honey bee still behaves naturally and increases its fitness through continuous local adaptation. In order to evolve more resilience against the varroa mite, a major threat, two ways are open: (1) targeted selection and breeding on a large or regional scale, and (2) natural selection for fitness in the presence of the varroa mite. While the success score for selective breeding is still scant, natural selection has delivered a few described cases of resistance, all in relatively short time periods.
Resilience of an organism towards parasites and diseases can be obtained by resistance (the disease / parasite is hampered in its development and fitness) and by tolerance (the damage caused by the disease or parasite is avoided or restraint). Resistance and tolerance can act concurrently. A balanced relationship between host and parasite can develop through resistance and tolerance, and an important condition to reach such a balance is that the disease or parasite is vertically transmitted: from mother to offspring. When a parasite is transmitted horizontally, such a balanced relationship struggles to develop. With natural reproduction of honey bee colonies, parasites are transmitted vertically onto the new generation. Method (2) of natural selection does not interfere with this transmission route. By replication or rejuvenation of colonies with the introduction of foreign queens (method (1)), the transmission is largely horizontal. This applies as well for the transmission of beneficial organisms (symbionts) in the colony.
In addition to reproduction of colonies and selective breeding, many other methods applied by beekeepers conflict with the bee colonies’ behaviours and resilience traits against parasites and diseases. Aligning methods to the natural traits of the bees, as well as the decision to start selection, targeted or natural, should be done with prudence to avoid evitable collateral damage.
... De este proceso surgieron en varios momentos -y aún en el presente continúa surgiendo-la domesticación de especies de plantas, de animales, de la microbiota asociada a la gran diversidad de fermentos que utilizan las sociedades humanas y, eventualmente, algunos hongos. Con ambos procesos de domesticación en conjunción emergió la agricultura, el pastoralismo y la ganadería (Harris y Hillman, 1986, Harris, 1996; la crianza y domesticación de insectos como las abejas (Oldroyd, 2012) y la cochinilla (Chávez-Moreno et al., 2009); sistemas sofisticados de pesquerías y domesticación de peces (entre las más tempranas de ellas las carpas Cyprinus carpio en el Danubio, hace aproximadamente 2000 años) (Balon, 2004) a partir de la construcción de represas y encierros o del desvío de cauces ribereños. Del mismo modo, emergió el acondicionamiento de las áreas de asentamientos humanos que permitieron el poblamiento temporal o estacional en áreas carentes de cavernas, una condición de gran importancia en lo grandes procesos migratorios que llevó a cabo el Homo neanderthalensis (Balter, 2009) y el Homo sapiens (Coles y Orme, 1983). ...
EDITORES Se reúne en este volumen material de lectura para apoyar el curso " Domes-ticación y Manejo in situ de Recursos Genéticos " , organizado desde 2006 por la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) y la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM). Incluye reflexiones y teorías sobre los procesos de domesticación a escala de poblaciones biológicas, una aproxi-mación evolutiva darwiniana explica la diversificación de recursos genéticos a lo largo de la historia. Asimismo, teorías sobre la domesticación de ecosis-temas, paisajes y territorios. Es un esfuerzo multidisciplinario para comprender los mecanismos de domesticación que generan diversidad genética, la apreciación de ésta como recursos para la solución de problemas, el manejo in situ y ex situ de los recursos genéticos y de los territorios que los alojan desde una perspec-tiva sustentable. Es una mirada retrospectiva que busca entender los oríge-nes y la historia de los procesos que dieron origen a la agricultura, el manejo de fauna y de microorganismos, todos ellos expresiones bioculturales cruciales de los pueblos del Nuevo Mundo. Pero es también una búsqueda por comprender los problemas actuales, particularmente los de erosión genética, los cambios ecológicos y culturales que ponen en riesgo el patrimonio biocultural, los problemas legales que afectan los derechos de propiedad intelectual, la biopiratería y el saqueo ilegal de recursos, así como la destrucción global de los ecosistemas. Es un intento por analizar la crisis ambiental mundial severamente ligada a la deforestación, a la industrialización y a la visión desarrollista que adquirió su mayor impulso después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y que han acele-rado como nunca en la historia planetaria los procesos de destrucción del mundo contemporáneo. Es un intento por entender los procesos destructi-vos y contribuir a detenerlos, así como identificar los procesos que favore-cen la conservación y el uso sustentable de la diversidad genética, las espe-cies y los ecosistemas y contribuir a impulsarlos. Domesticación en el continente americano VOLUMEN
... Despite De la R ua et al. (2013)'s assertion that many beekeepers utilize 'pure' native bees, they are fully aware of the extreme difficulty of maintaining 'pure' stocks, given '…extensive gene flow that occurs between managed and wild/feral honeybee populations', '… the notorious problems in achieving controlled mating' and '… few breeders can afford strict control measures using islands as mating stations or instrumental insemination' (De la R ua et al. 2013; italics ours). As such, both empirical population genetic data and knowledge of common management practices (Oldroyd 2012;De la R ua et al. 2013) suggest that admixture is a general characteristic of managed honey bee populations. Although we are aware that 'pure' honey bee populations still exist in Europe, we note that the distribution of native subspecies is restricted and that such populations are at a constant threat from introgression from managed colonies (De la Rua et al. 2009), which is precisely why De la Rua et al. (2009Rua et al. ( , 2013 are concerned about the conservation of native A. mellifera subspecies in Europe. ...
De la Rúa et al. (2013) express some concerns about the conclusions of our recent study showing that management increases genetic diversity of honey bees (Apis mellifera) by promoting admixture (Harpur et al. 2012). We provide a brief review of the literature on the population genetics of A. mellifera and show that we utilized appropriate sampling methods to estimate genetic diversity in the focal populations. Our finding of higher genetic diversity in two managed A. mellifera populations on two different continents is expected to be the norm given the large number of studies documenting admixture in honey bees. Our study focused on elucidating how management affects genetic diversity in honey bees, not on how to best manage bee colonies. We do not endorse the intentional admixture of honey bee populations, and we agree with De la Rúa et al. (2013) that native honey bee subspecies should be conserved.
... In the US, the majority of the active pollination by honey bees is done by large-scale, migratory beekeeping operations that transport their beehives in and out of blooming crops over the course of a growing season. While actively managed (sometimes intensively so), honey bees are not domesticated in the strict sense and are, therefore, subject to many environmental and ecological factors (Harpur et al. 2012;Oldroyd 2012). The susceptibility to multiple environmental stressors, ranging from parasites and pathogens to foraging constraints, makes understanding the biological mechanisms that govern colony function a particularly insightful approach to elucidating factors that result in poor health. ...
Honey bee (Apis mellifera) queens mate with unusually high numbers of males (average of approximately 12 drones), although there is much variation among queens. One main consequence of such extreme polyandry is an increased diversity of worker genotypes within a colony, which has been shown empirically to confer significant adaptive advantages that result in higher colony productivity and survival. Moreover, honey bees are the primary insect pollinators used in modern commercial production agriculture, and their populations have been in decline worldwide. Here, we compare the mating frequencies of queens, and therefore, intracolony genetic diversity, in three commercial beekeeping operations to determine how they correlate with various measures of colony health and productivity, particularly the likelihood of queen supersedure and colony survival in functional, intensively managed beehives. We found the average effective paternity frequency (m
e
) of this population of honey bee queens to be 13.6 ± 6.76, which was not significantly different between colonies that superseded their queen and those that did not. However, colonies that were less genetically diverse (headed by queens with m
e
≤ 7.0) were 2.86 times more likely to die by the end of the study when compared to colonies that were more genetically diverse (headed by queens with m
e
> 7.0). The stark contrast in colony survival based on increased genetic diversity suggests that there are important tangible benefits of increased queen mating number in managed honey bees, although the exact mechanism(s) that govern these benefits have not been fully elucidated.
Beekeeping is a demanding activity that requires both particular human qualities from those who practise it and an environment that is favourable to bees. This is why the interviewed beekeepers advise to take time to think before starting to keep the bees, to find a mentor, and to always have the desire to get to know the bees even if this is not enough for success. In Northern and Western Europe, beekeepers consider patience and calmness as essential qualities to be a “good beekeeper”, while in Southern Europe, passion for bees is the main driver of success. The reasons for abandonment or failure also include human and
environmental factors. To better understand the relationship between beekeepers and their bees, interviewees were encouraged to share their best memories. With years of experience, contemplative memories fade into memorable situations in which bee practices are described, and then in turn, they fade into moments of sociability. Honey harvesting plays an important role. Productive considerations are more expressed in Southern Europe, where it is an exceptional harvest that marks on people’s minds, more than the first honey harvest. The strong connection to their bees and the territory they live in is also expressed in the choice of their favourite honey. Many beekeepers mentioned the local honey production, which they are proud to produce with their own bees, even though they sometimes became criticized for a too high price for this local product.
Beekeepers attempt to manage their honey bee colonies in ways that optimize colony health. Disentangling the impact of management from other variables affecting colony health is complicated by the diversity of practices used and difficulties handling typically complex and incomplete observational datasets.
We propose a method to 1) compress multi-factored management data into a single index, to holistically investigate the real world impact of management on colony mortality, and 2) simplify said index to identify the core practices for which a change in behavior is associated with the greatest improvement in survivorship.
Experts scored the practices of US beekeepers (n = 18,971) documented using four years of retrospective surveys (2012–2015). Management Index scores significantly correlated with loss rates, with beekeepers most in line with recommendations suffering lower losses. The highest ranked practices varied by operation type, as recommendations accounted for the current prevalence of practices. These results validate experts' opinion using empirical data, and can help prioritize extension messages. Improving management will not prevent all losses; however, we show that few behavioral changes (in particular related to comb management, sources of new colonies and Varroa management) can lead to a non-negligible reduction in risk.
The article aims to determine why so few domestic animals originated in American domestication
centres. The knowledge has been gathered from interdisciplinary sources taking into account recent
archaeogenomic and spatial analysis research. The process of domestication is described, and
different domestication centres are compared to the domestication needs and opportunities on the
American continents. Human colonization of the American continent is considered. Important
domestication centres on the North and South American continent are described. Dogs that colonized
the American continents together with people and horses that arrived during the European
colonization are also considered. The analysis of the American megafauna that lived on the continent
during the first colonization of Homo sapiens showed that the big extinction occurred due to climate
change and overhunting. Comparing the evolutionary process of domestication between Afro-Eurasia
and America we found that there was no intentional domestication in areas peripheral to the original
domestication centres in the Americas. Also, diversification of the domesticated animal purpose in the
Americas is limited to dogs.
Background/Objectives: Insects have been the subject of recent attention as a potentially environmentally sustainable and nutritious alternative to traditional protein sources. The purpose of this paper is to test the hypothesis that insects are nutritionally preferable to meat, using two evaluative tools that are designed to combat over- and under-nutrition.
Subjects/Methods: We selected 183 datalines of publicly available data on the nutrient composition of raw cuts and offal of three commonly consumed meats (beef, pork and chicken), and six commercially available insect species, for energy and 12 relevant nutrients. We applied two nutrient profiling tools to this data: The Ofcom model, which is used in the United Kingdom, and the Nutrient Value Score (NVS), which has been used in East Africa. We compared the median nutrient profile scores of different insect species and meat types using non-parametric tests and applied Bonferroni adjustments to assess for statistical significance in differences.
Results: Insect nutritional composition showed high diversity between species. According to the Ofcom model, no insects were significantly ‘healthier’ than meat products. The NVS assigned crickets, palm weevil larvae and mealworm a significantly healthier score than beef (P<0.001) and chicken (P<0.001). No insects were statistically less healthy than meat.
Conclusions: Insect nutritional composition is highly diverse in comparison with commonly consumed meats. The food category ‘insects’ contains some foods that could potentially exacerbate diet-related public health problems related to over-nutrition, but may be effective in combating under-nutrition.
Genetic diversity levels within and between the two commercial breeding areas in the United States were analyzed using the DraI restriction fragment length polymorphism of the COI-COII mitochondrial region and 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci. The western commercial breeding population (WCBP) and the southeastern commercial breeding population (SCBP) were sampled in 1993-1994 and again in 2004-2005. The goal of this study was to characterize the genetic composition of these populations and to measure potential changes in genetic diversity and composition across the sampling period. The mitochondrial DNA haplotypes C1 and C2, characteristic of the most popular bee strains (Italians and Carniolans, respectively) sold in the United States, were the dominant haplotypes at both sample dates. The frequency of Apis mellifera mellifera M haplotypes, M4, M7, and M7', decreased during the 10-yr span. An A1 haplotype characteristic of Africanized bees was found in the SCBP from 2005. Microsatellite analysis showed there was a loss of alleles in both the WCBP and SCBP, but the losses were not significant due to simultaneous gains of new alleles into these populations between 1993 and 2005. Genetic differences that occurred between the 1993-1994 WCBP and SCBP were still detectable in these populations sampled a decade later, suggesting that these populations could be useful sources of diversity for each other in the future.
Compared with other livestock, honey bees have seen limited long term gains achieved through selective breeding programs. Lack of progress is primarily a result of the complex social and genetic architecture of honey-bee colonies, which makes selection of genetically superior individuals difficult. Colonies comprise four levels of genetic architecture: genes, individuals, patrilines and the colony. Interactions within and between each of the levels influence the colony-level phenotype. Genetic progress is further hindered by the honey bee’s reproductive biology, which hinders control of mating, and the severe effects of inbreeding, a consequence of the mechanism of sex determination.Recent advances in the genetic resources available for honey bees have started to reveal the genetic relationships between traits of economic importance. Genetic markers for commercially important traits are being identified, which should allow for marker assisted selection. Improved statistical models are now able to simultaneously account for both queen and worker influences on colony-level phenotype across multiple genetically correlated traits, thereby increasing the accuracy of selection and the potential rate of genetic improvement.We conclude our review by describing two exemplar breeding schemes that have incorporated some of the breeding technologies discussed, and which have also been successfully maintained for an extended period of time.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and allozyme analyses of 692 feral honey bee, Apis mellifera L., colonies revealed significant genetic population structure (heterogeneity) in the southern tier of the United States. Analysis of mtDNA haplotypes showed that 61% of the colonies were maternal descendants of the European races most commonly used for commercial beekeeping and 37% were descendants of a race (A. m. mellifera L.) that was imported between 1620 and the 1860s, but is no longer used commercially. Twelve colonies from five states exhibited an African haplotype associated with the race A. m. lamarckii Cockerell introduced from Egypt >100 yr ago. Several electrophoretic alleles not previously reported from U.S. populations were detected, and malate dehydrogenase allele frequencies for the 692 colonies were determined to be Mdh65 = 0.47, Mdh80 = 0.33, and Mdh100 = 0.20. Despite the significant heterogeneity of allele frequencies, no significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg expectations were detected when all bees sampled were artificially pooled into one population or by individual states. The Mdh80 frequency was higher than that found in previous studies of commercial populations, suggesting a disproportionately higher genetic contribution of A. m. mellifera to the feral population. The discovery of significant heterogeneity among U.S. feral honey bees implies that this population may represent a source of genetic variation for breeding programs.
Beekeepers in Europe, North America and other parts of the world have repeatedly been afflicted by elevated and sometimes unexplained colony losses. Multiple factors have been considered in connection with increased winter losses. In addition to national programmes investigating possible causes for increased honey bee mortality, scientists collaborate at an international level on different aspects of bee health within the COLOSS network. Within this network, Working Group 4 explores aspects of genetic diversity in relation to the vitality and health of honey bee populations. In this paper, we briefly review the genetic diversity of honey bees in Europe, discuss the effects of beekeeping and selective breeding on honey bee populations under the aspect of genetic diversity and bee health, and review the current status of EU legislation with respect to protection of native bee populations. We introduce and discuss recent approaches in honey bee selective breeding to improve disease resistance by introducing traits related to colony vitality. Finally, we present the aims of WG4 within the COLOSS network and briefly introduce our experimental approach. El rol de la vitalidad y la diversidad genética en la pérdida de colonias. Resumen Recientemente, apicultores de Europa, Norteamérica y otras partes del mundo han sido afectados por la pérdida alarmante de colonias a una magnitud sin precedente. Múltiples factores pueden estar involucrados en este fenómeno. Además de los proyectos de investigación a nivel nacional, ha sido establecida la red científica internacional COLOSS para identificar los factores que a nivel individual (trabajo "diversidad y vitalidad" con la red COLOSS.
The process of domestication often brings about profound changes in levels of genetic variation in animals and plants. The honey bee, Apis mellifera, has been managed by humans for centuries for both honey and wax production and crop pollination. Human management and selective breeding are believed to have caused reductions in genetic diversity in honey bee populations, thereby contributing to the global declines threatening this ecologically and economically important insect. However, previous studies supporting this claim mostly relied on population genetic comparisons of European and African (or Africanized) honey bee races; such conclusions require reassessment given recent evidence demonstrating that the honey bee originated in Africa and colonized Europe via two independent expansions. We sampled honey bee workers from two managed populations in North America and Europe as well as several old-world progenitor populations in Africa, East and West Europe. Managed bees had highly introgressed genomes representing admixture between East and West European progenitor populations. We found that managed honey bees actually have higher levels of genetic diversity compared with their progenitors in East and West Europe, providing an unusual example whereby human management increases genetic diversity by promoting admixture. The relationship between genetic diversity and honey bee declines is tenuous given that managed bees have more genetic diversity than their progenitors and many viable domesticated animals.
We review the underlying principles and tools used in genomic studies of domestic dogs aimed at understanding the genetic changes that have occurred during domestication. We show that there are two principle modes of evolution within dogs. One primary mode that accounts for much of the remarkable diversity of dog breeds is the fixation of discrete mutations of large effect in individual lineages that are then crossed to various breed groupings. This transfer of mutations across the dog evolutionary tree leads to the appearance of high phenotypic diversity that in actuality reflects a small number of major genes. A second mechanism causing diversification involves the selective breeding of dogs within distinct phenotypic or functional groups, which enhances specific group attributes such as heading or tracking. Such progressive selection leads to a distinct genetic structure in evolutionary trees such that functional and phenotypic groups cluster genetically. We trace the origin of the nuclear genome in dogs based on haplotype-sharing analyses between dogs and gray wolves and show that contrary to previous mtDNA analyses, the nuclear genome of dogs derives primarily from Middle Eastern or European wolves, a result more consistent with the archeological record. Sequencing analysis of the IGF1 gene, which has been the target of size selection in small breeds, further supports this conclusion. Finally, we discuss how a black coat color mutation that evolved in dogs has transformed North American gray wolf populations, providing a first example of a mutation that appeared under domestication and selectively swept through a wild relative.
Most species of social insects have singly mated queens, but in some species each queen mates with numerous males to create a colony with a genetically diverse worker force. The adaptive significance of polyandry by social insect queens remains an evolutionary puzzle. Using the honeybee (Apis mellifera), we tested the hypothesis that polyandry improves a colony's resistance to disease. We established colonies headed by queens that had been artificially inseminated by either one or 10 drones. Later, we inoculated these colonies with spores of Paenibacillus larvae, the bacterium that causes a highly virulent disease of honeybee larvae (American foulbrood). We found that, on average, colonies headed by multiple-drone inseminated queens had markedly lower disease intensity and higher colony strength at the end of the summer relative to colonies headed by single-drone inseminated queens. These findings support the hypothesis that polyandry by social insect queens is an adaptation to counter disease within their colonies.
Commercial honey bee queens in the United States are produced primarily in two geographically separated regions, one in the southeastern US and the other in central California. We used mitochondrial DNA and allozyme variation to characterize 178 breeder queen colonies from 22 California apiaries. Two colonies had the mtDNA haplotype characteristic of Apis mellifera mellifera, the first subspecies known to be introduced to the US, and 176 had the haplotype associated with A m carnica and A m ligustica, the most popular commercially available subspecies. Malate dehydrogenase (Mdh) allele frequencies for the western population, Mdh65 = 0.65, Mdh 80 = 0.09 and Mdh100 = 0.26, were significantly different from those previously reported for feral and southeastern commercial populations. Among the California samples, bees described by apiarists as 'Italian' or 'Carniolan' were significantly different from each other based on Mdh allele frequencies. Five other enzymes known to be polymorphic in honey bees were invariant in the California samples. Differentiation between populations in the United States suggests they may act as reservoirs for genes that can be useful for bee breeding programs.
Although texts and wall paintings suggest that bees were kept in the Ancient Near East for the production of precious wax and honey, archaeological evidence for beekeeping has never been found. The Biblical term "honey" commonly was interpreted as the sweet product of fruits, such as dates and figs. The recent discovery of unfired clay cylinders similar to traditional hives still used in the Near East at the site of Tel Re ov in the Jordan valley in northern Israel suggests that a large-scale apiary was located inside the town, dating to the 10th-early 9th centuries B.C.E. This paper reports the discovery of remains of honeybee workers, drones, pupae, and larvae inside these hives. The exceptional preservation of these remains provides unequivocal identification of the clay cylinders as the most ancient beehives yet found. Morphometric analyses indicate that these bees differ from the local subspecies Apis mellifera syriaca and from all subspecies other than A. m. anatoliaca, which presently resides in parts of Turkey. This finding suggests either that the Western honeybee subspecies distribution has undergone rapid change during the last 3,000 years or that the ancient inhabitants of Tel Re ov imported bees superior to the local bees in terms of their milder temper and improved honey yield.
Background
Honey bees are an essential component of modern agriculture. A recently recognized ailment, Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), devastates colonies, leaving hives with a complete lack of bees, dead or alive. Up to now, estimates of honey bee population decline have not included losses occurring during the wintering period, thus underestimating actual colony mortality. Our survey quantifies the extent of colony losses in the United States over the winter of 2007–2008.
Methodology/Principal Findings
Surveys were conducted to quantify and identify management factors (e.g. operation size, hive migration) that contribute to high colony losses in general and CCD symptoms in particular. Over 19% of the country's estimated 2.44 million colonies were surveyed. A total loss of 35.8% of colonies was recorded; an increase of 11.4% compared to last year. Operations that pollinated almonds lost, on average, the same number of colonies as those that did not. The 37.9% of operations that reported having at least some of their colonies die with a complete lack of bees had a total loss of 40.8% of colonies compared to the 17.1% loss reported by beekeepers without this symptom. Large operations were more likely to have this symptom suggesting that a contagious condition may be a causal factor. Sixty percent of all colonies that were reported dead in this survey died without dead bees, and thus possibly suffered from CCD. In PA, losses varied with region, indicating that ambient temperature over winter may be an important factor.
Conclusions/Significance
Of utmost importance to understanding the recent losses and CCD is keeping track of losses over time and on a large geographic scale. Given that our surveys are representative of the losses across all beekeeping operations, between 0.75 and 1.00 million honey bee colonies are estimated to have died in the United States over the winter of 2007–2008. This article is an extensive survey of U.S. beekeepers across the continent, serving as a reference for comparison with future losses as well as providing guidance to future hypothesis-driven research on the causes of colony mortality.
Honey bees are a highly valued resource around the world. They are prized for their honey and wax production and depended upon for pollination of many important crops. While globally honey bee populations have been increasing, the rate of increase is not keeping pace with demand. Further, honey bee populations have not been increasing in all parts of the world, and have declined in many nations in Europe and in North America. Managed honey bee populations are influenced by many factors including diseases, parasites, pesticides, the environment, and socio-economic factors. These factors can act alone or in combination with each other. This review highlights the present day value of honey bees, followed by a detailed description of some of the historical and present day factors that influence honey bee populations, with particular emphasis on colony populations in Europe and the United States.
Over the last two winters, there have been large-scale, unexplained losses of managed honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies in the United States. In the absence of a known cause, this syndrome was named Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) because the main trait was a rapid loss of adult worker bees. We initiated a descriptive epizootiological study in order to better characterize CCD and compare risk factor exposure between populations afflicted by and not afflicted by CCD.
Of 61 quantified variables (including adult bee physiology, pathogen loads, and pesticide levels), no single measure emerged as a most-likely cause of CCD. Bees in CCD colonies had higher pathogen loads and were co-infected with a greater number of pathogens than control populations, suggesting either an increased exposure to pathogens or a reduced resistance of bees toward pathogens. Levels of the synthetic acaricide coumaphos (used by beekeepers to control the parasitic mite Varroa destructor) were higher in control colonies than CCD-affected colonies.
This is the first comprehensive survey of CCD-affected bee populations that suggests CCD involves an interaction between pathogens and other stress factors. We present evidence that this condition is contagious or the result of exposure to a common risk factor. Potentially important areas for future hypothesis-driven research, including the possible legacy effect of mite parasitism and the role of honey bee resistance to pesticides, are highlighted.
The honeybee (Apis mellifera) queen mates during nuptial flights, in the so-called drone congregation area where many males from surrounding colonies gather. Using 20 highly polymorphic microsatellite loci, we studied a sample of 142 drones captured in a congregation close to Oberursel (Germany). A parentage test based on lod score showed that this sample contained one group of four brothers, six groups of three brothers, 20 groups of two brothers and 80 singletons. These values are very close to a Poisson distribution. Therefore, colonies were apparently equally represented in the drone congregation, and calculations showed that the congregation comprised males that originated from about 240 different colonies. This figure is surprisingly high. Considering the density of colonies around the congregation area and the average flight range of males, it suggests that most colonies within the recruitment perimeter delegated drones to the congregation with an equal probability, resulting in an almost perfect panmixis. Consequently, the relatedness between a queen and her mates, and hence the inbreeding coefficient of the progeny, should be minimized. The relatedness among the drones mated to the same queen is also very low, maximizing the genetic diversity among the different patrilines of a colony.
Establishment of a closed population honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), breeding program based on 'black' strains has been proposed for eastern Australia. Long-term success of such a program requires a high level of genetic variance. To determine the likely extent of genetic variation available, 50 colonies from 11 different commercial apiaries were sequenced in the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I and II intergenic region. Five distinct and novel mitotypes were identified. No colonies were found with the A. mellifera mellifera mitotype, which is often associated with undesirable feral strains. One group of mitotypes was consistent with a caucasica origin, two with carnica, and two with ligustica. The results suggest that there is sufficient genetic diversity to support a breeding program provided all these five sources were pooled.
The spectacular diversity in size, conformation, and pelage that characterizes the domestic dog reflects not only the intensity of artificial selection but ultimately the genetic variability of founding populations. Here we review past molecular genetic data that are relevant to understanding the origin and phylogenetic relationships of the dog. DNA-DNA hybridization data show that the dog family Canidae diverged about 50 million years ago from other carnivore families. In contrast, the extant canids are very closely related and diverged from a common ancestor about 10 million years ago. The evidence supporting a close relationship of dogs with gray wolves is overwhelming. However, dogs are remarkably diverse in mitochondrial and nuclear genes. Mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests a more ancient origin of dogs than has been indicated by the fossil record. In addition, dogs have originated from or interbred with wolves throughout their history at different times and different places. We test the possibility of an independent domestication event in North America by analysis of mtDNA variation in the Xoloitzcuintli. This unusual breed is believed to have been kept isolated for thousands of years and may be one of the most ancient breeds in North America. Our results do not support a New World domestication of dogs nor a close association of the Xoloitzcuintli with other hair-less breeds of dogs. Despite their phenotypic uniformity, the Xoloitzcuintli has a surprisingly high level of mtDNA sequence variation. Other breeds are also genetically diverse, suggesting that dog breeds were often founded with a large number of dogs from outbred populations.
A series of recent genetic studies has revealed the remarkably complex picture of domestication in both New World and Old World livestock. By comparing mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences of modern breeds with their potential wild and domestic ancestors, we have gained new insights into the timing and location of domestication events that produced the farm animals of today. The real surprise has been the high number of domestication events and the diverse locations in which they took place - factors which could radically change our approach to conserving livestock biodiversity resources in the future.
Both archaeological data and the presence of few mitochondrial DNA lineages suggest that most widespread domestic mammals (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs) derive from only a handful of domestication events. However, each of these species shows a high level of diversity at the nuclear genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Through simulations incorporating various degrees of population subdivision, growth rate and selection, we demonstrate that the numerous MHC DRB alleles that are present in modern domestic mammals implies that substantial backcrossing with wild ancestors, either accidental or intentional, has been important in shaping the genetic diversity of our domesticates. These results support the view that, contrary to common assumption, domestic and wild lineages might not have been clearly separated throughout their history.
We characterized Apis mellifera in both native and introduced ranges using 1136 single-nucleotide polymorphisms genotyped in 341 individuals. Our results
indicate that A. mellifera originated in Africa and expanded into Eurasia at least twice, resulting in populations in eastern and western Europe that
are geographically close but genetically distant. A third expansion in the New World has involved the near-replacement of
previously introduced “European” honey bees by descendants of more recently introduced A. m. scutellata (“African” or “killer” bees). Our analyses of spatial transects and temporal series in the New World revealed differential
replacement of alleles derived from eastern versus western Europe, with admixture evident in all individuals.
American beekeepers reported unusually high rates of colony loss in early 2007 as bees broke from their overwintering clusters. Researchers are struggling to explain what's behind this mysterious disappearance, called colony collapse disorder.
Honey bee queens mate with many males, creating numerous patrilines within colonies that are genetically distinct. The effects
of genetic diversity on colony productivity and long-term fitness are unknown. We show that swarms from genetically diverse
colonies (15 patrilines per colony) founded new colonies faster than swarms from genetically uniform colonies (1 patriline
per colony). Accumulated differences in foraging rates, food storage, and population growth led to impressive boosts in the
fitness (i.e., drone production and winter survival) of genetically diverse colonies. These results further our understanding
of the origins of polyandry in honey bees and its benefits for colony performance.
Due to the introduction of exotic honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) diseases in the eastern states, the borders of the state of Western Australia were closed to the import of bees for breeding and other purposes > 25 yr ago. To provide genetically improved stock for the industry, a closed population breeding program was established that now provides stock for the majority of Western Australian beekeepers. Given concerns that inbreeding may have resulted from the closed population breeding structure, we assessed the genetic diversity within and between the breeding lines by using microsatellite and mitochondrial markers. We found that the breeding population still maintains considerable genetic diversity, despite 25 yr of selective breeding. We also investigated the genetic distance of the closed population breeding program to that of beekeepers outside of the program, and the feral Western Australian honey bee population. The feral population is genetically distinct from the closed population, but not from the genetic stock maintained by beekeepers outside of the program. The honey bees of Western Australia show three mitotypes, originating from two subspecies: Apis mellifera ligustica (mitotypes C1 and M7b) and Apis mellifera iberica (mitotype M6). Only mitotypes C1 and M6 are present in the commercial populations. The feral population contains all three mitotypes.
Apis mellifera is composed of three evolutionary branches including mainly African (branch A), western and northern European (branch M), and southeastern European (branch C) populations. The existence of morphological clines extending from the equator to the Polar Circle through Morocco and Spain raised the hypothesis that the branch M originated in Africa. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed that branches A and M were characterized by highly diverged lineages implying very remote links between both branches. It also revealed that mtDNA haplotypes from lineages A coexisted with haplotypes M in the Iberian Peninsula and formed a south-north frequency cline, suggesting that this area could be a secondary contact zone between the two branches. By analyzing 11 populations sampled along a France-Spain/Portugal-Morocco-Guinea transect at 8 microsatellite loci and the DraI RFLP of the COI-COII mtDNA marker, we show that Iberian populations do not present any trace of "africanization" and are very similar to French populations when considering microsatellite markers. Therefore, the Iberian Peninsula is not a transition area. The higher haplotype A variability observed in Spanish and Portuguese samples compared to that found in Africa is explained by a higher mutation rate and multiple and recent introductions. Selection appears to be the best explanation to the morphological and allozymic clines and to the diffusion and maintenance of African haplotypes in Spain and Portugal.
Apis mellifera is composed of three evolutionary branches including mainly African (branch A), western and northern European (branch M), and southeastern European (branch C) populations. The existence of morphological clines extending from the equator to the Polar Circle through Morocco and Spain raised the hypothesis that the branch M originated in Africa. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed that branches A and M were characterized by highly diverged lineages implying very remote links between both branches. It also revealed that mtDNA haplotypes from lineages A coexisted with haplotypes M in the Iberian Peninsula and formed a south-north frequency cline, suggesting that this area could be a secondary contact zone between the two branches. By analyzing 11 populations sampled along a France-Spain/Portugal-Morocco-Guinea transect at 8 microsatellite loci and the DraI RFLP of the COI-COII mtDNA marker, we show that Iberian populations do not present any trace of 'africanization' and are very similar to French populations when considering microsatellite markers. Therefore, the Iberian Peninsula is not a transition area. The higher haplotype A variability observed in Spanish and Portuguese samples compared to that found in Africa is explained by a higher mutation rate and multiple and recent introductions. Selection appears to be the best explanation to the morphological and allozymic clines and to the diffusion and maintenance of African haplotypes in Spain and Portugal.
Europe harbours several endemic honeybee (Apis mellifera) subspecies. Yet the distribution of these subspecies is nowadays also much influenced by beekeeping activities. Large scale
migratory beekeeping and trade in queens, coupled with the promiscuous mating system of honeybees, have exposed native European
honeybees to increasing introgressive hybridization with managed non-native subspecies, which may lead to the loss of valuable
combinations of traits shaped by natural selection. Other threats to European honeybees are factors that have caused a progressive
decline in A. mellifera throughout the world in recent years, leading to large economic losses and jeopardizing ecosystem functioning. We review
the biodiversity of European honeybees and summarize the management and conservation strategies employed by different countries.
A comprehensive picture of the beekeeping industry in Europe is also provided. Finally we evaluate the potential threats affecting
the biodiversity of European honeybee populations and provide some perspectives for future research.
Growing awareness of the importance of conserving the biodiversity of livestock breeds is paralleled by genetic advances that will help objective planning of conservation. Inventories of breeds, long advocated, are now being established and concepts originally formulated for the quantification of species diversity are being applied. The breeds thus conserved will provide valuable resources for the future of agriculture, especially in the developing world.
Although pollinator declines are a global biodiversity threat, the demography of the western honeybee (Apis mellifera) has not been considered by conservationists because it is biased by the activity of beekeepers. To fill this gap in pollinator decline censuses and to provide a broad picture of the current status of honeybees across their natural range, we used microsatellite genetic markers to estimate colony densities and genetic diversity at different locations in Europe, Africa, and central Asia that had different patterns of land use. Genetic diversity and colony densities were highest in South Africa and lowest in Northern Europe and were correlated with mean annual temperature. Confounding factors not related to climate, however, are also likely to influence genetic diversity and colony densities in honeybee populations. Land use showed a significantly negative influence over genetic diversity and the density of honeybee colonies over all sampling locations. In Europe honeybees sampled in nature reserves had genetic diversity and colony densities similar to those sampled in agricultural landscapes, which suggests that the former are not wild but may have come from managed hives. Other results also support this idea: putative wild bees were rare in our European samples, and the mean estimated density of honeybee colonies on the continent closely resembled the reported mean number of managed hives. Current densities of European honeybee populations are in the same range as those found in the adverse climatic conditions of the Kalahari and Saharan deserts, which suggests that beekeeping activities do not compensate for the loss of wild colonies. Our findings highlight the importance of reconsidering the conservation status of honeybees in Europe and of regarding beekeeping not only as a profitable business for producing honey, but also as an essential component of biodiversity conservation.
Variability of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the honey bee Apis mellifera L. has been investigated by restriction and sequence analyses on a sample of 68 colonies from ten different subspecies. The 19 mtDNA types detected are clustered in three major phylogenetic lineages. These clades correspond well to three groups of populations with distinct geographical distributions: branch A for African subspecies (intermissa, monticola, scutellata, andansonii and capensis), branch C for North Mediterranean subspecies (caucasica, carnica and ligustica) and branch M for the West European populations (mellifera subspecies). These results partially confirm previous hypotheses based on morphometrical and allozymic studies, the main difference concerning North African populations, now assigned to branch A instead of branch M. The pattern of spatial structuring suggests the Middle East as the centre of dispersion of the species, in accordance with the geographic areas of the other species of the same genus. Based on a conservative 2% divergence rate per Myr, the separation of the three branches has been dated at about 1 Myr BP.
A model is presented showing that natural selection operating at the individual level can adequately explain the evolution of multiple mating behavior by honey bee queens. Group selection need not be invoked. The fitness of a given female genotype is a function of the number of sex alleles in the population, the number of matings by an individual female and the specific parameters that determine the relationship of brood viability to individual fitness. Even though the exact relationship is not known, it is almost certainly not linear. A nonlinear relationship between worker brood viability and fitness and a significant genetic load associated with the sex-determination system in honey bees are the essential components of this model.
Objectives were to determine 1) effects on traits measured from birth to slaughter in F2 cross calves from sire breeds that differ in potential for lean tissue growth but have similar mature BW and 2) the gene action of the mutant Piedmontese myostatin allele. Hereford (normal muscling, H), Limousin (moderate increase in muscling, L), and Piedmontese (muscular hypertrophy, P) sires (20 to 25 per breed) were bred at random to crossbred cows to produce F1 calves that were inter se-mated within sire breed to produce F2 calves that were grown out, finished, and slaughtered. Piedmontese-cross calves were genotyped for the G-A transition mutation at the myostatin locus characteristic of P (msP). Genotypes were classified on the basis of having zero (P0), one (P1), or two (P2) copies of msP (H, n = 227; L, n = 207; P0, n = 40; P1, n = 107; and P2, n = 37). Limousin-cross F2 calves had heavier birth (but dystocia was not affected) and weaning weights, gained faster, had more muscle, less fat, larger pelvic area, and more efficient feed conversion than Hereford-cross F2 calves. Normal-muscled Piedmontese-cross F2 calves (P0) were similar to Hereford-cross F2 calves except that they required less assistance at birth in heifer dams, had less fat, gained slower, were less efficient, and had larger pelvic area. Addition of msP alleles (P1 and P2) consistently increased muscle through hyperplasia, decreased fat, and increased adjusted efficiency, but many of those changes were not linear. Residual variances for breed were heterogeneous for most traits related to muscularity. This heterogeneity was caused by increased variances for L and P and(or) lower variances for H. Accounting for the msP alleles decreased the variance for P in most traits, but heterogeneity remained for most traits among the five genotypes because L remained high, H was low, and(or) P2 was low. We conclude that differences in muscularity affect most traits, and when differences in muscularity include the msP allele, there is an incremental, but not equal, change in most traits with the addition of each copy of the msP allele. Advantages of L could be captured through normal crossbreeding and selection schemes but with some caution because of potential problems from increased variability. Advantages of P could be best captured through more complex breeding and selection programs that would lessen potential negative impacts and through marketing systems that do not penalize for very low fat.
Domestication interests us as the most momentous change in Holocene human history. Why did it operate on so few wild species, in so few geographic areas? Why did people adopt it at all, why did they adopt it when they did, and how did it spread? The answers to these questions determined the remaking of the modern world, as farmers spread at the expense of hunter-gatherers and of other farmers.
One of the 'grand challenges' in modern biology is to understand the genetic basis of phenotypic diversity within and among species. Thousands of years of selective breeding of domestic animals has created a diversity of phenotypes among breeds that is only matched by that observed among species in nature. Domestic animals therefore constitute a unique resource for understanding the genetic basis of phenotypic variation. When the genome sequences of domestic animals become available the identification of the mutations that underlie the transformation from a wild to a domestic species will be a realistic and important target.
Although most insect colonies are headed by a singly mated queen, some ant, wasp and bee taxa have evolved high levels of multiple mating or 'polyandry'. We argue here that a contributing factor towards the evolution of polyandry is that the resulting genetic diversity within colonies provides them with a system of genetically based task specialization, enabling them to respond resiliently to environmental perturbation. An alternate view is that genetic contributions to task specialization are a side effect of multiple mating, which evolved through other causes, and that genetically based task specialization now makes little or no contribution to colony fitness.
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1 A beekeeper inspects a 'bar' of queen larvae, all daughters of a single breeder queen. A breeder queen can be the mother of tens of thousands of production queens in a lifetime
- Fig
Fig. 1 A beekeeper inspects a 'bar' of queen larvae, all daughters of a single breeder queen. A breeder queen can be the
mother of tens of thousands of production queens in a lifetime
(Photograph: B. P. Oldroyd).
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A story of success. The Starline and Midnite hybrid bee breeding programs
- Witherell PC
Witherell PC (1976) A story of success. The Starline and Midnite
hybrid bee breeding programs. American Bee Journal, 116, 63–64.
Genes of domestic mammals augmented by backcrossing with wild ancestors
- Vilà
Biodiversity, conservation and current threats to European honeybees
- De la Rúa
The history of artificial insemination
- Foote
- Rose
Population genetics of commercial and feral honey bees (Apis mellifera) in Western Australia
- Chapman NC