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11
Wildlife and Protected Areas
Vol.07
No.1 2004
Ungulat
es
I
ndia
I.
To'i
Wildlife Institute of India
INDIA
The Environmental Information System
(ENVIS)
Centre at the Wildlife Institute of India
,
set up in
September 1997, is part of the
ENVIS
setup of the
Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government
of India
.
It deals with general matters concerning
`wildlife'
and specifically those related to `protected
areas'
.
Its objectives are to:
Establish a data bank on information related to wildlife and wildlife protected areas, and thereby
buildup a repository and dissemination centre for information on wildlife science;
Promote national and international cooperation
,
and exchange of wildlife related information;
Provide decision makers at the apex level with information related to conservation and
development
lu1tetin
Wildlife and Protected Areas
Project Leader
P.R. Sinha
Project Coordinator
V.B. Mathur
Project Co-
coordinator
S.A. Hussain
Project Associate
A. David
Advisory Committee
P.K. Mathur
B.C. Choudhury
K. Sivakumar
M. S. Rana
R. Thapa
K.K. Shrivastava
WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA
Post Box # 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun - 248 001
Tel.: (0135) 2640111-115; Fax: (0135) 2640117
Email: envis@wii.govin; wii@envis.nic.in
Website : http://wwwwii.govin/envis; http://www.viienvis.nic.in
Envis
%S
ulletin : Wil ENVIS Centre on Wildlife and Protected Areas
&,vic
u(1
eti
n
Wildlife
and Protected Areas
Ungulates of India
Editors
K. Sankar
S.P. Goyal
Editorial Processing
G. Chhibber
Maps
M. Veerappan
The contents of the bulletin may be freely used for non-commercial purposes with due acknowledgement.
Citation: Sankar, K and Goyal, S.P. (Eds.) 2004. Ungulates of India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife
and Protected Areas, Vol. 07, No. 1. Wildlife Institute of India, Deheradun, India. Pp. 448.
Citation for individual chapter. Sharma, K., and Rahmani, A.R. 2004. Four horned antelope
or Chowsingha
(Tetracpn6 quad *vris
Blainvill1e). Pp. 53-60. In: K. Sankar and S.P. Goyal (Eds.)
Ungulates of India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 07, No. 1. Wildlife
Institute of India, Deheradun, India. Pp. 448.
ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 07. No. 1. Printed in 2007.
Envis
%
guIletinis
also available on the internet at
WIT website: http://www wii.govin/envhome/eindex
Species illustrations are by Centre for Environmentl Education (CEE), Ahmedabad, India.
Photo Credits:
Asian wild buffalo, Barking deer, Indian wild ass, Nilgiri tahr, Rhinoceros (WII Photo Library)
Blue bull, Hog deer, Sambar (K. Sankar)
Indian gazelle (J. Van Gruisen), Four horned antelope (S.P. Goyal), Brow antlered deer (S.A. Hussain),
Wild pig (J.S. Jalal), Indian antelope (Y.V. Jhala), Pygmy hog (G. Narayan), Soptted deer (B. Pandav),
Indian bison (M.K.S. Pasha), Mouse deer (S. Prasad), Swamp deer (Q. Qureshi)
Leaf deer (www.animalinfo.org/species/artiperi/muntputa.htm)
Envis&lletiq
. WII ENVIS Centre on Wildlife and Protected Areas
Nilgai
BLUE BULL OR NILGAI
(Boselaphus tragocamelus
Pallas, 1766)
K. Sankar
, A.J.T. Johnsingh
and B
. Acharya
Order
Family
Sub-Family
Tribe
Genus
Species
Common name
Artiodactyla
Bovidae
Bovinae
Boselaphini
Boselaphus
B. tragocamelus
Nilgai, Blue bull
Conservation Status
WPA (1972)
IUCN RED DATA BOOK
CITES
INTRODUCTION
Schedule III
Lower risk
Not listed
Nilgai are the largest antelopes in Asia, about the size of a horse. Brander
(1923) reported a 270 kg bull in central India. Walker (1968) reported
that an adult nilgai weighs about 200 kg. Prater (1971) opined that bulls
could weigh up to 270 kg. In Texas, 39 bulls averaged 241 kg and 23
adult cows 169 kg (Sheffield
et al.
1983). An adult male stands 130 to
140 cm at the shoulder (Walker 1968, Prater 1971). Sale
et al.
(1988)
reported shoulder height of eight bulls ranging from 130 to 150 cm (mean
138.4 cm) and for five cows from 100 to 130 cm (mean 116.8 cm), in
Punjab, India. Bulls in Texas averaged 180 cm in length, 160 cm in
chest girth, and 120 cm height at the shoulders. The corresponding
dimensions for cows were 170 cm, 130 cm, and 120 cm respectively
(Sheffield
et al.
1983). Only male nilgai have horns which are short (15-
20 cm), stout, conical and smooth in nature.
Envis.$ulletin
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29
Nilgai calves and cows are light brown in colour. The light brown colour
of male calves begins to darken by the tenth month and they develop
black legs and brownish grey shoulders by 18 months. Adult nilgai bulls
are steel-grey or blue grey in colour with black legs, which is developed
by the fourth year (Sheffield
et al.
1983). All individuals have dark and
white markings on their heads, ears, under-parts, fetlocks, and tail, and
prominent white vibrissa spots on the head. At the midpoint on the ventral
side of the neck is a tuft of hair, more pronounced in bulls than in cows
(Sheffield et al.
1983).
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
Nilgai are endemic to peninsular India. Historical records point out that
all the Mughal emperors were extremely fond of hunting nilgai, especially
Jehangir, credited with hunting down, among other animals, nearly 900
nilgai (Ali 1927). In the past, nilgai were distributed in open vegetation
types all over India, down to Mettupalayam (latitude: 11 ° N) in south India
(Brander 1923, Pythian-Adams 1951, Prater 1971). The present
distribution of nilgai ranges from the Himalayan foothills, southward
through central India, down to the southern districts of Andhra Pradesh.
They are found in 114 Protected Areas of the country, in 16 States: Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand and West Bengal. They
are absent in the north-east India, and the southernmost parts of the
peninsula. Nilgai have also been reported in Pakistan, mainly along the
border with India (Mirza and Khan 1975, Roberts 1977) and in Nepal
(Dinerstein 1979). Introduced nilgai populations occur in U.S.A., Mexico
and South Africa (Lever 1985).
Nilgai occur near human habitations and crop fields outside protected
areas. They are found in a variety of habitats, from level ground to
undulating hills, in thin brush with scattered trees to cultivated plains,
but not in dense forests and steep hills (Blanford 1888, Prater 1971).
They are absent from the true arid zone where woody cover is inadequate
to meet their requirements.
POPULATION
Though nilgai were once common throughout India (Adams 1858, Blanford
1888), like most large mammalian fauna of India, they have declined
drastically because of habitat destruction and over-hunting (Schaller 1967).
30
UNGULATES OF INDIA
i
Nilgai
Roberts (1977) reported that nilgai numbers are much reduced even in
India, despite being regarded as sacred by the Hindu farming population.
Their current population in India is yet to
be assessed
. Population figures
are rarely available even from within the PAs from where they have been
reported. Needless to say, estimating nilgai numbers outside PAs becomes
even more difficult. However,
a safe estimate
of nilgai in India would be
between 100,000 and 150,000. North-central India, covering four states
(Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh) account for a
large majority (about 60%) of the total nilgai population in the country.
ECOLOGY
Group size and composition
Nilgai are partially social in their habits (Roberts 1977), although
congregations and large groups
are rare
. According to Dinerstein (1980),
nilgai occur in groups ranging from one to 10 individuals, and the mean
group size observed in Karnali-Bardia in Nepal was 2.9. In Sariska, seasonal
group size of nilgai (excluding single individuals) varied greatly, from two to
43 individuals, with a mean group size of 4.0 (Sankar 1994), with groups of
up to five individuals formed 87 per cent of the groups observed. In Gir,
Khan
et al.
(1995) reported mean group size of nilgai (including 'groups' of
one) as 2.2, with high seasonal variability in group sizes.
According to Schaller (1967), nilgai groups change constantly, but three
distinct kinds of groups are discernible: (i) one or two cows with young
calves, (ii) 3 to 6 adult and yearling cows with calves, and (iii) male groups
varying in number from 2 to 18. Sheffield
et al.
(1983) reported that in
Texas, nilgai exhibited sexual segregation, except during the breeding
season (December to March), when groups were formed with a male,
and one or more cows and their calves. During the non-breeding season,
especially the monsoon in India (July-October), bulls were usually found
in all-male groups of less than 10 individuals, or sometimes in groups of
10 to 23, rarely more. Non-breeding cows and their calves occur mainly
in groups of less than 16, often as singles and occasionally in larger
groups of 16 to 24. During the breeding and calving seasons, this
structure may change (Sankar 1994).
Sex ratio
Data from captive-bred nilgai indicated that the sex ratio of nilgai at birth
is approximately even. Of the 535 nilgai born in zoos worldwide, 49%
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3
1
were males and 51% females (Jarvis 1968, Lucas 1970). In India, the
sex ratio (male:female) of free ranging adult nilgai favours females: 0.59:1
in Bharatpur (Schaller and Spillett 1966), 0.39:1 in Vanvihar Sanctuary
(Schaller 1967), and 0.4:1 in Sariska (Sankar 1994). In Gir, down the
years, the female-biased sex ratio of nilgai appears to be tilting more
towards females: from 0.89:1 (Berwick and Jordan 1971) to 0.71:1 (Khan
et a!. 1995). In Texas, the observed male:female ratio was 0.81:1
(Sheffield
eta!.
1983).
The female:calf ratios for free-ranging nilgai are: 1:0.23 in Gir (Khan
et
a!. 1995), 1:0.48 in Sariska (Sankar 1994), and 1:1.03 in Texas (Sheffield
et a!. 1983). The higher number of young in nilgai, as compared to
sympatric ungulates, can be attributed to twinning (Kyle 1990, Sankar
1994) and strong defence of calves by cows making them less vulnerable
to predation (Sankar 1994). One adult female nilgai in Sariska was
observed guarding a 'creche' of four calves (A.J.T. Johnsingh pers.
observ.). Of the 755 calves encountered in Sariska, 80 per cent were
twins. The study on free-ranging nilgai in Texas also recorded births of
triplets (Kyle 1990). The main reason for the lower female:fawn ratio in
Texas was due to a combination of twinning and the total absence of any
large
predator there.
Reproduction
According to Prater (1934) and Asdell (1946), nilgai have no regular
rutting season. In central India, Brander (1923) noticed calves of free-
ranging nilgai in all seasons. In Bharatpur, most calves were born during
the rainy season (June to October), and most breeding activity occurred
from October to February, with a peak in November and December
(Schaller 1967). Data from captive nilgai in zoos throughout the world
showed that peak periods of birth last for 3 to 4 months, but these peak
months varied from location to location (Sheffield
eta!.
1983). In Sariska,
though new born nilgai calves were seen from July to November, most
of the calving was observed in October and November (Sankar 1994).
Judging from this fact, and the knowledge that their gestation period is 8
to 9 months (Crandall 1964, Prater 1971), nilgai in Sariska would have a
peak rut from December to January.
Predation and mortality
Predation on nilgai by large predators like tiger (Panthera tigris)
and leopard
(P pardus)
in Rajaji (Johnsingh
et a!.
1993) and in Sariska (Sankar
et al.
32
UNGULATES
OF INDIA
Nilgai
1993) was negligible. The same applied for the lions in Gir (Chellam 1993).
Due to large body sizes and gregarious habits of adult nilgai, leopards
(Panthera pardus)
may find it very diff icult to hunt them down. The preference
of nilgai for human-dominated habitats make them less vulnerable to predation
by tiger. Nilgai cows may be capable of defending their calves from
predators. Sankar (1994) once observed an adult nilgai female with two
young calves chasing away a tiger, and a dhole
(Cuon alpinus)
on another
occasion. Very little information is available on mortality in nilgai other than
natural predation. In Sariska, eight dead nilgai were diagnosed with symptoms
of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) (Sankar 1994). Nilgai, being an antelope
and therefore less dependent on water, was least affected by the severe
drought of 1988 in Sariska, when, of the 153 wild ungulates killed by the
drought, only 18 were nilgai (Goyal
eta!.
1993).
Food habits
Studies on nilgai food habits showed that they are browsers (Berwick 1974,
Mirza and Khan 1975, Dinerstein 1979,1980) or mixed feeders (Haque 1990,
Sankar 1994). In southern Texas, they are grazers (Sheffield
eta!.
1983).
Nilgai can thrive upon variable proportions of grass, herbs, and browse,
subject only to a minimum requirement of protein, which must not be below
8 per cent of their intake. A study of ungulate food habits in Nepal (Dinerstein
1979) indicated that sambar and nilgai feed on the same browse species.
Apart from this, there is little information available on the dietary overlap
between nilgai and other wild ungulates. According to Rodgers (1988), the
large size of nilgai means they can exist on much poorer quality food items,
making them coarser browsers. They are also fond of raiding crops and are
regarded considered as pests in agriculture fields. Their ability to reach up
to a height of 2.2 m height (bulls) helps in accessing forage in heavily grazed
areas. At times, even female nilgai have been observed standing on hind
legs and feeding on
Zizyphus mauritiana
leaves and fruits (K. Sankar
pers.
observ.).
Nilgai was found associated with common langur
(Semnopithecus
entellus)
in feeding areas in Sariska, gleaning food dropped by them.
In Sariska, nilgai fed on 91 plant species that included 20 tree, nine shrub, 12
creeper/straggler, 29 herb and 21 grass species (Sankar 1994). Grass formed
an important component of nilgai diet during and soon after monsoon. During
winter and summer nilgai fed on fallen leaves and fruits of
Zizyphus mauritiana,
fallen flowers of
Butea monosperma,
fallen pods of
Acacia nilotica, A. catechu
and
A. leucophloea,
and fallen leaves of
Anogeissus pendula,
along with grass
and browse. Like most other mammals, freshly fallen flowers of mahua tree
(Madhuca indica) are a favourite for chital in Central India. Analysis of preference
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33
NIV
new range about 1.6 km away in an area with ponds (Sheffield
et al.
1983).
BEHAVIOUR
Mating system
D
ring
b d
i
uring the breeding season, the bulls move about in search of breeding
cows, and upon finding one, defend the area around her from intrusions
by other males - a system described as 'roving territoriality' (Sheffield
3 4
ratings and the dietary importance of browse species of nilgai in Sariska revealed
that the leaves
of
Capparis
sepiaria
(
crude protein content
(CPC) = 10 to 14%),
Grewia flavescens
(CPC = 8 to 14%) and
Zizyphus
mauritiana
(CPC = 3.9 to
10.5%) were the preferred plant species
(
Sankar 1994).
Habitat use and home range
Nilgai are found in open areas with undulating or flat terrain (Berwick
1974); they avoid dense hilly forests and prefer scrublands with low tree
and shrub densities (Chakraborty 1991, Sankar 1994, Khan 1996). A
radio-collared nilgai female had a mean seasonal home range of 3.6 km2
in Sariska (Sankar 1994), and its annual home range was 7.3 km2. In
Texas, a nilgai female had a 0.6 km2 home range, and the mean home
range of eight bulls was 4.7 km2 (Sheffield et al.
1983). In India, nilgai
are generally considered diurnal (Brander 1923, Schaller 1967), and the
same holds true for the Texan population, although some degree of
nocturnal activity did occur (Sheffield et al.
1983). In Nepal, Dinerstein
(1979) reported two activity peaks (0700 and 1800 hrs) for nilgai during
summer, and a radio-collared nilgai female in Sariska also showed two
activity peaks, 0700 to 0900 hrs, and 1600 to 1800 hrs during winter
(Chakraborty 1991).
Water use
In Nepal, Dinerstein (1979) observed that the availability of surface water
influenced the distribution and movements of ungulates including nilgai.
According to Prater (1971) nilgai can go for long periods without water,
and even during the hot weather, nilgai do not need to drink water regularly.
Nilgai are reported to be water independent even in desert areas (Bohra et
a/. 1992). A 168 kg nilgai male in Texas drank up to 14 litres every 24
hours during July-August, when temperatures reached 40°C. During a
drought in Texas in 1971, a radio-collared bull deserted a home range
soon after all surface water had evaporated from there, and established a
UNGULATES
OF INDIA
Nilgai
et al.
1983). Mature bulls maintain an area of dominance around
themselves, whether or not cows are present. Breeding bulls respond to
intrusions into these areas from other bulls by displays, threats, and
chases, which either results in the intruding bulls leaving, or remaining
in the area in a subordinate status. Courtship in nilgai is simple and
involves a neck-stretched-forward, tail erect display by the male, showing
the conspicuous white ventral side, and following the female in oestrus
during a slow, sedate mating march.
Vocalisation
Although normally silent, nilgai have several vocalisations. Adults of both
sexes, and calves as young as 5 months of age, sometimes utter a guttural
alarm, more frequently when nilgai detects a hidden motionless observer,
and especially when the wind direction is not in its favour. The call is audible
for a distance of nearly 500 m. The alarm call of cows is of a higher pitch
than that of bulls. Calves also call in a higher pitch, but much more softly.
The alarm call of one group member usually alerts others, which sometimes
join in. A low-pitched belching moan can be heard occasionally when one
bull chases another (Sheffield
et al.
1983). At times, cows produce a very
low-pitched call to their calves (K. Sankar
pers. observ.).
Display behaviour
Adult bulls display their dominance in many ways. A 'head-up' display
consists of a raised muzzle exposing the white throat patch to adversaries.
Another display is the 'horizontal-neck' display, where the head and neck
is held stiff and stretched horizontal with the gular hair tuft and pinnae
completing the picture. A bull would also exhibit a 'lateral display' when
another male challenges him or when walking towards a subordinate.
During the lateral display, the forelegs are held stiff, while the hind legs
are brought forward under the body so that the rump is lowered and the
back prominently arched. The head and neck are stretched forward, ears
are held below horizontal and the male walks with short, slow, and deliberate
steps. Viewed laterally, a displaying male appears massive at the chest
and lower neck and relatively small at the rump. The eyes appear glazed
and are rolled back, exposing the whites (Sheffield
et al.
1983). During
this process, the neck is stretched forward. Remarkably, this lateral display
never occurs when opponents are very close to each other (Sheffield
et
a!. 1983). Sometimes bulls also jerk their head down to point the tip of their
horns to their opponents. Submissive behaviour recorded in Sariska
included that of a sub-adult nilgai bull sitting on its belly with forelegs folded
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WILDLIFE AND PROTECTED AREAS
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35
beneath
,
and repeatedly butted the chin of an adult bull
,
which stood over
it, extending its neck
(A.J.T. Johnsingh
pers. observ.).
Fighting
Walther (1974) described two types of fighting in nilgai bulls: (i) the
combatants stand or kneel, and butt each other on the forehead with
their horns, (ii) a neck-fight, in which both animals either stand or kneel,
and push their necks against each other. Nilgai are the only bovids that
exhibit neck-fighting between horned bulls. However, hornless cows of
several bovids (including nilgai) neck-fight, which Walther (1974)
considered phylogenetically very old, and suggested that it was also part
of the behavioural repertoire of hornless ancestors of the modern horned
ungulates. The persistence of this behaviour in nilgai bulls may relate to
their relatively primitive horn structure. Since these horns are ineffective
binding instruments, the common and more highly evolved head-to-head
shoving with crossed horns (as observed in gazelle and kudu), has not
developed in nilgai.
Calf behaviour
As seen in several species of ungulates, nilgai calves remain hidden for a
while after birth, a habit called `lying out'. Twin nilgai calves born in captivity
spent their first 10 days sleeping inside a shed, and rising only to nurse at
two-hour intervals (Lacey 1969). In Texas, the period of remaining hidden
lying-out was about a month, after which the calves began travelling with
their mother. This transition from lying-out to continued association with
the mother appeared to occur gradually (Sheffield
et al.
1983).
Dung piles
Nilgai have a characteristic habit of defecating repeatedly in the same
location, resulting in the formation of large faecal piles or lavatory sites of
nearly a meter in diameter (Brander 1923, Dharmakumarsinhji 1959, Schaller
1967). The social significance of this phenomenon is not yet clear. Schaller
(1967) suggested that these piles might function as territorial markers, since
the behaviour is characteristic of several species of African antelopes
(Leuthold 1977). Contrastingly, in Texas, there was little evidence that nilgai
were territorial despite using faecal piles (Sheffield
et al.
1983). As evident
from the different sizes of pellet groups at faecal piles, all age- and sex
classes, including calves, use lavatory sites, although bulls undoubtedly
use them more often than cows and calves (K. Sankar pers. observ.).
36
UNGULATES OF INDIA
Nilgai
CONSERVATION
Although there has been a reduction in the overall range of nilgai, the existing
populations seem to be doing fairly well. This is largely because of they are
a protected species under the law, and more importantly the protection they
acquire from being considered sacred due to their resemblance to domestic
cows. Moreover, gradual degradation of dense forests into open scrub and
thickets, increasingly bordered by agricultural fields, has offered favourable
habitat conditions for the increase of nilgai numbers. Invariably, in such
situations, nilgai become serious pests as crop raiders and a major issue of
human-wildlife conflict. Possible solutions voiced include a selective culling
programme linked to licensed hunting permits. However, throughout the range
of the nilgai, most farmers are Hindus, and in Rajasthan and Haryana, many
of them are Bishnois, a sect that rigorously protects all animals. Bishnoi
farmers prefer to tolerate the raids on their crops rather than permit the
slaughter of nilgai. So it is highly unlikely that any scheme to cull or ranch
nilgai either for hunting or for local consumption will ever work in India (Kyle
1990). This attitude may however change, when the number of people living
off the land increases, when the local people begin to believe nilgai are
vermin or a source of meat. Relocations of problematic nilgai, for the time
being, seem the safest solution.
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, S.H. 1974.
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Chakraborty, B. 1991.
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3
8 UNGULATES
OF INDIA
Nilgai
Johnsingh, A.J.T., Goyal, S.P., Rawat, G.S. and Mukherjee, S. 1993.
Food habits of tiger and leopard in Rajaji, North West India. Abstract.
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