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Contrastive analysis: problems and procedures
Abstract
A contrastive analysis must proceed through four steps: description, selection, contrast, and prediction. Most analyses are weakened by insufficient care at one or more of these steps, each of which is beset with problems. A basis for making selections, a format for contrasts, and a means of relating contrast and prediction is suggested.
... Under this theory, two different languages are comparable, and the comparison of two languages can predict the problems learners will face during second language acquisition. As Ferguson (1962, as cited in Whitman, 1970) [14] suggests, "a careful contrastive analysis of two languages offers an excellent basis for the preparation of instructional materials." Whitman (1970) [14] further breaks the contrastive analysis into four specific procedures "description, selection, contrast, and predication". ...
... Under this theory, two different languages are comparable, and the comparison of two languages can predict the problems learners will face during second language acquisition. As Ferguson (1962, as cited in Whitman, 1970) [14] suggests, "a careful contrastive analysis of two languages offers an excellent basis for the preparation of instructional materials." Whitman (1970) [14] further breaks the contrastive analysis into four specific procedures "description, selection, contrast, and predication". ...
... As Ferguson (1962, as cited in Whitman, 1970) [14] suggests, "a careful contrastive analysis of two languages offers an excellent basis for the preparation of instructional materials." Whitman (1970) [14] further breaks the contrastive analysis into four specific procedures "description, selection, contrast, and predication". By doing these four "must proceed" processes, Whitman argues that CAH will have the ideal capability of aiding teachers' instructions. ...
... The last stage is to make a prediction of difficulty through the contrast. In making prediction, Whitman (1970) suggests two ways of doing it. The first way is by formulating a hierarchy of difficulty and second is through more direct applications of psycholinguistic theory. ...
... The lowest level of difficulty is when there is an obligatory choice available in both languages for the learners to choose from (Littlewood, 1984, p. 18). Whitman (1970) in his paper also suggests using Stockwell et al. (1965) hierarchical approach where the outcomes must be ranked and placed in the proper position in the hierarchy. Schmitz (1991) discusses on interference problems of source language with Malay learners of German. ...
... This study, in contrast, does not only show translation, but also uses morphology as an element of contrastive. Both studies seem to support Whitman's (1970) opinion that CA may provide an alternative solution for language learning problems. This study therefore attempts to support Whitman's (1970) opinion by doing a contrastive analysis study on German to Malay modal verbs. ...
This study focuses on the contrastive analysis of German and Malay modal verbs. It aims to contrast the similarities and differences of German modal verb word formation process to Malay (Kata Bantu Ragam) by using Whitman's Model (1970). This qualitative study of contrast modal verbs occurred in the editorial column of Kuala Lumpur German speaking society's magazine "KL-POST" issued in the year of 2012 which served as research instrument. The method also includes content analysis which the data will be identified, underlined, translated and gathered before explicitly contrast and discussed. This contrastive study of German and Malay modal verbs will have implication on both learning and teaching of German. It may provide better understanding for new learners of German to form German sentences thus resulting in less error in their studies. This study may be used not only by students, but also language instructors and lectures who will apply this study as a guide to prepare a better teaching plan in order to provide better explanations when dealing with learners who are morphologically and semantically incompetent.
... A number of influential studies -such as Whitman (1970), Fisiak (1980), Krzeszowski (1990), Chesterman (1998), or Lefer and Cartoni (2011)-have stressed the critical necessity of carrying out contrastive analyses which are supported by a clear and explicit description of their methodological approach. At the same time, many of these authors have remarked upon the relative rarity of such explicit methodological descriptions, even though the motives for their implementation appear to be quite objective and selfexplanatory. ...
... At the same time, many of these authors have remarked upon the relative rarity of such explicit methodological descriptions, even though the motives for their implementation appear to be quite objective and selfexplanatory. In that which concerns the present study, the analytic process proposed by Whitman (1970) serves to structure this last chapter. Whitman's proposed contrast analysis consists of four steps, i.e., description, selection, contrast and prediction, each of them described as follows: ...
The dissertation aims mainly to develop a descriptive and quantitative framework to analyze the morphosemantic features of EVALs in view to obtain measurable parameters that can be applied cross-linguistically in EM studies, both descriptive and contrastive. Accordingly, the following tasks have been established to achieve various individual objectives:
1. To review critically EM literature and survey up-to-date theoretical perspectives to assess the state of affairs in the study field.
2. To identify and discuss terminological and conceptual discrepancies in the relevant literature, and to adopt a set of terms that may be applicable cross-linguistically.
3. To define and characterize EVALs as a distinctive lexical type within the larger group of evaluative constructions.
4. To establish a set of analytical variables associated with productivity and diversity in EVAL-formation, and to provide quantitative measurements of how each variable is represented in a language’s EM system.
5. To carry out a detailed review and critical analysis of existing literature on Spanish and Latvian EM, as well as a systematic description and contrastive analysis of their respective EM resources.
... Procedures of contrastive analysis refer to the steps done by the linguist to make a contrastive analysis of languages. In this connection, Whitman (1970) argues: ...
... A basis for making selections, a format for contrasts, and a means of relating contrast and prediction is suggested. (p.191) Whitman (1970) has proposed four steps in order to carry a contrastive analysis claiming that they are all important to attempt contrastive analysis and the absence of one of them might lead to deficiency in the process of analysis. These steps will be discussed in some detail below: 1) Description: This stage includes an organized description of the two languages under study. ...
... stivne analize. Kontrastivna analiza je sustavno proučavanje različitih jezika kako bi se uočile njihove strukturalne razlike ili sličnosti (13). Uočavanjem razlika u jezičnim strukturama mogu se otkriti ona područja u kojima se u procesu podučavanja stranog jezika očekuju problemi. ...
... analysis method was used in this linguistic research. Contrastive analysis is a systematic study of different languages in order to identify their structural differences (13). The points of structural difference were identified, and these were, then, studied as areas of potential difficulty in the English language teaching. ...
Introduction: In dental medicine, that is, in oral medicine as one of its subspecialties, as in any other scientific discipline, there are some specific terms that should be taught and learnt. Moreover, these concepts and terms should be expressed in a foreign language. Since the English language has become the most widespread language of communication in the world, there is a need to express all these concepts ideas and insights in English and vice versa: terms expressed in mother language, in our case Croatian, should be translated into English. Teaching, learning and translating special words and collocations, as the examples of lexical units, are probably major problem areas in this respect. Collocations appear when a sequence of words or terms co-occur more often than would be expected by chance, thus changing the meanings of previously isolated words. In this paper collocations in oral medicine are the focus of interest. The aim was to investigate into meanings of particular words that form a collocation thus showing how the prototypal meaning expressed in one language is communicated into another, and how the collocations differ in the two languages analyzed. Material and methods: In this study examples of collocations used in oral medicine are analysed by employing the method of contrastive analysis. Results: The illustrative examples point to certain differences in the two analyzed languages to which attention must be payed when translating in order to preserve the meaning thus avoiding a misrepresentation of collocation. The results also show that there is no symmetry between the structures of languages. Conclusion: Identifying collocations in technical language is essential for their understanding and accurate translation into another language.
... stivne analize. Kontrastivna analiza je sustavno proučavanje različitih jezika kako bi se uočile njihove strukturalne razlike ili sličnosti (13). Uočavanjem razlika u jezičnim strukturama mogu se otkriti ona područja u kojima se u procesu podučavanja stranog jezika očekuju problemi. ...
... analysis method was used in this linguistic research. Contrastive analysis is a systematic study of different languages in order to identify their structural differences (13). The points of structural difference were identified, and these were, then, studied as areas of potential difficulty in the English language teaching. ...
Introduction: In dental medicine, that is, in oral medicine as one of its subspecialties, as in any other scientific discipline, there are some specific terms that should be taught and learnt. Moreover, these concepts and terms should be expressed in a foreign language. Since the English language has become the most widespread language of communication in the world, there is a need to express all these concepts ideas and insights in English and vice versa: terms expressed in mother language, in our case Croatian, should be translated into English. Teaching, learning and translating special words and collocations, as the examples of lexical units, are probably major problem areas in this respect. Collocations appear when a sequence of words or terms co-occur more often than would be expected by chance, thus changing the meanings of previously isolated words. In this paper collocations in oral medicine are the focus of interest. The aim was to investigate into meanings of particular words that form a collocation thus showing how the prototypal meaning expressed in one language is communicated into another, and how the collocations differ in the two languages analyzed. Material and methods: In this study examples of collocations used in oral medicine are analysed by employing the method of contrastive analysis. Results: The illustrative examples point to certain differences in the two analyzed languages to which attention must be payed when translating in order to preserve the meaning thus avoiding a misrepresentation of collocation. The results also show that there is no symmetry between the structures of languages. Conclusion: Identifying collocations in technical language is essential for their understanding and accurate translation into another language.
... It results in deviations from the target language. Whitman (1970) breaks down contrastive analysis processes into a series of component procedures. The procedure for this approach is shown in Figure 1. ...
This study investigates the structure of words in Patani Malay and Thai to determine the similarities and differences in the marker of the two languages through contrastive analysis studies. The data used in this study are collected from Patani Malay speakers who can speak the Patani Malay language well. They can remember most Patani Malay vocabulary and communicate with others on various topics. They can also tell stories or explain something with their language and still use their language in daily life. The informants are students, teachers, merchants, fishermen, farmers, and retirement people. This study indicates that the structure of words in Patani Malay and Thai languages has similarities and differences in rules. The equation includes the addition of affixes, compounding, and reduplication. The differences in the rule of the word in Patani Malay and Thai include the position of affixation, reduplication of the root and assigning an ‘emphatic high tone’, and semantic reduplication.
... CAH applies the following procedures when attempting to predict areas of difficulty, as illustrated by Whitman (1970): ...
The present dissertation is a text-based contrastive study of English and MSA verb
inflection. Emphasis is given to the inflectional categories of number, tense, aspect,
voice, and mood. The main aim of this dissertation is to show the convergences and
divergences which exist between the inflection of verbs in both English and MSA. In
order to fulfil the aforementioned aim, a comparative and contrastive study has been
conducted between the two languages under investigation, ranging from providing
exhaustive descriptions of verb inflection in English and MSA, and then processing the
comparative and contrastive study, the main aim of which is to bring to light the
similarities and differences which exist between the two languages and to approve or
disprove the stated hypotheses. To illustrate the similarities and differences of both
languages, two corpuses have been used. The English examples are taken from Jane
Austin’s novel Emma (1994); whereas the Arabic illustrations are taken from a novel
written by Ghaada Assamman, entitled: Beirut 75 (1975). Transliteration symbols are
used in order to render the Arabic script into an English script, then translating them to
English.
... N'usoro a na-agbaso n'ime nnyocha ndịmiche, Whitman (1970) kọwara na NN nwere usoro anọ ọ na-agbaso. Usoro anọ ndị a gụnyere: (1) iwere asusụ abụọ ma kọwaa ha nke ọma; (2) iwere ụdidị nkọwa nke ndịiche; (3) igosipụta ndịiche dị n'etiti ụdịdị a họọrọ na; (4) ikwu mmejọ ga-esi na ndịiche ndị ahụ pụta n'ọdịniihu. ...
Nchọcha a lebanyere anya na mkpụrụ ụdaasụsụ Igbo na Berom site n'ịgbado ụkwụ n'atụmatụ nke nnyocha ndịmiche. E meela ọtụtụ nchọcha na mkpụrụ ụdaasụsụ nke asụsụ dị iche site n'ịgbado ụkwụ na nnyocha ndịmiche mana e nwebeghi nchọcha nke lebanyere anya n'asụsụ Igbo na Berom. Nchọcha a wepụtara ndịiche dị n'etiti mkpụrụ ụdaasụsụ asụsụ abụọ ndị a ma gbado ụkwụ na ndịiche e wepụtara kwuo ihe ndị na-eweta ihe nhịaahụ nye ndị Igbo na-amu Berom na ndị Berom na-amụ Igbo. Njiatule (data) e ji rụọ ọrụ na nchọcha a sitere n'akwụkwọ e derela gbasara mkpụrụ udaasụsụ Igbo na Berom. Nchọcha a chọpụtara na ụfọdụ ụda ndị nọ n'Igbo ma ha adịghị na Berom ga-eweta ihe nhịahụ nye ndị Berom na-amụ asụsụ Igbo. Ụfọdụ ụda ndị a bụ /ɤ, ŋʷ/. Nke a ga-eme ka ndị Berom na-akpọ /aɤa/ dị ka /aha/ ma na-akpọ /aŋʷʊ/ dị ka /aŋʊ/. N'otu aka ahụ, ụda /Ɛ/ dị na Berom nke na-adịghị n'Igbo ga-enye ndị Igbo na-amụ asụsụ Berom nsogbu. Nchọcha a tụnyere aro ka ndị nkụzi na ndị na-akwado kọrịkụlum buru nke a n'obi ma wepụta ụzọ kacha mma iji hụ na e belatara nsogbu ma ọ bụ ihe nhịaahụ ndị a na-adị mgbe a na-amụ asụsụ ọzọ. 1. Mkpọlite N'ebe ndị amụmamụ sayensị asụsụ nọ, asụsụ bụ ihe dị mkpa na ndụ mmadụ. Ọ bu ya ka mmadụ ji egosipụta etu obi dị ya n'ihe ọ chọrọ ime. Ya bụ, mmadụ ọ bụla dị ndụ nwere asụsụ ya na mmadụ ibe ya ji akparịta nkata. Ụfọdụ ndị na-enweghi ike ikwunwu okwu ma ọ bụ ịnụnwu ihe nwekwara ụzọ ha si ezi ozi ha chọrọ izi. Mana n'ebe a, ebe mgbakwasa ụkwụ anyị bụ asụsụ nke ekwurunọnụ. N'ihi ọchịchọ nke mmadụ na mmasị ya ime njem na ịhụ obodo ọhụrụ, mmadụ na-amụ asụsụ ọzọ iji gbakwunye na nke o nwere enwe. Ndị mmadụ na-amụkwa asụsụ ọzọ maka inweta ọrụ. Otu isi sekpụ nti n'ime mmadụ ka ọ mụọ asụsụ ọzọ bụ mmetụta ya na ndị nwe asụsụ ahụ ọ chọrọ ịmụ na-enwe. Ọmụma atụ, ndị Naịjịrịa na-amụ ma na-asụ asụsụ Bekee ta a maka mmetụta ha na ndị ọcha mbịarachịwa nwere n'oge gboo. Ụfọdụ ndị Naịjirịa na-amụkwa asụsụ Naịjịria ndị ọzọ n'ihi mmetụta na mmekọrịta ha na ndị nwe asụsụ ahụ nwere n'ụdị azụmahịa ma ọ bụ alụmdi na nwunye. Ọ bụ ya kpatara na otu onye nwere ike na-asụ asụsụ Igbo, Awụsa nakwa Yoruba. Ịmụ asusụ nwere ike ịdị n'ụzọ abụọ, keụdị na kempụnụdị. Keụdị bụ nke a na-eme na klaasị ebe kempụnụdị bụ nke a na-eme site na mkparịta ụka mmadụ na mmadụ
... Thus, the idea of Contrastive Analysis (CA) emerged in order to help the effective teaching of L2. Fries (1945) set up this hypothesis, and Lado (1957), Whitman (1970), Prator (1967), for example, all supported the claim. The idea is that a systematic comparison of language systems will yield indications of likely areas of difficulty for learners. ...
The pitch accent system is a prominent and characteristic feature of spoken Japanese, and an important factor in the intelligibility and acceptability of Japanese spoken by learners of the language. The aim of this thesis is to clarify some of the major problems in the acquisition of the pitch accent of Japanese (at an isolated word level) by English-speaking learners. Extensive data and analysis from both controlled experiments and actual classroom activity are presented. Some major characteristics of Japanese pitch accent are described in Chapter 1, followed by Chapter 2 which presents a survey of how Japanese pitch accent is currently taught. A questionnaire distributed to teachers of Japanese in the UK, Japan and Canada was used to gather information about the attitudes of teachers to pronunciation teaching and the practical problems encountered. The results show that pronunciation teaching in general, and pitch accent teaching in particular, are often accorded low priority and are restricted from lack of time. The chapter also includes a systematic analysis of the methods and materials offered by a range of current textbooks and teachers' manuals. Chapter 3 deals with previous studies of second language acquisition. Chapter 4 reports on an experiment seeking common tendencies in the pitch accent errors made by advanced English-speaking learners. It is clear however that individual speakers seem to have their own favourite patterns which they impose on various target types; the absence of uniform trends indicates that straightforward interference from English cannot be an explanation for errors at this level. Chapter 5 reports an experiment conducted with English monolingual subjects to induce intarference from English word-stress rules on Japanese-like words embedded in English; the results are in accordance with prediction, but remote from the errors made by subjects in the actual process of learning Japanese. Chapter 6 reports data gathered in teaching a cohort of 31 students over a period of eleven weeks in a British university. A range of language-laboratory tasks covered discrimination, identification, imitation and notation of pitch-accent patterns. Considerable differences in the relative difficulty of different tasks are revealed. Among major findings is the result that tasks depending on perceptual or imitative skills produce high scores, while many of the learners' own production errors can be explained as lack of lexical knowledge. The thesis demonstrates that the difficulties faced by English-speaking learners are more complex than has generally been supposed, and it is hoped that the thesis will lead to concrete and practical improvements in the teaching of pitch accent.
... Consoante a CAH, as formas que são idênticas nas duas línguas são fáceis de aprender (ocorrendo, neste caso, a transferência, ou influência positiva, da L1), enquanto as formas diferentes são difíceis de adquirir (observando-se, então, efeitos de interferência, ou influência negativa, da L1) (Lado 1957). Há quatro passos para executar uma análise contrastiva: (i) a descrição formal das duas línguas (nesse caso, a L1 e a L2); (ii) a seleção de um aspeto particular para análise, tal como os segmentos (vogais ou consoantes); (iii) a comparação entre os dois sistemas; (iv) a previsão das áreas que causam dificuldade (Whitman 1970 ...
Various studies on second language acquisition (SLA) have demonstrated
problems acquiring liquid consonants by non-native speakers (e.x. Bradlow 2008,
Bradlow et al., 1999, Brown 1998). Despite the references showing how Chinese
learners struggle with the production of liquid consonants in European Portuguese (EP)
(Batalha 1995, Espadinha & Silva 2009, Martins 2008, Nunes 2015, Oliveira 2016,
Silva 2009), as far as we know, no previous work has systematically described the
acquisition of liquids using a formal linguistic approach.
This paper examines the production of EP liquids by fourteen B1 level Native
Chinese Mandarin (CM) speakers aged 19 to 21, with two-year of experience in formal
Portuguese language learning in China and three-month of immersion in Lisbon,
Portugal. The data was collected through a picture naming test composed of disyllabic
and trisyllabic target words in which the liquids emerge in stressed position, at various
syllable constituents and word positions.
The results, discussed in the light of the relationship between segmental and
prosodic levels (Nespor & Vogel 2007), show that, in the interphonology of these
learners: /l/ is stable in Onset due to the positive transfer from CM, but not yet acquired
in Coda, which might be attributed to the influence of CM, or to linguistic universals;
/ʎ/ is still at the initial state of the acquisition process, at it seems to be influenced by
the phonological system of CM; /ɾ/ is not acquired in simple Onset and it is still in
acquisition in complex Onset; this might be due to the fact that the feature [lateral] is
not yet active phonologically. Driven by devoicing of the liquid, a salient cue in the
input, the participants of study show the acquisition of /ɾ/ in Coda. /ʀ/ is already
acquired, and both positive (use of [x]) and negative (use of [h]) native language
transfers are attested. Non-native production seems to be conditioned, in different ways,
by previous linguistic knowledge, input information and linguistic universals.
... Phonetic transfer is defined as the way in which the sound system of a language can affect one's perception and production of speech sounds in another language [4]. One application utilized is contrastive analysis which compares attributes and characteristics of L1 and L2 languages [5][6][7]. ...
... With the conclusion of 1960, the hypothesis of CA has been severely attacked by applied linguistic scholars who were with the view of that it lacked consistency and objectivity in its procedures. Also, they believed that without describing L1 and L2 on the same standards, their CA results cannot be quite reliable (Brown, 1987;James, 1985;Wardhaugh, 1970;Whitman, 1970). Also, many predictions of CA have turned baseless according to Whitman and Jackson (1972) who proved that empirically. ...
The present paper attempts to provide a critical evaluation of the most prominent pedagogical models that have dealt with the language of the second language (L2) learner starting from the second half of the 20th century. The three most influential approaches in the domain are investigated in this study: contrastive analysis (CA), error analysis (EA), and interlanguage (IL). Each of these models is tackled in terms of its beginning, psychological background, essential tenets, mechanism, and its pedagogical value. Prominently, this work is aimed at teasing apart the confusion that surrounds the fields of acquiring second/foreign language. It also endeavors to clear out the overlapping of both terminology and concept that cloud these areas. Focus is placed on IL owing to the dominant share of attention it has received from researchers and applied linguists who have found many of their questions answered and many information-gaps filled in with this theory. This review paper is an extract of an in-progress PhD dissertation on interlanguage pragmatics of Kurdish university EFL learners, which is an applied study addressing both the pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic knowledge of the students.
... 8). Estas técnicas contrastivas han de aplicarse siguiendo cuatro procedimientos esenciales (Whitman 1970). Primero, se describen las dos lenguas en cuestión, la L1 y la L2; luego, se seleccionan los elementos lingüísticos a contrastar; posteriormente se hace el trabajo contrastivo y, finalmente, se formulan las predicciones de los errores o dificultades. ...
... During the 1960s, educators who specialized in English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction attempted to exploit this concept using contrastive analysis (Lado, 1957). Given that problems in L2 production are due to the intrusion of L1 characteristics, comparing these two languages at an element by element level should lead to predictions about the difficulty of L2 learning for specific accent backgrounds (Whitman 1970). With these predictions, ESL teachers could target instruction for 4 particular student populations. ...
ABSTRACT Understanding the effects of Foreign Accented Speech (FAS) is important for
... During the 1960s, educators who specialized in English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction attempted to exploit this concept using contrastive analysis (Lado, 1957). Given that problems in L2 production are due to the intrusion of L1 characteristics, comparing these two languages at an element by element level should lead to predictions about the difficulty of L2 learning for specific accent backgrounds (Whitman 1970). With these predictions, ESL teachers could target instruction for 4 particular student populations. ...
This current study has increased the amount of studies on metadiscourse features in English and Arabic, as well as cultural groupings, by examining the usage of hedging in linguistic research articles published in English and Arabic. The technique was qualitative, with a corpus of 40 articles from six linguistics journals used. This study aimed to identify similarities and differences in the use of hedges in native English and native Arabic linguistics research publications. Hyland's taxonomy of metadiscourse markers was used to analyze the language categories. The contrastive analysis of English and Arabic in this article was a systematic investigation of language pairs to uncover differences and similarities. Arabic articles are not more dominant than English articles in the Hidges structure. The result showed that hedges in English is greater than in Arabic research articles. From those findings, it might have a substantial influence on the teaching and learning of Arabic as a foreign language in English context.
Contrastive analysis (CA) is used in the study of language as a method of explaining why some features of a target language are more difficult to learn than others. It is predicated on the assumption that the structure of an already internalized language will influence the learning of another language. In this Chapter, we provide a contrastive analysis of the verbal group structures of English and Urhobo (Niger-Congo), to give insights into the effective learning of both languages. Urhobo belongs to the South Western Edoid language groups of the Benue Congo family. It spans nine local government areas in Delta State, where it is the dominant language. It is also spoken in some communities in Bayelsa, Edo and Ondo States. The verbal group which functions at the predicator position, is a mandatory element in Urhobo and English sentences. The structure of both languages was contrasted using Halliday’s systemic grammatical model (Halliday in World 17:241–292, 1961). Findings reveal that there are phenomenal differences between their VG structures with few similarities. Furthermore, knowledge of these differences and similarities will facilitate the learning of the verbal group structures of English and Urhobo.KeywordsContrastive analysisContenative constructionExponenceUrhoboVerbal group
The study sought to compare and contrast errors made by Oshiwambo speaking 2nd year students in the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Sciences at the Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST) in the process of writing English essays. Contrastive error analysis, adopted as the theoretical framework of this study, stresses on the influence of the mother tongue in learning a second language at lexical, morphological, syntactic and grammatical levels. A qualitative method was used to identify the students’ written errors from a sample size of 54 assessment based scripts. The study population was narrowed to cover a total population of 317 (three hundred and seventeen students) from the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Sciences at NUST. The study used the homogeneous purposive sampling method. It then purposefully selected 54 Oshiwambo speaking students from the Department of Agriculture and Natural Recourses Sciences at NUST to respond to a standardised assessment script. The assessment scripts were evaluated in line with the research objectives. To begin with, the researcher focused on word formation processes which include prefixation, suffixation, insertion, reduplication and verb structure. The second objective of the thesis dealt with the identification and analysis of syntactic errors with a specific examination at noun tense errors, verb tense errors and errors in subject-verb agreement. The third objective targets grammatical competence focused on comparatively analysing Oshiwambo and English basic language structures, syntactic differences between English and Oshiwambo as well as sentence constructions. The major conclusion drawn from the study is that EA and CA are indispensable for improving the teaching and learning process of a second language adding that second Language (L2) students are more prone to making errors due to the influence/interference of their L1. The study recommends that educators should differentiate English (L2) and Oshiwambo (L1) grammar, to avoid language interference as well as to promote a more effective impact in the learning of English as a second language. The study further recommends education officials to improve libraries and equip them with learning materials necessary for teaching and learning and facilitators to frequently organise various academic writing competitions.
Key words: Error, Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, Contrastive Error Analysis, First Language, Second Language, Interlingual, Intralingual, Lexical, Syntactic, Grammatical competence.
Cette recherche a pour but de savoir les types de connecteurs, d’analyser la comparaison de l’utilisation des connecteurs et de trouver les similarités et les différences des connecteurs dans le texte argumentatif en français et en indonésien chez les étudiants de français du cinquième semestre de l’année scolaire 2017/2018.En français, on utilise la théoriede Foley et Van Valin (1984), Erguvanli-Taylan (1988) et Watters (1993) eten indonésien, la théorie de Alwi (2003) et Chaer (2000).Cette rechercheutilise la méthode qualitative. Le nombre d’échantilloncomprend vingt personnes. Le résultat montre que dans le texte argumentatif en français se trouve cinq types de connecteurs alors qu’en indonésien se trouve six types de connecteurs. Les connecteurs dans le texte argumentatif en français et en indonésien ont beaucoup de similarités et de différences . Les similaritésenglobent la similarité de fonction, de placement, de types, de valeur, et de forme.Puis,les différences englobent la différence de nombre de types, de modes verbaux, de fréquence, de valeurs les plus choisies,de variations pour exprimer la valeur d’une cause,d’une conséquence, d’une condition, d’un but, d’une opposition, d’une addition, d’un ajout d’exemple, d’une alternative, d’une conclusion, d’une classification, d’une explication, d’une illustration, d’une reistriction et d’une supposition, et le dernier, c’est la différence de fautes.Mot-clés : analyse, analyse contrastive, le connecteur, le texte argumentatif
การวิเคราะห์เปรียบต่างมีความสำคัญต่อการเรียนการสอนภาษา และภาษาล่าหู่เป็นภาษาแม่ของกลุ่มชาติพันธุ์หนึ่งที่สำคัญในประเทศไทย บทความวิชาการนี้มีวัตถุประสงค์เพื่อวิเคราะห์เปรียบต่างระบบเสียงของภาษาล่าหู่กับภาษาไทย โดยใช้แนวคิดของ Whitman (1970) ผลการวิเคราะห์พบว่า ภาษาล่าหู่ไม่มีหน่วยเสียงพยัญชนะต้น /r, w/ ของภาษาไทย และภาษาล่าหู่ไม่มีกลุ่มพยัญชนะและพยัญชนะท้าย ทำให้คนล่าหู่มีปัญหาในการออกเสียงพยัญชนะของภาษาไทยโดยเฉพาะพยัญชนะท้าย ส่วนหน่วยเสียงสระและวรรณยุกต์ของภาษาล่าหู่กับภาษาไทยมีความแตกต่างกัน และภาษาไทยมีความแตกต่างกันของความยาวเสียงสระ แต่ภาษาล่าหู่ไม่มีความแตกต่างดังกล่าว ดังนั้นความแตกต่างดังกล่าวข้างต้นเป็นอุปสรรคกับคนล่าหู่ในการพูดภาษาไทย นอกจากนี้ ผลการวิเคราะห์มีประโยชน์ต่อครูผู้สอนภาษาไทยให้นักเรียนล่าหู่ และนักเรียนนักศึกษาล่าหู่ที่เรียนภาษาไทย Contrastive analysis is essential to language learning and teaching. Moreover, the Lahu language is the mother tongue of one of the important ethnic groups in Thailand. The objective of this article is to analyze and contrast the phonological systems of the Lahu and Thai languages.
Contrastive Analysis of Whitman (1970) was applied in the analysis for this article.
The analysis results revealed that the Lahu language does not have the initial consonant phonemes /r, w/, unlike the Thai language, which has these consonants as initials. Moreover, the Lahu language lacks consonant clusters and syllable-final consonants. These facts lead to the Lahu people having problems in pronouncing the consonants of the Thai language, especially the final consonants. Moreover, there certainly are differences in the vowels and tones in the Lahu and Thai languages. In addition, the Thai language has vowel length distinctions but the Lahu language does not have vowel length distinctions. Therefore, these differences lead to the Lahu people having problems in speaking Thai. Furthermore, the analysis results were useful for Thai language teachers of Lahu students and Lahu students who study the Thai language.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguraikan karakteristik klausa relatif
bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia dan memperbandingkan keduanya. Penelitian ini menggunakan teori linguistik kontrastif. Dalam analisisnya, kedua bahasa dideskripsikan secara individu tanpa melihat apakah bahasa itu sebagai bahasa sumber dan bahasa target. Setelah itu, barulah kedua bahasa diperbandingkan.
Dari hasil penelitian diketahui bahwa bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia sama-sama memiliki klausa relatif. Dari segi bentuk perelatifnya, keduanya sama-sama menggunakan perelatif morfologis. Perbedaannya, bahasa Korea memiliki perelatif berupa morfem terikat, sedangkan bahasa Indonesia berupa morfem bebas. Perelatif bahasa Korea diperbedakan berdasarkan kala,
sedangkan bahasa Indonesia berdasarkan relasi semantis antara klausa relatif dengan nomina pusatnya. Letak klausa relatif bahasa Korea ada di sebelah kiri nomina pusat, sedangkan bahasa Indonesia ada di sebelah kanan nomina pusat.
Perelatif bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia bisa melekat atau mendahului verba dan adjektiva. Perelatif bahasa Korea tidak bisa dilekat oleh nomina, tetapi perelatif bahasa Indonesia bisa didahului oleh nomina. Perelatif bahasa Indonesia juga bisa mengikuti kelas kata adverbia, sedangkan bahasa Korea tidak.
Bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia sama-sama menggunakan diatesis aktif dan pasif dalam klausa relatifnya. Bahasa Korea memiliki kecenderungan untuk lebih menggunakan diatesis aktif, sedangkan bahasa Indonesia memiliki kecenderungan untuk menggunakan diatesis pasif. Bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia dapat merelatifkan unsur subjek, objek langsung, objek tidak langsung, oblik, dan genitif. Bahasa Indonesia memiliki ciri khas dalam merelatifkan objek.
Mengenai sifat restriktif dan tidak restriktifnya, bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia memiliki kedua sifat ini. Perbedaannya terletak pada klausa relatif yang bersifat tidak restriktif. Dalam bahasa Indonesia, klausa relatif yang tidak restriktif lebih mudah ditengarai sebab adanya tanda baca koma dan tanda hubung yang menandai ketidakrestriktifannya, sedangkan bahasa Korea baru dapat diketahui
ketidakrestriktifannya melalui prosodi.
Résumé
La présente recherche-développement a pour but d’introduire une stratégie d’apprentissage-enseignement de la phonétique des langues étrangères (L2) qu’on appelle modélisation de l’accent. La stratégie est basée sur la méthode d’analyse contrastive (AC) intégrée à l’approche actionnelle (basée sur la tâche). Les auteures cherchent à démontrer que, malgré sa réputation controversée, l’AC possède un grand potentiel pédagogique non exploré pour l’enseignement de la phonétique des L2. Bien qu’ayant beaucoup servie aux théoriciens et didacticiens des L2, l’AC n’a jamais été vue comme un outil adressé aux apprenants. Cependant, l’AC peut inspirer les enseignants à créer des activités pédagogiques qui visent le développement de la méta/conscience phonético-phonologique en L2 chez les apprenants et qui contribuent à l’amélioration de leur articulation et de leur perception orale. Les auteures discutent le design d’une activité typique de modélisation de l’accent et explorent les hypothèses théoriques neurocognitives qui assurent les bénéfices pédagogiques et sociopédagogiques de cette activité. Précisément, elles abordent la notion de méta/conscience phonético-phonologique des L2 (Kivistö-de Souza, 2015), l’hypothèse sur le rapport entre la perception et la production orale, et le concept d’inhibition. Elles démontrent également que les activités de ce type sont parfaitement compatibles avec les principes de la pédagogie socioconstructiviste et transformationnelle.
Mots-clés: modélisation de l’accent; analyse contrastive; langue seconde et étrangère; métaconscience phonético-phonologique; perception orale; pronociation; stratégie d’enseignement et d’apprenitssage; enseignement explicite; approche communicative et actionnelle; pédagogique active, pédagogie basée sur les tâches.
Summary
This paper presents an instructional strategy called Accent modeling that facilitates learning and teaching foreign language (L2) phonetics. The strategy is based on the contrastive analysis method (CA) integrated into the tasked-based approach. Developed within the theoretical framework of task-based pedagogy (Willis, 1996; Ellis, 2003; Leaver & Willis, 2004) the presented activity supports the following design principles. First, it is based on the real-life situation (borrowed from the professional experience of one of the chapter authors). Students are invited to act as Russian language experts in movie production. They have to advise and train a non-Russian speaking actor who is preparing to play a role where he speaks students’ native language (HL) with a strong Russian accent (students' L2). To help the actor, students have to conduct a contrastive analysis of L2 vs HL and to identify the differences, on which the negative interferences (alias accent features) are based. Second, to accomplish the task, students have to use the factual knowledge of Russian phonetics, but also employ higher-level cognitive skills such as analysis, comparison, and synthesis. Third, as a part of the activity, students act as autonomous agents, enabled by the opportunity of having a choice and exercising their identity of power (Norton, 1995). Lastly, the final product (the list of recommendations) has a pragmatic value contributing to the community of actors and going beyond the classroom settings. At the micro-level, the principles of contrastive analysis (Lado, 1957; Ellis, 1994; Flege, 1984, 1987, 1995; 2000) organize the content of the activity. In the beginning, students have a reflective discussion about the nature of an accent as a linguistic and cognitive phenomenon. They come up with the basic concepts and principles of the contrastive analysis (e.g. negative transfer, inhibition) and make decisions about which speech units to compare (e.g., sounds or syllabuses), how to proceed, etc. Then, following the selected strategy, they compare vowel and consonant systems of HL/L2 and analyze the phonetic phenomena related to each system (e.g. phonologically conditioned alterations). They are doing so from the perspective of possible difficulties that a Russian native speaker would experience when speaking students’ HL. The final product of the activity is a list of recommendations for the actor to simulate the Russian accent.
The authors argue that despite its debatable reputation, the CA has a large underexplored instructional potential for teaching L2 phonetics. The CA has been used by linguists and L2 methodologists to identify differences between languages and to predict students’ difficulties. However, it has never been considered as a tool that students can use on their own. The CA has the potential to inspire teachers to design instructional activities, which enhance the development of phonetic and phonological awareness in L2 subsequently helping improve students’ pronunciation and speech perception. The paper discusses the design aspects of a typical Accent modeling activity. In an attempt to explain the instructional and socio-pedagogical benefits of the explicit L2 phonetics instruction, the authors also explore several ideas from the domain of a neurocognitive theory. Specifically, the paper discusses the theory of phonetico-phonological awareness of L2 (Kivistö-de Souza, 2015), the hypothesis of connection between speech perception and production, and the concept of inhibition. The paper shows that due to its focus on awareness, the CA-based learning activities are compatible with the principles of socio-constructivist and transformative pedagogy.
Keywords: accent modeling; contrastive analysis; second and foreign language teaching; phonological awareness; oral speech perception; pronunciation; instructional strategy; explicit teaching; communicative approach; task-based instruction; socio-constructivist and transformative pedagogy
Introduction. The article presents an overview of the major ideas of contemporary foreign and Russian researchers on the issue of the speech mechanism formation of a foreign language learner. The authors aim to identify effective synergetic ways of employing linguistics, psycholinguistics and the methodology of foreign language teaching that can improve the efficiency of the language learning process. The authors note that, despite a number of research papers on the subject, published both in Russia and abroad, the science still lacks a clear-cut definition of this phenomenon, and its role in the process of foreign language acquisition is not stated. Thus the research problem of the paper is to study the intermediate language system in the speech mechanism of a bilingual acquiring a foreign language at a given stage. The purpose of the study is to determine the nature and the status of an intermediate language system and its role in foreign language acquisition, and to find out the ways of optimizing the process of foreign language teaching based on the data obtained. In line with the purpose set, the following research objectives were identified: 1) based on the analysis of research literature on the issues in question, to clarify the naming of the intermediate language system and define its nature; 2) to examine the component structure of the interlanguage; 3) based on the integration of data from linguistics, psycholinguistics, and psychology, to determine techniques that influence the dynamics of interlanguage development that can contribute to improving the effectiveness of the teaching process. Materials and Methods. The methods employed in the current research combined the analysis of research literature in the fields of linguistics, psycholinguistics, methodology of foreign language teaching, psychology on the issues under study, the contrastive and comparative analysis of languages involved in the speech mechanism of a bilingual, the method of integrating psychological, psycholinguistic, and linguistic data. Results. Some authors show skepticism with regard to the existence of the third language system in a bilingual setting. The article presents argumentation to prove the systemic character of this phenomenon, which results in defining the third language system as an intermediate system that psychologically combines three linguistic systems (native language, the third language system, the target language), and represents a continuum of certain changes. This continuum is dynamic in its nature, and consists of a series of approximate systems, each of which consistently and increasingly approaches the target language. All learners of foreign languages show certain deviations from the norm, that is, language mistakes, the existence and nature of which enable the teacher to evaluate the student's progress in learning the language. Conclusion. The article explores such a relevant phenomenon for the methodology of foreign language teaching as fossilization, which manifests itself in the interlanguage behavior of a bilingual as a result of the summation of five central processes that constitute the latent psychological structure of the individual. Fossilization is interpreted as a phenomenon known as typical persistent errors as opposed to occasional mistakes. The authors analyze the main characteristics of fossilization, such as its dynamism and stability that make the research subject of the theory of speech errors. Based on the analysis and integration of linguistic, psycholinguistic and psychological data, the authors develop methodological recommendations for optimizing the foreign language teaching process. It is concluded that the interlanguage is a complex dynamic system that continually accompanies the process of developing bilingualism and is based on the laws of linguistics, psychology and psycholinguistics. Studying the nature of this system can greatly enhance the efficiency of the process of foreign language acquisition.
The present book is an attempt at providing a number of seminal studies on contrastive linguistics and stylistics. This manuscript can not only be used to fill a gap that may exist between the two disciplines, but also as a manual for teaching both disciplines from the author’s point of view. The studies range from phonology, morphology, and syntax to poetic stylistics in a comparative tone. The readers are presented with a stimulating corner of vantage that combines both contrastive linguistics and stylistics. The book is suitable for both academics and students of linguistics alike. (Imprint: Novinka).
This paper reviews the various approaches and methods of contrastive linguistics.
The study reported in this article investigated whether second language learners use knowledge of their first language to comprehend and produce idioms in the second language. Subjects were 12 Venezuelan advanced learners of English. Comprehension of 45 English idioms—15 identical in form and meaning to their Spanish equivalents, 15 similar to their Spanish equivalents, and 15 different from the corresponding Spanish idioms—was tested with a multiple-choice test and a definition test. Production of the same 45 idioms was tested with a discourse-completion test and a translation test. Results showed identical idioms were the easiest to comprehend and produce. Similar idioms were comprehended almost as well but showed interference from Spanish. Different idioms were the most difficult to comprehend and produce but showed less interference than similar idioms. Subjects used both inter- and intralingual strategies to produce idioms they did not know. Within each type, the idioms that were comprehended and produced most correctly were those which were frequently used and transparent and which had simple vocabulary and structure.
The hypothesis that contrastive analysis can serve to predict levels of difficulty that non-native speakers will have in learning English syntactic patterns is examined. Two tests of English syntax were administered to nearly 2500 Japanese students. The test results are compared to predictions of the relative difficulty of the test items that were derived from four different contrastive analyses. The comparison indicates that the contrastive analyses are inadequate predictors of subject performance. Certain properties of subject performance are discussed, especially the role that the complexity of English constructions may play in determining Japanese difficulty on the tests.
The claim that the best language-teaching materials are based on a contrast of the two competing linguistic systems has long been a popular one in language teaching. It exists in strong and weak versions, the strong one arising from evidence from the availability of some kind of metatheory of contrastive analysis and the weak from evidence from language interference. The strong version of the hypothesis is untenable and even the weak version creates difficulties for the linguist. Recent advances in linguistic theory have led some people to claim that the hypothesis is no longer useful in either the strong or the weak version. Such a claim is perhaps unwarranted, but a period of quiescence is probable for contrastive analysis itself.
The experimental literature in sensory processes, perception, learning, and symbolic processes is evaluated within a theoretical interpretative framework, and attention is directed to needed further research. The coverage is selective as well as extensive, and a detailed description of critical experiments is given. Material on problems of synesthesia, human problem-solving, and language behavior is included. Controversial theoretical issues are discussed, and an attempt is made toward resolution of the behavioristic vs. gestalt issue wherever it appears. 1290-item bibliography and author index. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Pennsylvania, 1969. Includes bibliographical references (leaves vii-x). Microfilm. s
Typescript. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Columbia University, 1965. Bibliography: p. 229-235. Microfilm. s
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Michigan, 1958. Microfilm.
Thoughts on contrastive linguistics in the context of language teaching
- W. R. Lee
The structures of English and
- Robert Stockwell
- J Bowen
- J W Donald Martin