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Parent – Adolescent Relationships and Girls’ Unhealthy Eating: Testing Reciprocal Effects
Abstract
This longitudinal study tested the direction of associations between parent –adolescent relationships and adolescent girls’ unhealthy eating. Girls (N= 184) were seen at Time 1 (M age = 14.30 years), and then again 2 years later (Time 2; M age = 16.04 years). At both assessment periods, they completed measures that assessed their eating attitudes and behaviors, relationships with their parents, height, weight, and age of menarche. Whereas unhealthy family relationships have been hypothesized as a precursor to unhealthy eating attitudes and behaviors, it is also possible that increases in these behaviors contribute to more negative relationships within the family. Structural equation modeling was employed to simultaneously investigate the longitudinal influence of parent – adolescent relationships on girls’ unhealthy eating, and girls’ unhealthy eating on parent – adolescent relationships. The model was tested with the following controls: body mass (kg/m2), pubertal timing and age. A longitudinal direct effect was found for unhealthy eating on parent– adolescent relationships; however, no direct effect was found for parent– adolescent relationships on unhealthy eating over time. For middle– and late–adolescent girls, it appears that unhealthy eating behaviors and attitudes are predictive of less positive parent – adolescent relationships over time.
... For example, adolescent girls' body satisfaction has been demonstrated to be both affected by and a predictor of perceived family connectedness (Crespo et al., 2010). Further, research with a community sample of adolescent girls indicated lower parent-child relationship quality at age 12 years predicted greater dieting at age 13 years, and not the reverse (Archibald et al., 1999), although greater dieting and food preoccupation at age 14 years predicted lower parentchild relationship quality at age 16 years, and not the reverse (Archibald et al., 2002). Possibly, parent-child relationship problems are both risk factors for and outcomes of eating pathology, with the nature of associations shifting depending on specific variables assessed and the developmental period examined. ...
... In contrast, twin differences in eating pathology more frequently predicted subsequent twin differences in the parent-daughter relationship, and were particularly evident across later adolescence. These results align with accumulating findings across other studies (e.g., Archibald et al., 1999Archibald et al., , 2002, emphasizing that parentdaughter relationships are most predictive of the development of eating pathology during early adolescence. Early adolescence is a developmental period wherein adolescents continue to spend a large portion of time with their parents and rely on them for attachment, security, and emotional needs (De Goede et al., 2009). ...
This prospective study explored longitudinal, bidirectional associations between eating pathology and perceptions of the parent-child relationship (i.e., parent-child regard and involvement) across adolescence. Specifically, this study examined whether twin differences in mother-daughter and father-daughter relationship problems emerged as a risk factor for, or outcome of, twin differences in eating pathology. By examining twin differences, this study explored associations between variables while controlling for shared environmental and genetic effects. A population-based sample of 446 monozygotic twin girls and their mothers completed questionnaires when twins were approximately 11, 14, and 17 years. Responses were analyzed using longitudinal cross-lagged models. Overall, few strong longitudinal associations were observed. Where longitudinal associations emerged, overall patterns indicated reciprocal associations that shifted across adolescence. Whereas twin differences in parent-daughter relationship variables more often predicted later twin differences in eating pathology across early adolescence, conversely, twin differences in eating pathology more often predicted later twin differences in parent-daughter relationship variables across later adolescence. In particular, the twin who reported greater eating pathology later reported more negative perceptions of the father-daughter relationship, as compared to her co-twin. Findings raise questions for future research regarding parental—in particular, paternal—responses to adolescent eating pathology and suggest the potential importance of efforts to support the parent-daughter relationship within the context of adolescent eating pathology.
... Negative family relationships have long been a focus of eating disorders theory, research, and practice (Ackard & Neumark-Sztainer, 2001;Hodges, Cochrane, & Brewerton, 1998;Minuchin et al., 1978). Negative, conflict-ridden environments that demonstrate low levels of cohesion and expressiveness are often characteristic of families of youth with disordered eating symptoms (Archibald, Linver, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 2002;Benninghoven, Tetsch, Kunzendorf, & Jantscheck, 2007). Conflict in the parent-child relationship has often been implicated (e.g., Bowen, 1978;Bruch, 1985;Minuchin, Rosman, & Baker, 1978) with high control, restrictiveness and rejection associated with greater maladaptive eating behaviors (Berge et al, 2012;Boensch, Raml, Seiwald & Rathner, 1993;Enten & Golan, 2009;Kichler & Crowther, 2001;McKinley, 1999;Ogden & Steward, 2000). ...
... Moreover, this is a fully mediated developmental process, such that the influence of exposure to marital conflict in kindergarten was conveyed through emotional insecurity about the marital relationship in 2 nd grade (i.e., we did not find support for a direct effect of marital conflict on disordered eating). Our findings build on the literature citing the impact of negative, conflict-ridden family environments (Ackard & Neumark-Sztainer, 2001;Archibald, Linver, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 2002;Benninghoven, Tetsch, Kunzendorf, & Jantscheck, 2007) by considering beyond conflict in the parent-child relationship how conflict in the marital relationships affects developmental mechanisms associated with disordered eating in adolescence. Extending theory and research on the impact of family processes on development (Cox & Paley, 2003;Cummings, Davies, & Campbell, 2000) results suggest the importance of considering children's exposure to marital conflict as a risk factor contributing to the development of sub-clinical eating disorder behaviors in adolescence. ...
... Both warmth and monitoring have been examined in previous work on the relationship between family environment and child overweight status. A warm family environment is associated with lower levels of binge eating disorder, healthier eating behavior, and lower levels of obesity among girls (Archibald, Graber, and Brooks-Gunn 1999;Archibald, Linver, Graber, and Brooks-Gunn 2002;Byely, Archibald, Graber, and Brooks-Gunn 1995;Hodges, Cochrane, and Brewerton 1998;Mellin, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Ireland, and Resnick 2002;Mendelson, White, and Schliecker 1995). In this analysis, we consider the application of warm and caring behavior by both mothers and fathers toward their children and we anticipate that European American parents will display less warmth toward their overweight children. ...
... 13 Regarding family functioning, a warm family environment is associated with healthier eating behavior and lower levels of obesity among girls in the literature. 29 Some studies have found a negative relationship between family functioning and children's weight, suggesting the better the family functioning, the lower the child's weight. 30 The results from the logistic regression analysis revealed that higher levels of parental weight and a greater dysfunction in mothers' and fathers' perceptions of co-parenting and family functioning were associated with a greater likelihood of youth having a higher BMI. ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate the maternal and paternal specific contributions on the associations between family socioeconomic status, parental anthropometric factors, parental alliance, and family functioning. These were assessed separately for mothers and fathers, by means of a case-control study with families of Italian youths with and without overweight/obesity.
Ninety families with children aged 11 to 16 years (mean = 13.27 years; SD = 1.5) participated in the study. Half of the families included children with overweight/obesity (n = 45). The body mass indices (BMIs) of youths and parents were measured and the former transformed in BMI z-scores. The parents completed the Parenting Alliance Measure and the Family Assessment Measure Version III, General Scale.
Higher levels of dysfunction in parental alliance and family functioning of the mothers and fathers of the overweight/obese group were found. Socioeconomic status did not contribute significantly to the prediction of overweight and obesity in youth. Both maternal and paternal BMIs were positively associated with youth overweight/obesity. The degrees of parental alliance perceived by both mothers (odds ratio [OR], 81; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.72-0.90) and fathers (OR, 89; 95% CI, 0.81-0.98) predicted child's weight status. The perception of poor parental and familial functioning by both parents contributed to the prediction of overweight and obesity in youth (mother: OR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.02-1.10; father: OR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.01-1.11).
The results support a strong effect of parental and family functioning on a youth's overweight/obesity also from the father's perspective. The importance of considering the father's perspective is discussed.
... It is important to acknowledge that we focused on one particular mediating model and that there may be plausible alternative time orderings of these constructs that could be investigated. For instance, one prior study indicated that girls' maladaptive eating may predict relationship difficulties in the parent-adolescent dyad (Bastiani Archibald, Linver, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 2002). Reciprocal relations have also been found between negative affectivity and bulimic pathology (Stice et al., 2004), suggesting that negative affectivity and other indicators of maladaptive eating such as those measured here (e.g., restriction, body image disturbances) may demonstrate similar interrelationships over time. ...
Burgeoning research on the adolescent (e.g., middle-school) years suggests that this is a particularly vulnerable period for the development of maladaptive eating patterns. Prior research has established a link between perceptions of maternal parenting practices and adolescent onset of problematic eating behaviors. The authors hypothesized that adolescents' internalized psychological distress accounts for this relation, and they tested this hypothesis via a longitudinal, mediational study of 73 adolescent girls followed from 6th to 8th grade. Results of structural equation modeling using latent variables supported the hypothesis, identifying a time-ordered process that emphasizes the significance of the mother-adolescent relationship and the importance of targeting counseling interventions at improving parenting practices and helping adolescents to regulate negative affect as a means of preventing the development of maladaptive eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Both warmth and monitoring have been examined in previous work on the relationship between family environment and child overweight status. A warm family environment is associated with lower levels of binge eating disorder, healthier eating behavior, and lower levels of obesity among girls (Archibald, Graber, and Brooks-Gunn 1999;Archibald, Linver, Graber, and Brooks-Gunn 2002;Byely, Archibald, Graber, and Brooks-Gunn 1995;Hodges, Cochrane, and Brewerton 1998;Mellin, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Ireland, and Resnick 2002;Mendelson, White, and Schliecker 1995). In this analysis, we consider the application of warm and caring behavior by both mothers and fathers toward their children and we anticipate that European American parents will display less warmth toward their overweight children. ...
Given the dominant culture's emphasis upon being thin in the United States, we investigated the hypothesis that obesity is a childhood characteristic that has a disruptive effect upon the parenting of European American parents. Past research suggests, however, that the African American community is less concerned about issues of being overweight, and therefore child obesity was expected to have less impact upon the parenting practices of African American mothers and fathers. Therefore, we did not expect to find a relationship between quality of parenting and child's obesity for African American parents. These hypotheses were tested using two samples: the first was comprised of approximately 847 European American families, and second consisted of 867 African American families. The findings supported the hypotheses. Our analyses showed the predicted negative association between child's weight and the parenting of European American mothers and fathers whereas there was no such relationship for African Americans parents. These results were largely consistent across four dimensions of parenting (warmth, monitoring, inductive reasoning, and problem solving), and held for both daughters and sons.
The current study examined (a) the current status of eating problems (eating disorder tendencies: EDT) in Japanese adolescents and (b) the association between adolescent EDT and a family structure consisting of three dyadic subsystems (marital, father-adolescent, and mother-adolescent). Participants were 663 high school and university students (341 males and 322 females) in Japan who completed a self-report questionnaire. Survey results revealed that 19 out of 341 males (5.57%) and 53 out of 322 females (16.46%), or 72 out of 663 participants (10.86%) in the entire sample, were categorized as having EDT according to the EAT-26. The male-to-female ratio of participants with EDT was 1 to 2.8. Many of the female adolescents with lower EAT-26 scores had a highly cohesive family structure with a balance of power in all dyads. The current findings suggested that adolescent eating problems are related to an unbalanced family structure. The clinical implications of these findings for family therapy are discussed.
Theory and research have focused on the role of familial factors in the development and maintenance of eating disorders (EDs). More recently, theory has focused on the family as one source of influence through which socioculturally defined body ideals and the ways in which these ideals are achieved may be transmitted. This chapter firefly talks about the dual-pathway model and the Tripartite Influence Model. Theoretical work has generated multiple lines of empirical research on familial risk factors for EDs. The chapter focuses on a series of case-control studies that examined potential risk factors for anorexia nervosa. Based on the findings in these studies, the chapter reviews the literature in three familial domains: general familial functioning, including dysfunctional familial characteristics and parental relationships; parental modeling of overconcern with weight, dieting, and maladaptive eating habits; and negative familial communications regarding shape and weight and encouragement or pressure to diet.
The chapter examines eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and eating disorders that do not meet strict diagnostic criteria, referred to as eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS) or atypical disorders. Siblings, because of differential environmental influences-such as peer relationships and birth order-may experience a parental divorce differently. Thus, a non-shared environment can include a family environment variable. Complex traits like eating disorders are understood to be influenced by many genes and many specific environmental factors. While a variety of psychopathologies are more likely to occur in people with eating disorders than people without eating disorders, such evidence is not sufficient to indicate the influence of a heritable temperament that produces vulnerability to eating disorders. Casual observation of the eating disorder literature would suggest that family environment is a major contributor to the development of eating disorders. Childhood adversities predictive of disordered eating include physical neglect, sexual abuse, low paternal affection, low paternal communication, and low paternal time spent with the child. Maladaptive paternal behavior was uniquely associated with risk for eating disorders in offsprings when controlling for maladaptive maternal behavior, childhood maltreatment, and other co-occurring childhood adversities.
This article analyzes the possible existence of gender differences in attitudes and risk eating behaviour in children between 11 and 14 years old. A sample of 819 Spanish children was assessed with the Health-Related Information, Attitudes and Behaviour Questionnaire (CIACS-2) of Ballester and Gil (in press). The items were related to their eating behaviour/attitudes and their physical activity. The results show the existence of important gender differences in the eating behaviour of children. Specifically, these results indicate that girls are more careless with breakfast than boys. Girls avoid the food that, in their view, will make them fat and vomit more than boys after a big meal. In fact, girls control more their weight than boys, give greater importance to their weight and appearance and usually feel very worried about their own figure.
The emergence of positive body image research during the last 10 years represents an important shift in the body image literature. The existing evidence provides a strong empirical basis for the study of positive body image and research has begun to address issues of age, gender, ethnicity, culture, development, and intervention in relation to positive body image. This article briefly reviews the existing evidence before outlining directions for future research. Specifically, six areas for future positive body image research are outlined: (a) conceptualization, (b) models, (c) developmental factors, (d) social interactions, (e) cognitive processing style, and (f) interventions. Finally, the potential role of positive body image as a protective factor within the broader body image literature is discussed.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This study explores whether the coping style of teenage girls with and without an eating disorder is similar to that of their mothers' (biological and adoptive), and whether teens with disordered eating utilize more maladaptive coping compared with those without. Eating disorder was diagnosed using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision criteria, and the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations was administered to distinguish the coping style of the participants. Our findings suggest that daughters coped very similarly to their mothers in either group. Contrary to previous studies, our sample of teenage girls with eating disorders as well as their mothers utilized less frequently the avoidance–distraction coping compared with the girls without eating disorders and their mothers. These findings reinforce the importance for family involvement and for simultaneous focus on intrapersonal and interpersonal maintenance factors during eating disorder treatment. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
Stress is common during adolescence, yet no known studies have linked particular types of stress (performance, relationship,
education, financial, and family) with disordered eating among adolescents in middle school. The present study investigated
sex differences in types of stress and how multiple types of stress were associated with girls’ and boys’ body dissatisfaction,
dieting behaviors, and bulimic symptoms. We found that girls reported higher levels of stress than boys and that different
associations between stress and disordered eating existed for girls and boys. We also examined a path model for both sexes
such that stress first led to body dissatisfaction, which then led to dieting and finally bulimic symptoms. Our model was
supported for girls with performance, relationship, and family stress driving the process. For boys, all five types of stress
were associated with body dissatisfaction, which was linked with dieting; however, the relation between dieting and bulimic
symptoms was not significant. Future research and therapy should focus on the unique experiences of each sex in order to gain
a better understanding of the processes involved in coping with stress and promoting healthy development.
This longitudinal study tested the direction of associations between family meals and alcohol and tobacco consumption during early adolescence. We examined family meal frequency, family connectedness, alcohol (binge drinking, drunkenness), and tobacco consumption (past year, daily frequency) in 671 adolescents (51% women; mean age, Wave 1 = 14.05 years). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to estimate the associations between meal frequency and increases in alcohol and tobacco consumption, and alcohol and tobacco consumption on increases in meal frequency over a year, while adjusting for family connectedness, social class, and age. Family meals were associated with reductions in alcohol and tobacco consumption in girls but not boys. Alcohol consumption was also associated with reductions in the frequency of meals among girls, but not boys. Results supported the assertion that family meals protect some girls from substance abuse but suggest meals may have little impact on existing users.
The development of psychopathology during adolescence has been perhaps the single most studied area in the field of adolescence (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Extensive focus has been on depression, conduct disorder, and related subclinical problems and symptoms that fall under the categories of internalizing and externalizing behaviors. In undertaking the task of reviewing the literatures that fall under the heading of internalizing problems, it was striking to observe how many studies focused on what they called internalizing behaviors or problems and how few actually define the term. Internalizing problems are generally considered to belong to the subgroup of psychopathology that involves disturbances in emotion or mood, whereas externalizing problems have tended to refer to dysregulations in behavior. The affect versus behavior distinction between internalizing and externalizing problems is not clear cut, but the general identification of internalizing problems as focused on emotional components such as sadness, guilt, worry, and so forth is consistent across several definitions. More specifically, depression and anxiety disorders and the subclinical problems in these areas typically comprise discussions of internalizing problems and disorders (see Kovacs & Devlin, 1998, and Zahn–Waxler, Klimes–Dougan, & Slattery, 2000, for recent reviews of internalizing problems and disorders in childhood and adolescence, and the chapter by Farrington in this volume for a discussion of externalizing problems during adolescence).
Despite most parents’ good intentions to provide a warm, supportive environment in which the child can grow and develop socially appropriate behavior, they might occasionally act toward their child in a negative or even harsh way. Some do this more consistently than others. This dissertation examined the relationships between harsh or inept parenting and children’s characteristics in predicting various adjustment problems. The first aim of the dissertation was to examine if experienced harsh parental behavior is associated with adjustment problems for children from different cultures in a similar way. Study I showed that the effects of harsh parenting were very similar for children from different countries, but the magnitude of these effects differed. The second aim was to examine how parents and youths respond to each other over time. Studies II and III showed that youth characteristics influenced harsh or inept parenting and, to a lesser extent, parents’ behaviors could affect youth characteristics or behavior problems. The third aim of this dissertation concerns the role of child or youth characteristics in the link between harsh parenting and adjustment problems. Findings from Study II suggested that, youth characteristics might be responsible for both harsh parenting and problematic peer relationships, thus explaining the link between them. Studies IV and V showed that children’s early unmanageability increased the risk of having more adjustment problems later in life only for some children. The fourth aim was to examine how the early characteristics of children who experience physical punishment in the context of parenting behaviors that communicate negative emotions affect later adjustment. The findings from Studies IV and V suggest that only for some children, those who experience certain combinations of harsh parental behavior, is early unmanageability a risk factor for social adjustment problems. Overall, the studies in this dissertation provide insights into the roles of harsh or inept parenting and youth characteristics in the development of various adjustment problems. Even though parents’ negative behaviors may affect youth social adjustment, youth characteristics and behaviors can strongly contribute to their own adjustment and to harsh or inept parenting.
Over the past 5 years the scientific study of adolescence has continued to grow in volume and sophistication. Drawing on recent articles published in the Journal of Research on Adolescence, I take this opportunity to comment on some common understandings about the nature of adolescent development and behavior, recurrent tensions in the research, and promising directions or special challenges for future investigations. The journal also has changed in significant ways over this period, thanks to the outstanding contributions of scholars and journal/publisher support staff. This editorial pays homage to their efforts.
The relationship between body weight and depression among adolescent females has been the subject of considerable attention from researchers. The risk of experiencing this distress, however, is not equally distributed across members of all racial groups. African American girls are generally more satisfied with their bodies and thus may be less vulnerable to experiencing depression as a result of weight concerns. Several scholars have suggested that membership in African American culture provides social resources that protect black females from experiencing high levels of weight-based psychological distress. We examine the relationship between body size and depression and the potentially moderating role of African American cultural experiences using data from the Family and Community Health Study (FACHS). Assessing a cohort of 342 African American girls ages 12-14, we found support for a link between weight and depression. There was no evidence, however, that exposure to African American culture moderated this relationship.
Little is known about body images of mothers of patients with eating disorders. In this study we investigated body image in patients with eating disorders and in their mothers, and the relationship of their body images with family functioning.
A computer program was used that allows modeling perceived and desired body images of patients and their mothers. Patients and mothers estimated their own body images and mothers estimated the images they have of their daughters with eating disorders. The selected images were compared to anthropometric data and family functioning according to the Family Assessment Measure. Data from 29 patients with the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa and 20 patients with bulimia nervosa are presented.
Both in patients with anorexia and in patients with bulimia, aspects of family functioning were associated with mothers' and daughters' perceptual body size distortion and body dissatisfaction. Mothers' perception of family functioning predicted daughters' perceptual body size distortion and body dissatisfaction in the total sample of 49 patients.
Body images of mothers and mothers' perceptions of family functioning may provide additional information for the treatment of patients with eating disorders.
Tested construct comparability across adolescence with over 600 White girls (10.5 to 18.5 years of age). Assessed emotional functioning, eating problems, self-reflection, self-image, and mastery/adjustment to examine meaning equivalence in self-concepts and developmental psychopathology. Performed maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analyses (MLCF) to see which model fit the data best and whether the behavioral constructs were comparable in Grades 7–8, 9–10, and 11–12. A 5-factor, but not a 1- or 3-factor solution, provided an adequate goodness of fit. The pattern of salient loadings was the same across the 3 grade cohorts, although the size of the absolute factor loadings differed somewhat. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of measure equivalence, the potential usefulness of the identified constructs for assessing change and continuity over the adolescent period, and, more generally, the applicability of this method (MLCF) to the study of measure equivalence across age periods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examines how young adolescent girls’ pubertal development and perceptions of pubertal timing as well as their subjective experiences with their parents relate to the emergence of eating problems during later adolescence. The sample consisted of 240 White girls from 2 suburban communities near a large midwestern city. They were studied originally when they were in the 5th to 9th grades and again 2 years later (N = 177). They reported their daily experiences according to the Experience Sampling Method. Results indicate that adolescent girls’ positive relationships with both parents relate to healthier eating scores, both concurrently and longitudinally. Interactions of the pubertal and the experience with parents variables appear to be important for understanding eating problems in early adolescence.
Little prospective work has charted the onset and predictors of subclinical or clinical eating problems. Eating problems were studied in 116 adolescent girls drawn from a normal population of students enrolled in private schools in a major metropolitan area who have been followed longitudinally over an 8-yr period from young adolescence to young adulthood. Over a quarter of the sample scored above the level identifying a serious eating problem at each of the 3 times of assessment. Examination of the adolescent pattern of eating problems over young and mid-adolescence indicated that pattern was associated with (1) earlier pubertal maturation and higher body fat, (2) concurrent psychological disturbances, (3) subsequent eating problems, and (4) other long-term adjustment outcomes such as depressive affect in young adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Divergent perceptions (or disagreements) within the mother-daughter dyad and the association of such divergence with daughter's affective and behavioral well-being were examined in the current study. One hundred sixty-one mother-daughter dyads (daughters aged 14–18 years; mothers aged 37–59 years) completed paper- and-pencil measures assessing their perceptions of family cohesion and family conflict; daughters also rated their own depressive affect and dieting behavior. While the means for groups of mothers and daughters on family cohesion and conflict were similar, dyads varied substantially in their level of agreement. Disagreements on family cohesion were associated with daughter dieting behavior; maternal employment status was more highly associated with daughter depressive affect than either family conflict or cohesion. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for studying the divergent perceptions of family members, and for family systems and relationship approaches to understanding the family.
Synopsis
Data on the development of a 40-item measure of the symptoms in anorexia nervosa are reported. The scale (EAT) is presented in a 6-point, forced choice, self-report format which is easily administered and scored. The EAT was validated using 2 groups of female anorexia nervosa patients ( N = 32 and 33) and female control subjects ( N = 34 and 59). Total EAT score was significantly correlated with criterion group membership( r = 0·87, P < 0·001), suggesting a high level of concurrent validity. There was very little overlap in the frequency distributions of the 2 groups and only 7% of the normal controls scored as high as the lowest anorexic patient. Female obese and male subjects also scored significantly lower on the EAT than anorexics. Recovered anorexic patients scored in the normal range on the test, suggesting that the EAT is sensitive to clinical remission.
In this article, we summarize the current knowledge of familial influences in anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Three lines of evidence are reviewed: descriptions of family interaction, familial correlates of the course and phenomenology of symptoms, and studies of familial transmission. We conclude that although certain familial patterns are associated with eating disorders, there is no single mechanism or pathway of influence. Rather, it seems likely that certain personality factors, which may be genetically determined, predispose the individual to greater sensitivity and vulnerability to powerful familial and social experiences that impinge adversely on self-esteem and self-efficacy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Study of Personal Relationships During Adolescence - Raymond Montemayor Relationships During Adolescence - W Andrew Collins and Daniel J Repinski Continuity and Change in Interpersonal Perspective Relationships with Parents in Adolescence - Patricia Noller Process and Outcome Cultural Perspectives on Continuity and Change Across the Contexts of Adolescents' Relationships - Catherine R Cooper 'We're Popular, But We're Not Snobs' - James Youniss, Jeffrey A McLellan and Darcy Strouse Adolescents Describe Their Crowds Casting Adolescent Crowds in a Relational Perspective - B Bradford Brown, Margaret S Mory and David A Kinney Caricature, Channel, and Context Romantic Views - Wyndol Furman and Elizabeth A Wehner Toward a Theory of Adolescent Romantic Relationships Dating Those You Can't Love and Loving Those You Can't Date - Ritch C Savin-Williams Adolescents' Relations with Adults Outside the Family - Nancy Darling, Stephen F Hamilton and Starr Niego Current Theory and Research on Personal Relationships During Adolescence - Raymond Montemayor and Virginia R Gregg
Model Notation, Covariances, and Path Analysis. Causality and Causal Models. Structural Equation Models with Observed Variables. The Consequences of Measurement Error. Measurement Models: The Relation Between Latent and Observed Variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The General Model, Part I: Latent Variable and Measurement Models Combined. The General Model, Part II: Extensions. Appendices. Distribution Theory. References. Index.
This article describes a questionnaire measure of self-image designed for young adolescents. It represents a downward extension of the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire and utilizes nine scales from that instrument: Emotional Tone, Impulse Control, Body Image, Peer Relationships, Family Relationships, Mastery and Coping, Vocational/Educational Goals, Psychopathology, and Superior Adjustment. This 98-item questionnaire elicits responses on a 6-point Likert-type scale. The alpha coefficients for each scale are high, indicating a high degree of internal consistency among the items. The validity of this instrument is examined through factor analyses and through the association of these scales with other measures of self-image. The results suggest that this questionnaire provides a useful way to assess self-image among young adolescents.
This investigation examined the degree to which pubertal development and parent-adolescent relationships were associated with girls' current and future dieting and body image. Via longitudinal path models, we also separately tested the possibility of bidirectional effects between parental relationships and dieting and parental relationships and body image. Early adolescent girls (N = 127) who were predominantly of normal weight, were seen for 2 consecutive years (M = 12.19 and M = 13.15 years), completed measures assessing their dieting, body image, and relationships with their parents, and had their weights and heights measured. Mothers rated their daughters' pubertal growth by indicating their daughters' level of breast development using the Tanner rating system. Results indicate that girls' perceptions of their relationships with their parents were associated with their dieting attitudes and behaviors, and body image at Time 1 and Time 2. Body mass (kg/m(2)) was only associated in the concurrent regression models. Potential bidirectional effects between parental relationships and dieting or body image revealed significant longitudinal direct effects from parental relationships to dieting and to body image. Findings indicate that for this sample of White, middle-class, young adolescent girls, it appears that negative parent-adolescent relationships are linked to higher diet scores over the 1-year period; however, higher dieting scores are not linked to deteriorating family relationships over time.
organized this chapter around 8 themes reflecting the interplay of risk, continuity, and change in the development and expression of eating problems and disorders / historical continuity is examined with respect to recent studies that document cases of female self-starvation from the Middle Ages to the present / concerns similarities and differences among different eating disorders and eating disorder subtypes / focuses on the epidemiology of eating disorders, by reviewing available prevalence rates in terms of age, gender, social class, and ethnicity / considers the co-occurrence of eating disorders with other psychiatric conditions and the ways in which comorbidity may shed light on risk factors and their interaction / focuses on phase-specific issues of adolescence and their relevance to the intensification of eating disorders at this time / examine the onset of eating disorders in relation to adolescent challenges and transitions
look at the roles of nonfamilial and familial contexts in augmenting or diminishing the risk for developing an eating disorder during adolescence highlights continuities and discontinuities across age periods through a discussion of early onset eating problems and their possible links with adolescent and adult onset disorders / [illustrates] the interaction between biogenetic risk and environmental response [based on a transactional perspective] / consider continuity between eating problems (dieting, binge eating) and eating disorders, as well as the complexity of developmental links between early adaptation and later disorder (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines the most important ideas to have emerged from the last 25 years of research on adolescent development in the family context and suggests some directions for the future. Two major sets of questions organize the review. First, how can we best characterize normative family relationships during adolescence, and, more specifically, is adolescence a time of parent à child conflict? Second, how do variations in parent – child relationships affect the developing adolescent? The answer to the first question depends on what is meant by conflict and, more importantly, from whom one gathers data. There is a need for a new perspective on the family, one that emphasizes the different viewpoints and stakes that parents and adolescents bring to their relationship with each other. Special attention should be paid to studies of the mental health of parents of adolescents. With regard to the second question, it is argued that there is enough evidence to conclude that adolescents benefit from having parents who are authoritative: warm, firm, and accepting of their needs for psychological autonomy. Therefore, it would seem most beneficial to institute a systematic, large-scale, multifaceted, and ongoing public health campaign to educate parents about adolescence, one that draws on the collective resources and expertise of health-care professionals, scientists, governmental agencies, community organizations, schools, religious institutions, and the mass media.
This investigation examined the accuracy of recall of females to questions concerning ages at memarche, natural and surgical menopause, first use of oral contraceptives and mean menstrual cycle length and variance. A sample of 160 women who had recorded their menstrual and reproductive events as they occurred were administered a questionnaire concerning these events, with responses compared to the original data. For the variables age at menarche, age at natural memopause, age at surgical menopause and age at first use of oral contraceptives, the percentage of women who correctly recalled within a year ranged from 75% to 90%. Recollection of menstrual cycle length and variability by interview was considered unreliable. These findings are encouraging regarding the ability to recall the age when certain menstrual and reproductive events occur, but not for menstrual cycle intervals or patterns. Because these women were well-educated and had once recorded study variables, these results might be considered optimal.
To understand the meaning of somatic changes to the adolescent and their possible effects on behavior, developmentalists have begun to examine maturational timing and status in detail. Efforts have been hampered by the necessity of obtaining somatic growth data by physician examination. In the present study, 3 self-report methods for rating secondary sexual characteristic growth were compared to physician ratings; the accuracy of self-reported height and weight also was assessed. Specifically, 151 11-, 12-, and 13-year-old girls rated their breast and pubic hair development using schematics of the 5 Tanner stages and filled out the Pubertal Development Scale (PDS); their mothers also rated their daughters' development using the Tanner stage schematics. The correlation with physician Tanner ratings was .82 for self-ratings, .85 for ratings by the mother, and between .61 and .67 for self-reports on the PDS. The correlations for self- and actual reports of weight and height were .98 and .75, respectively. The usefulness of the PDS, Tanner ratings, and self-reported height and weight as adequate estimates of pubertal development is discussed.
An expert committee was convened to determine specific criteria for overweight to be integrated into routine preventive screening of adolescents. Body mass index (BMI) should be used routinely to screen for overweight adolescents. Youth with BMIs > or = 95th percentile for age and sex, or > 30 (in kg/m2) should be considered overweight and referred for indepth medical follow-up to determine underlying diagnoses. Adolescents with BMIs > or = 85th percentile but < 95th percentile or < or = 30, should be considered at risk of overweight, and should be referred to a second-level screen. The second-level screen includes family history, blood pressure, total cholesterol, large prior increment in BMI, and concern about weight. If youths are positive for any of the items on the second-level screen they should be referred for further medical assessment.
To evaluate whether body mass index (BMI) is a representative equivalent measure of body fatness independent of age, race, gender, sexual maturation, and distribution of fat in children and adolescents.
Cross-sectional study of 192 healthy subjects (100 boys and 92 girls, 103 white and 89 black) age 7 to 17 years. Methods. Height and weight were measured in the standard fashion, and BMI (kg/m) was calculated from these values. Fat mass and percent body fat were determined using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Sexual maturation was evaluated by physical assessment. Distribution of fat was determined by the waist:hip ratio.
There were no significant differences by gender and ethnic group for any of the demographic or anthropometric variables, except waist:hip ratio, which was higher in white compared with black boys. BMI was significantly and positively correlated with age, stage of maturation, and all of the anthropometric variables in each race-sex group. The correlation of maturation stage with BMI was stronger than the correlation between age and BMI. A multiple regression analysis showed that BMI, gender, race, sexual maturation, and distribution of fat were all significant independent correlates of the percent body fat (multiple R = .77). The percent body fat-BMI relationship was dependent on the stage of sexual maturation, gender (for an equivalent BMI, girls have greater amounts of body fat than boys), race (for equivalent BMI, whites have higher body fat than blacks), and waist:hip ratio (for equivalent BMI, those with central obesity have greater body fatness than those with peripheral obesity).
BMI is not an equivalent measure of the percent body fat for each race-sex group. When BMI is used as a measure of body fatness in a research or clinical setting, particularly when comparisons are made across race and gender, it may be important to consider the maturation stage, race, gender, and distribution of body fat in the interpretation of the results.
This study examines the emergence of body image concerns and dieting behaviors in early adolescence as a function of girls' perceptions of family relationships, maternal modeling of dieting behaviors and body image concerns, and familial and peer pressures to diet.
Self-report measures were obtained from 77 White girls and their mothers in early adolescence (mean age = 12.3 years) and 1 year later.
Girls' perceptions of family relations and mothers' perceptions of daughters' weight at Time 1 significantly predicted girls' dieting behavior 1 year later over and above Time 1 dieting and body image. Only girls' previous body image and dieting behaviors significantly predicted more body dissatisfaction 1 year later. Girls' body image was found to mediate the relationship between family relations and dieting at Time 1 assessment, but not over time.
The importance of implementing early prevention and interventions programs is discussed.
Parental relations and pubertal de-velopment as predictors of dieting and body image in early-adolescent girls: A short term longitudinal study
- A B Archibald
- J A Graber
- J Brooks-Gunn
Archibald, A. B., Graber, J. A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). Parental relations and pubertal de-velopment as predictors of dieting and body image in early-adolescent girls: A short term longitudinal study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 395–415.
The development of disordered eating: Correlates and predictors of eating in the context of adolescence
- A R Tyrka
- J A Graber
- J Brooks-Gunn
Tyrka, A. R., Graber, J. A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The development of disordered eating:
Correlates and predictors of eating in the context of adolescence. In A. J. Sameroff, M.
Lewis, & S. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 607-627).
New York: Plenum.