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Clothing and Attributions Concerning Sexual Harassment
Abstract
This article investigates the effect of provocativeness of clothing and sex of subject on attributions concerning provoking sexual harassment and likelihood of being sexually harassed. A convenience sample of 200 students (98 males, 102 females) was used in the study's 2 (Provocative vs. Nonprovocative clothing) × 2 (Sex of Subject) between-subjects design. The clothing variable was manipulated through the use of photographs. Subjects' attributions concerning the likelihood that the model would provoke sexual harassment were measured by an 8-item scale; the likelihood that the model would be the target of sexual harassment was measured by a single item: How likely is this person to be sexually harassed? Multivariate analysis of variance, analyses of variance, and the Student-Newman-Keuls test were used to analyze the data. Results revealed that subjects rated the model in provocative clothing as more likely to provoke sexual harassment and to be sexually harassed than the model wearing nonprovocative clothing.
... Researchers studying women's revealing dress found that it was associated with judgments of responsibility for sexual harassment (Johnson & Workman, 1992;1994) and sexual assault (Edmonds & Cahoon, 1986;Lewis & Johnson, 1989). Results of these studies showed that when women wore revealing dress (skimpy, see-through, or short) they were often assigned responsibility for their own sexual harassment and sexual assaults. ...
... Finally, in the 1980s and 1990s when early research on revealing dress (Johnson & Workman, 1992, 1994Lewis & Johnson, 1989) was conducted, revealing dress was not characterized as sexually objectifying and sexual assault and sexual harassment were not labeled sexually objectifying experiences. Future dress researchers may wish to revisit revealing dress research from the perspective of objectification theory. ...
... Research on revealing dress can now be extended to include Halloween costumes. Furthermore, early research on revealing dress (Johnson & Workman, 1992, 1994Lewis & Johnson, 1989) can now be interpreted and understood from the vantage point of objectification theory. ...
Women are depicted in revealing dress in the media and the depictions have costs such as objectification. Objectification theory explains that women in Westernized cultures are looked at, evaluated, and potentially objectified by others. Accordingly, objectifying gaze (by others) evokes self-objectification which has effects such as habitual body and appearance monitoring. According to the theory being objectified by others precedes self-objectification, which suggests that objectification by others could be more prevalent than self-objectification and potentially just as harmful. Researchers have found that self-objectification and other-objectification can be induced by revealing dress manipulations that vary in tightness or body coverage. We studied Halloween costumes as a site for objectification of others. In Study 1, 124 pairs of men’s and women’s Halloween costumes were content analyzed. Women’s costumes were significantly more revealing than men’s in tightness and body coverage. Since sexual objectification in the media is assessed by the presence of revealing dress in media depictions, we reasoned that women’s revealing Halloween costumes could be sexually objectifying. In Study 2, 295 participants rated women wearing revealing or non-revealing costumes in an online experiment. Women wearing revealing costumes were sexually objectified by participants. Although men rated costumed women higher on the sexually objectifying traits than women, both men and women objectified the costumed women in the revealing dress condition. Dress researchers may wish to apply objectification theory to re-interpret and explain early research on revealing dress.
... There are no an official statistics on juvenile sexual harassment; however, 24.2% of middle school & high school student participants experienced sexual harassment according to research on the sexual harassment of juveniles (Kim et al., 2001). Previous studies in other countries investigated the relationship between a victim's appearance or clothing and sexual harassment/assault (Johnson & Lee, 1999;Johnson & Workman, 1992, 1994Lennon et al., 1992Lennon et al., -1993Whatley, 1995;Workman & Johnson, 1991). However, studies on adolescence and the relation to these topics have not been researched in Korea. ...
... Additionally, these people would attribute more responsibility to victims than those with external responsibility. Johnson and Workman (1992) studied the effect of provocative clothing and the sex of the subject on the responsibility concerning the provocation of sexual harassment. Results revealed that subjects rated the provocative clothing model more likely to provoke sexual harassment than a model wearing nonprovocative clothing. ...
... Scenario 4 -the girl is wearing skinny jeans and a hooded t-shirts, and she holds the hand of the man in a large shopping mall. manipulated with the "revealing clothing" and the "provocative behavior" may have looked like as follows (manipulated parts are underlined); Measurement The questions measuring the responsibility and justification of sexual harassment were organized based on previous research related to clothing and sexual harassment or date rape (Johnson & Lee, 1999;Johnson & Workman, 1992;Kim, et al., 2006;Lewis & Johnson, 1989-1990. The perceptions of sexual harassment were measured with six statements (e.g., If the victim was behaving like a find lady, sexual harassment would have never occurred, the media's distorted presentation of sexual issue is the cause of sexual harassment) using five-point scales (1 = not very likely, 5 = very likely). ...
This study investigates Korean high school student's perception of sexual harassment and relative effects of victim's clothing, dating behavior and respondent's gender on perceptions of alleged sexual harassment cases. A quasi-experimental method was applied using a between-subjects factorial design that manipulated three variables (clothing exposure, dating behavior, and gender). Questionnaires were distributed to a convenience sample of 540 high school students and 530 questionnaires were used for the data analysis. The results indicate that the victim's clothing and dating behavior had a significant main effect on the responsibility for sexual harassment. The respondent put less responsibility on the assailant when the victim wore revealing clothing and when her dating behavior was provocative. The significant interaction effect between the respondents' gender and the victim's dating behavior indicated that when the victim's behavior was provocative, female respondents held more responsible to victim than male respondents did. The results also indicate that victim's clothing, dating behavior, and respondent's gender had significant main effect on the justification of sexual harassment. The respondents indicated that assailant's behavior is unjustifiable; however, when victim more revealing clothing, they indicated that the behavior is more justifiable.
... Taking this research another step forward, in the 1990s dress researchers began to investigate how women's provocative (revealing, sexy) dress was implicated in attributions of responsibility for their own sexual assaults (Lewis & Johnson 1989;Workman & Freeburg 1999;Workman & Orr 1996) and sexual harassment (Johnson & Workman 1992Workman & Johnson 1991). These researchers tended to use attribution theories (McLeod, 2010) to guide their research. ...
... Their results showed that provocative, skimpy, see-through, or short items of dress, as well as use of heavy makeup (body modification), were cues used to assign responsibility to women for their sexual assaults and experiences of sexual harassment. For example, Johnson and Workman (1992) studied likelihood of sexual harassment as a function of women's provocative dress. A model was photographed wearing a dark suit jacket, above-the-knee skirt, a low-cut blouse, dark hose, and high heels (provocative condition) or wearing a dark suit jacket, below-the-knee skirt, high-cut blouse, neutral hose, and moderate heels (non-provocative condition). ...
The purpose of this research was to provide a critical review of key research areas within the social psychology of dress. The review addresses published research in two broad areas: (1) dress as a stimulus and its influence on (a) attributions by others, attributions about self, and on one's behavior and (2) relationships between dress, the body, and the self. We identify theoretical approaches used in conducting research in these areas, provide an abbreviated background of research in these areas highlighting key findings, and identify future research directions and possibilities. The subject matter presented features developing topics within the social psychology of dress and is useful for undergraduate students who want an overview of the content area. It is also useful for graduate students (1) who want to learn about the major scholars in these key areas of inquiry who have moved the field forward, or (2) who are looking for ideas for their own thesis or dissertation research. Finally, information in this paper is useful for professors who research or teach the social psychology of dress.
... In the research they reviewed, Lennon, Burns, and Rowold (1995) found that experimentation was common in the study of human behavior as it relates to dress. Laboratory experiments are often used in person perception research (e.g., Buckley, 1983;Buckley, & Roach, 1981;Clayton, Lennon, & Larkin, 1987;Johnson & Workman, 1992;Rucker, Taber, & Harrison, 1981), when making extended inferences about a person (Lapitsky & Smith, 1981;Workman & Johnson, 1989), or when making inferences about clothing and textile products (Baugh & Davis, 1989: Davis, 1985Johnson & Workman, 1990). Field experiments have been conducted to study the effects of dress on actual behavior (Davis & Lennon, 1983;Lennon & Davis, 1989;Miller & Rowold, 1980). ...
... Self-administered questionnaires are also commonly used to elicit data from industry professionals (e.g., Hathcote & Schulte, 1996;Huddleston & Oliver, 1995;Kincade, 1995;Lin, Kincade, & Warfield, 1995;Shim & Kotsiopulos, 1994;. Research on social perception as a function of dress also frequently uses self-report measures (e.g., Clayton, Lennon, & Larkin, 1987;Johnson & Workman, 1992;Workman & Johnson, 1989). In addition, fabric-hand researchers usually instruct participants to self-report their judgments (e.g., Bogaty, Hollies, & Harris, 1956;Kim & Winakor, 1996). ...
In any field it is important to understand how knowledge is produced and how the production of knowledge affects what is known. Put another way, how have the conclusions drawn from research in textiles, clothing, and human behavior been structured by and affected by the research questions posed, the methods used to collect data, or even the training of its scholars? In this paper we offer a matrix of dimensions as an outline for analyzing research focusing on human behavior as it is related to textiles and clothing. Five broad dimensions are suggested for use in organizing research and in providing insight as to how knowledge in this field has been produced: (a) type of strategy used, (b) time frame, (c) origin of data elicited, (d) technique of data elicitation, and (e) qualitative or quantitative treatment of data. Each dimension is discussed, examples are provided, and related limitations are presented. Given the dimensions presented, we conclude with a discussion of how knowledge is shaped by how it is produced.
... A model was pictured either in a provocative dress a dark hose, a knee-length skirt, a low-cut shirt, a dark suit jacket and, low-cut shirt-or in an equally provocative dress a skirt to knee length, dark suit jacket, a neutral hose, moderate heels, and high cut blouse. When the model was dressed provocatively compared to when she was not, it was shown that she was substantially more likely to invite and experience sexual harassment (Johnson & Workman, 1992). ...
The purpose of this study is to discuss more understandable research that shows connections between sexual harassment, non-verbal emotional cues, and dressing. This is particularly crucial when there is a dearth of research that connects the connections and provides a thorough and analytical framework for analyzing the problem. The arguments in this study from a multidisciplinary approach provide fresh perspectives on the problem of sexual harassment in human civilization. Qualitative exploratory research by using focus group discussion and interviews was used to understand sexual harassment in context of dressing and non-verbal emotional cues and how is it misperceived in Pakistani culture. Systematic grounded theory 69 Asfa Hanif, Naeem Aslam & Zainab the themes and coding from all qualitative data. According to the findings the women are likely to become victims of sexual harassment on the basis their dressing and non-verbal emotional cues. These cues are visually perceived by the harasser, the environment of the victim and the harasser is different so encoding and decoding of the cues being misperceived that ultimately lead towards sexual harassment.
... The faces of the models were pixelated to ensure anonymity. The participants were asked to rate the 4 pictures for sexual provocativeness of dressing on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not provocative at all) to 7 (extremely provocative) [49,50]. The participants were further asked to indicate the extent to which they expected the individual in the picture to experience SH. ...
Background
The phenomenon of sexual harassment (SH) is a complex issue with multiple prongs that concerns all members of academia and raises serious challenges, particularly regarding prevention and response. SH in tertiary institutions remains a huge problem worldwide, leading to severe emotional, academic, and career difficulties, as well as undue suffering. Institutions have responded in various ways to alleviate the burden of SH with little success, especially in Nigeria. The prevalence is high but reportage is low because of the culture of silence around SH in most educational institutions. This study aims to identify factors associated with SH in tertiary institutions in Nigeria and explore factors surrounding reportage or nonreportage following the experience of SH, the institutional mechanisms to prevent and respond to SH, and the lived experience of survivors of SH.
Objective
The objective of this study was to present a study protocol that is designed to identify factors associated with the experience of SH in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, the institutional mechanisms to prevent and respond to SH, and the lived experience of survivors of SH.
Methods
A mixed (quantitative and qualitative) methods approach is used consisting of a policy review of existing antisexual harassment policies in the selected universities, a quantitative survey to determine the correlates of SH, focus group discussions to explore the perspectives of the university community concerning SH, in-depth interviews to explore the lived experiences of survivors of SH, and key informant interviews to understand the perspectives of people who provide interventions to survivors.
Results
This study was funded in July 2022 by the Consortium for Advanced Research Training in Africa, and data collection started in November 2022. The SH policies were comprehensive, with clear policy statements and definitions, and recognized a wide range of survivors and perpetrators. However, there was no clear mention of prevention and response to same-sex SH. Lived experiences showed negative psychological and social sequelae and little institutional support.
Conclusions
This is the first study that has a component investigating same-sex SH in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. This is also one of the first studies to explore the lived experiences of survivors of SH in Nigerian universities. The findings from this study suggest that periodic evaluation of SH policy implementation will improve institutional support, thus creating safe spaces for survivors and will thereby encourage reportage and support; prevention and response strategies need to be more inclusive; and more interventions should focus on strengthening prosocial skills and healthy, equitable relationships.
International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)
DERR1-10.2196/49126
... Some cultures condemn specific types of sexual violence, while others legitimize certain types of offenses (Baron & Straus 1989;Senkowski et al., 2019). For instance, in Indian culture, the men are less blamed for Eveteasing while the women are portrayed as delinquent (Sengar, 2019;Awasthi, 2017;Kim & Jane, 1992). On the other hand, many western cultures do not blame women for such kind of harassment. ...
In recent years, many countries have tightened the rules against harassment at the workplace and violence in the home. On the other hand, the incidences of sexual harassment in public places have not been paid sufficient attention, specifically against women. Developing countries like India have recorded the increment of sexual harassment cases in public places due to the increment in participation of women in outside activities such as education and employment. In India, the term 'Eve-teasing' is a euphemism that is used for sexual harassment in public places. Eve-teasing is identified as a significant problem in the patriarchal society of India that causes dreadful implications on women. The daily encounter with sexual harassment leads to a decline in their career and also socioeconomic and political opportunities for them. In recent years, these misdeeds have been spread at every corner of our society and have become a national problem. Eve-teasing is not considered atrocious and strong laws have not been enacted to counteract it. To this end, this study has been conducted to identify the socio-psychological repercussions of Eve-teasing on girl cadets of the National Cadet Corps (NCC) aged between 19 and 24 years. Moreover, This article has been accepted for publication in Journal of International Women's Studies 2 Rana, U. (2022), Are we Safe? An Investigation on 'Eve-teasing' (or public sexual harassment) in India, Journal of International Women's Studies. the significance of NCC in empowering the girl cadets in dealing with daily harassment is also the focus of the investigation. Particularly, the structural feminist approach is adopted to offer a critical framework to examine the patriarchal socialization of men and women as the most common cause of Eve-teasing. A total of 262 women participated in this study. The data were collected at the national camp of NCC held in New Delhi through a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussions from January 18 to 29, 2020. Out of the total respondents, 83.20% were exposed to Eve-teasing in their lives, while 15.26% of them did not disclose about such incidents. The study concludes by highlighting the negative implications of Eve-teasing on the life of adolescent females and also with disclosing their suffering and struggle. Although, the respondents were the cadets of the National Cadet Corps (NCC), which helped them to shape self-confidence to fight against such sexual harassment acts. Therefore, it is suggested to the governments (state and central) to emphasize the involvement of the agencies having similar goals as NCC in empowering the females in the early years.
... Researchers' findings on this issue in the 1990s were inconsistent. Johnson and Workman (1992) found that people tend to attribute sexual assault to sexy clothes worn by the victims. However, Richards (1991) found that more rape victims wear body-concealing clothes than sexy clothes, perhaps because body-concealing garments suggest passiveness and submissiveness. ...
The present study focused on the sexy-clothing behavior of high school girls. Specifically, we examined whether high school girls wear sexy clothes to express their actual sexual self-concepts and achieve their ideal sexual self-concepts and whether parents and popular girls influence those behaviors. The results, obtained by applying structural equation modeling to analyze the data collected from 384 ninth-grade girls, imply that such girls wear sexy clothes to convey their actual sexual self-concepts and achieve their ideal sexual self-concepts. The girls’ perceptions of parents’ sexy-clothing approval and of popular girls’ sexy-clothing wearing behavior influence the high school girls’ sexy-clothing wearing behavior. Parents significantly influence high school girls’ tendencies to wear sexy clothes to express their actual sexual self-concepts. Popular girls’ sexy-clothing wearing behavior influences high school girls’ tendencies to wear sexy clothes to achieve their ideal sexual self-concepts. Implications of the findings are discussed.
... Later, Johnson and Workman (1992) used attribution theory to study the effect of provocative clothing and sex of observer on attributions of sexual harassment. Undergraduate men and women viewed a photo of a young woman dressed in provocative (dark suit jacket, low cut blouse, short skirt, dark hose, high heels) or non-provocative (dark suit jacket, high cut blouse, below the knee skirt, neutral hose, moderate heels) clothing. ...
Our research purpose was to assess research addressing relationships between dress and sex. Our review was focused on a 25 years span (i.e., 1990–2015) and on empirical research utilizing human participants published in refereed journals. Three main areas of research emerged: (1) dress used as cue to sexual information, (2) dress and sexual violence, and (3) dress, sex, and objectification. Our analyses revealed parents do invest their young children with sex-typed dress however sometimes children demand to wear such dress. Some women intentionally use dress to communicate sexual information but inferences about women who wear sexy dress can be misinterpreted and are sometimes negative. Observers link wearing sexy dress to violence including sexual coercion, sexual harassment, sexual assault, and unwelcome groping, touching, and grabbing. Certain items of sexy dress that reveal the body have been linked to self-objectification. The fit of the items may also contribute to the body revealing nature of clothing styles that elicit self-objectification. The use of sexual images of women and children has increased over time and viewing such images is also linked to self- and other-objectification. Suggestions are provided for future research.
... Instead researchers may have selected dependent variables as a function of important social issues. For example, researchers focused on the sexual objectification of women (Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, Reynard, Skouteris, & Mccabe, 2012;Tiggemann & Andrew, 2012), sexual harassment (Johnson & Workman, 1992;Workman & Johnson, 1991), and sexual assault (Lewis & Johnson, 1989;Workman & Freeburg, 1999;Workman & Orr, 1996) as a function of information communicated by fashion; then they employed dependent variables relevant to those topics. Other well-represented dependent variables (e.g. ...
Fashion is the way we wear our clothes, adorn our bodies, and train our bodies to move [Craik (1994)15.
Craik, J. (1994). The face of fashion: Cultural studies in fashion. New York, NY: Routledge.View all references. The face of fashion: Cultural studies in fashion. New York, NY: Routledge]. To assess the state of knowledge about the communicative nature of fashion, the goal of this research was to conduct a content analysis of research published after 1986, identifying fashion's effect on perceptions. Articles for analysis (N=115) were identified from online database searches. Coding categories developed by Burns and Lennon [1993. The effect of clothing on the use of person information categories in first impressions. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 12(1), 9–15] and Damhorst [1990. In search of a common thread: Classification of information communicated through dress. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 8(2), 1–12] were used to code dependent variables. Results found that information communicated by fashion was related to potency (35.3%), evaluation (32.1%), physiological and biological traits (11.8%), demographic characteristics (8.3%), miscellaneous (5.3%), dynamism (5.7%), and quality of thought (1.5%). To further analyse information communicated by fashion, we recommend more research on effective coding taxonomies.
In recent years, many countries have tightened the rules against harassment in the workplace and violence in the home. On the other hand, incidences of sexual harassment against women in public places have not been paid sufficient attention. Developing countries like India have recorded an increase in sexual harassment cases in public places due to the increase in participation of women in activities outside the home such as education and employment. In India, the term “Eve-teasing” is a euphemism for sexual harassment in public places. Eve-teasing is identified as a significant problem in the patriarchal society of India that carries dreadful implications for women. Daily encounters with sexual harassment leads to a decline in their career, socio-economic, and political opportunities. In recent years, these misdeeds have been spread to every corner of our society and have become a national problem. Eve-teasing is not considered atrocious, so strong laws have not been enacted to counteract it. This study has been conducted to identify the socio-psychological repercussions of Eve-teasing on young women cadets of the National Cadet Corps (NCC) aged between 19 and 24 years. Moreover, the significance of NCC in empowering the women cadets in dealing with daily harassment is also the focus of the investigation. Particularly, a structural feminist approach is adopted to offer a critical framework to examine the patriarchal socialization of men and women as the most common cause of Eve-teasing. A total of 262 women participated in this study. The data were collected at the national camp of NCC held in New Delhi through a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussions from January 18-29 of 2020. Out of the total respondents, 83.20% were exposed to Eve-teasing in their lives, while 15.26% of them did not disclose public harassment. The study concludes by highlighting the negative implications of Eve-teasing on the life of young women. The respondents were the cadets of the National Cadet Corps (NCC) which helped them to shape self-confidence to fight against such sexual harassment acts; therefore, it is suggested to the governments (state and central) to emphasize the involvement of the agencies having similar goals as NCC in empowering young women and girls.
Academic abstract:
Clothing, hairstyle, makeup, and accessories influence first impressions. However, target dress is notably absent from current theories and models of person perception. We discuss three reasons for this minimal attention to dress in person perception: high theoretical complexity, incompatibility with traditional methodology, and underappreciation by the groups who have historically guided research in person perception. We propose a working model of person perception that incorporates target dress alongside target face, target body, context, and perceiver characteristics. Then, we identify four types of inferences for which perceivers rely on target dress: social categories, cognitive states, status, and aesthetics. For each of these, we review relevant work in social cognition, integrate this work with existing dress research, and propose future directions. Finally, we identify and offer solutions to the theoretical and methodological challenges accompanying the psychological study of dress.
Public abstract:
Why is it that people often agonize over what to wear for a job interview, a first date, or a party? The answer is simple: They understand that others' first impressions of them rely on their clothing, hairstyle, makeup, and accessories. Many people might be surprised, then, to learn that psychologists' theories about how people form first impressions of others have little to say about how people dress. This is true in part because the meaning of clothing is so complex and culturally dependent. We propose a working model of first impressions that identifies four types of information that people infer from dress: people's social identities, mental states, status, and aesthetic tastes. For each of these, we review existing research on clothing, integrate this research with related work from social psychology more broadly, and propose future directions for research.
Purpose
Our study explored and mapped cisgender female consumers' motivation and shopping experience for cross-sexual fashion, i.e. people shopping for clothes that are not designed or marketed for their biological sex.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a qualitative method, this study explored and mapped consumers' motivation and shopping experience for cross-sexual fashion. Thirteen cisgender female millennials were interviewed about their memories and perceptions of their pre-purchase, purchase and post-purchase experiences.
Findings
The findings defined the model of cross-sexual shopping behaviour in cisgender women with the following: (1) two pre-purchase schemes, i.e. fashioned gender schema and nonconformity motivation; (2) one pivotal and main purchase factor, i.e. time invested in the experience itself; and (3) two post-purchase schemes, i.e. use for comfort and use for protection. Practical marketing approaches in advertising and in-store experiences were identified in order to better target cross-sexual consumers.
Originality/value
Unisex fashion (or degendered fashion) has pioneered a fashion trend considered a growing trend in younger generations. To our knowledge, this study is the first research exploring regendered fashion (i.e. going beyond the cisgender and same-sex purchase approach of fashion consumerism) through the lens of cross-sexual consumer behaviour.
Audiences expect music performers to follow tacit dress codes for the concert stage. In classical music performance, audiences favor performers in formal dress over casual dress, but it is unclear what constitutes appropriate formal attire. A perceptual study was designed to test for different interpretations of suitable concert dress. Four female pianists in three contrasting black outfits (long dress, short dress, and suit) were video-recorded performing three musical pieces, and the audio was dubbed throughout for audio consistency. Thirty listener/viewers rated the clips on musicality, technical proficiency, overall performance, and appropriateness of dress. Performances in the long dress were rated significantly higher than in the short dress or suit. The short dress was consistently rated lowest, whereas the suit received more complex responses. Follow-up interviews confirmed listener/viewers’ unconscious bias toward untraditional formal attire and their tendency to objectify the performers. They were unblinded to the purpose of the task and were able to reflect on the tangible implications of concert dress, stage manner, and physical appearance on their evaluations. Future studies should harness the potential for experiential learning, or “learning by doing,” to expand future music professionals’ critical evaluation skills.
The goal of the present study was to examine clothing as a marker of women's sexuality. Ninety-five women in their 20s - 60s participated in in-depth interviews. Many women reported concern with sexual messages others might perceive from their clothing, and judged other women's clothing on the dimensions of authenticity, morality, and appropriateness. Self- and other- clothing judgments varied by the target's age, marital status, and parental status, and for other-judgments, by social class and generation. Results suggest that women's bodies are socially monitored and that sexual subjectivity is suppressed through the stigmatization of women's sexualized dress.
This is the first of two articles in which we argue that textiles and clothing research has relevance for the legal system in the United States in several different contexts. In this paper we highlight textiles and clothing scholarship and illustrate how that scholarship could be used to inform legal practices or legislative action in the United States regarding sexual harassment and sexual assault. Textiles and clothing researchers have demonstrated that dress conveys both accurate and inaccurate messages about the wearer. However, it is evident from statutes and written judicial decisions (caselaw) that the legal community often assumes that dress accurately indicates the wearer's attitude or intent. Yet in so doing, the legal system may be relying on inaccurate inferences to inform judgments and render decisions. Recommendations are suggested for research and policy linkages between textiles and clothing research and law.
Sexual harassment is a pervasive and costly problem in the workplace. Various researchers are pursuing issues associated with occupational self-analysis as a step toward understanding and eliminating sexual harassment. Individuals most likely to be sexually harassed are young, unmarried females—a description that coincides with a description of clothing and textiles students in that most share similar characteristics. This study was designed to clarify the nature and extent of sexual harassment in the fashion retail workplace from the perspective of a group of clothing and textiles students. The study used the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ2) and the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board Survey, both designed to measure sexual harassment in the workplace. Data were collected in university classroom settings from students enrolled in clothing and textiles classes during spring semester, 1992 (N = 132). Although 97 students had experienced sexually harassing behaviors, only 41 labeled the behaviors as sexual harassment. The most frequently reported situations involved gender harassment and seductive behavior. Such behaviors constitute “condition of work” harassment and create an offensive work environment. Methods of coping with the behavior were to ignore it, avoid the perpetrator, or ask the person to stop. No respondent had filed formal complaint, grievance, or lawsuit. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that students receive training on all aspects of sexual harassment so that they will be prepared to recognize and cope with it if it occurs.
Belief in a just world is associated with an expectation that individuals can determine their own rewards and punishments rather than being at the mercy of external forces (Rotter, 1966). Believers in a just world are likely to view victims as responsible for their fates. An experimental design was used to test the effect of victim clothing, just-world belief, and sex of subject on attributions concerning sexual harassment. A convenience sample of 200 subjects (97 males, 102females, 1 information missing) was used in a 2 (provocative vs. nonprovocative clothing) × 2 (believers vs. nonbelievers) × 2 (sex of subject) between-subjects factorial design. The subjects read a vignette that described a claim of sexual harassment, viewed a photograph of the victim, and made attributions reflecting blame by responding to four items. Subjects also indicated the likelihood that a male supervisor would engage in each of eight sexually harassing behaviors. Multivariate analyses of variance, analyses of variance, and the Newman-Keuls test were used to analyze the data. Subjects indicated that the victim appearing in provocative clothing, as opposed to the victim in nonprovocative clothing, could have prevented the incident, provoked the advances, and brought about the advances. Female subjects indicated that a male supervisor was more likely to engage in sexually harassing behaviors than did male subjects. Subjects also indicated a female appearing in provocative clothing was more likely to be the recipient of sexually harassing behavior than a female in nonprovocative clothing.
Previous research investigating the influence of perceived physical attractiveness on student evaluations of college professors has been limited to a handful of studies. In this study, the authors used naturally occurring data obtained from the publicly available Web site www.ratemyprofessors.com. The data suggested that professors perceived as attractive received higher student evaluations when compared with those of a nonattractive control group (matched for department and gender). Results were consistent across 4 separate universities. Professors perceived as attractive received student evaluations about 0.8 of a point higher on a 5-point scale. Exploratory analyses indicated benefits of perceived attractiveness for both male and female professors. Although this study has all the limitations of naturalistic research, it adds a study with ecological validity to the limited literature.
Conducted 3 experiments, using 44, 34, and 46 undergraduates as Ss, to examine the following proposition: An O of an accident, to preclude the possibility that he could cause such a misfortune, will attribute responsibility for its occurrence to a person potentially responsible, and will attempt to differentiate himself from that person. This tendency will increase with the probability of occurrence and the severity of the accident's consequences. It was found that heightened probability of occurrence, especially in the form of personal similarity to the potential perpetrator, lessened O's attributions of responsibility and increased his ascription of carefulness to the perpetrator. Avoidance of blame for the accident thus appeared to be more important to Os than avoidance of the occurrence. A category of perceiver response defensive attribution was proposed to encompass this attributional error and similar perceiver biases. The other major finding was a consistent failure to replicate E. Walster's (see 40:3) finding of increased assignment of responsibility with increased severity of outcome. This was surprising, as severity-dependent attribution would appear to be consistent with legal and moral tradition, and self-protection. Such attribution might be an essentially "irrational" response that is suppressed when O is alerted to the attribution task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The effects of clothing revealingness and dyad-sex composition on perceptions of male- and female-stimulus persons' sexuality were examined. Based on Abbey's (1982) findings, we hypothesized that men would attribute more sexuality to both male and female targets than women would. Furthermore, we predicted that the difference between men's and women's sexuality ratings would be most divergent when a male-female dyad was presented and when the female stimulus person wore revealing clothing. A laboratory study was conducted in which subjects viewed a photograph of two students in a classroom. As predicted, male subjects rated female targets as more sexy and seductive than did female subjects. Also as predicted, female targets who wore revealing clothing were rated as more sexy and seductive than those wearing nonrevealing clothing. Female targets were rated higher on sexual traits regardless of the gender of their partner. Men did not consistently perceive male stimulus persons more sexually than women did. Finally, both female and male targets were perceived as more kind and warm when they wore nonrevealing clothing. The implications of these findings for person perception and date rape research are described.
The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.
This experiment tested the proposition that the worse the consequences of an accidental occurrence, the greater the tendency of Ss to assign responsibility for the catastrophe to some appropriate person. Also tested was the specific proposition that an accident victim would be assigned increasing responsibility for his accident as its severity increased. Data supported these hypotheses. There seemed to be 2 ways of judging the same behavior as more responsible for the accident when accidental consequences were severe: (1) Ss could perceive the responsible person as more careless when accidental consequences were severe: (2) Ss could perceive the responsible person's behavior correctly, but apply stricter moral standards in judging the behavior when accidental consequences were severe. Data indicated that only the 2nd method of assigning responsibility was utilized by Ss.
Bei der sonographischen Untersuchung des Skrotalinhalts können Artefakte auftreten, welche die Bildinterpretation erschweren. Im folgenden werden die häufigsten Artefakte kurz erwähnt und deren Abhilfe beschrieben.
There is evidence that men misinterpret the behavior of females as indicating sexual interest when no such message is intended (Abbey, 1982). The present study was designed to assess the accuracy with which men and women can predict the opinions of the opposite sex. Forty-four men and 81 women in introductory psychology classes were shown one of rwo slides. One slide represented a female model wearing 'conservative' clothing while the other slide depicted the model in sexually provocative clothing. Subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire indicating impressions of the female and also to estimate the opinions of a typical member of the opposite sex. The results were consistent with studies describing a generally negative bias toward women wearing provocative clothing (Edmocds & Cahoon, 1986). While the model in the sexy-clothing condition was judged to be more attractive and sexually appealing to men. she was viewed more negatively with respect to age of first intercourse, sexual teasing, extent of sexual activity, using sex for personal gain, and faithfulness in marriage. The sexy model was also viewed as more likely to be raped or robbed, a finding previously reported by Edmonds and Cahoon (1986). Male and female raters tended to agree in their judgments although there was n tendency for the men to rate the model more positively than the women. Differences were found when men and women attempted to predict the actual opinions of the opposite sex, with women making significantly more and larger errors (Fl,ao = 29.97, p < ,001). Examination of the items indicated that women assumed that men would view the model more negatively than was actually the case. Men were also asked to indicate the likelihood chat they would rape the model if they could do so with impunity. While 7.6% of the male subjects endorsed the possibility of raping the conservatively dressed model, women predicted that 36.3% of the men would respond positively. Corresponding percentages for the sexually provocative model were 38.8% for men and 61.6% for women. Apparently, in addition to a tendency for men to view the world in sexual terms (Abbey, 1982), there is a corresponding tendency for women to misjudge male sexual attitudes and especially men's motivation to
Male and female college students rated 40 pictures of women’s apparel in terms of the extent to which men would be sexually aroused by women wearing the various styles of clothes. These ratings correlated.85, indicating that females are very knowledgeable concerning the sexual impact of clothing styles upon men. A second phase of the study demonstrated that women who perceive themselves as being sexually attractive have a marked preference for those clothes judged to be most sexually exciting for men. The results are discussed with respect to possible social implications and the degree of female awareness concerning sexual cue control.
Research has suggested that (a) victims of sexual assault evidence significant passive and submissive personality structures, (b) such submissive affective traits are characteristic of victims prior to their assaults, (c) sexual assault offenders look for visual cues of vulnerability when selecting a victim, (d) females high and low in submissiveness exhibit different clothing and body language behaviors, and (e) males form differing perceptions of females who are high versus low in submissive personality traits. Propositions associated with theories of self enhancement, communication, perception, and impression formation were united to form a more comprehensive theoretical perspective upon nonverbal communication. This perspective, when analyzed against the results of the abovementioned sexual assault research, provided a logical explanation of the victim selection process wherein nonverbal appearance cues (both body adornment and body language) play a paramount role.
An exploratory examination of the social perception of a rape victim was conducted. Sex of respondent, victim's history of rape, number of rapes in the area, and victim acquaintance with the rapist were investigated by having subjects respond to a standardized videotape of an interview with a presumed victim. Results revealed two consistent findings: Males viewed the victim as contributing to the rape to a greater degree than females. The victim was seen as provoking the episode to a greater degree when she had been raped before than when she had not been raped before. Several interactions were also obtained.
52 male and 91 female college students were shown 1 of 2 slides featuring a female model wearing either sexy or unsexy clothes. The Ss were then asked to answer a set of questions based on the supposition that the model might be either robbed or raped. Responses indicated that the model wearing sexually oriented clothes was seen as more likely to be either robbed or raped, more likely to provoke such an attack, and more likely to be responsible for the attack if she were to be assaulted. Furthermore, the model's assailant was held to be less accountable if the model was assaulted while wearing sexy clothes than while wearing sexually conservative clothes. Results are discussed with respect to attribution theory and the literature concerning crimes against women, particularly rape. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
350 16–20 yr olds watched 4 videotapes of 4 women (aged 14, 23, 35, and 45 yrs) and were given supplemental information that described the women as victims of rape by an acquaintance or a stranger, or victims of attempted rape; victims of a mugging or an attempted mugging; or no mention of victimization was made. The given sexual status of the women was also manipulated in a similar manner. Ss then completed a questionnaire that incorporated shortened versions of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale, the Belief in a Just World Scale, and items devised to ascertain their general impressions and images of rape. Results show that Ss felt that there was a certain type of woman who was more likely than others to be raped. Two broad categories emerged from the data: the negative image of the rape victim as a prostitute who probably behaved and dressed in a provocative manner, and the "young attractive flirt" who was naive and probably did not realize the effect she had on men. It is argued that the latter image is generated to explain why respectable women are raped, whereas the negative image is always in the background. It is the existence of the negative image that could influence the perceptions, and consequently the reporting behavior, of rape victims. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cosmetics use on attributions concerning the likelihood of provoking sexual harassment and of being sexually harassed. Subjects were 85 female and 76 male undergraduate volunteers. The study was a 32 between-subjects design with three levels of cosmetics use (heavy, moderate, no cosmetics) and two levels of sex of subject (male, female). Each subject viewed one of three colored photographs of a model wearing either heavy, moderate, or no cosmetics, and then indicated how likely the model was to provoke sexual harassment and to be sexually harassed. Data were analyzed using analyses of variance and the Newman-Keuls test. When the model wore heavy cosmetics, she was rated as more likely to provoke sexual harassment than when she wore moderate cosmetics. Similarly, when the model wore moderate cosmetics, she was rated as significantly more likely to provoke sexual harassment than when she was not wearing cosmetics. When the model wore either heavy or moderate cosmetics, she was also rated as more likely to be sexually harassed than when she did not wear cosmetics. In addition, male subjects rated the model as more likely to provoke and to be sexually harassed than did female subjects. Results are discussed in terms of sex role spillover.
Subjects indicated the likelihood that a female, photographed in eight situations, would be raped. The situations were created by the Cartesian product of her dress (seductive/nonseductive), posture (aggressive/nonaggressive), and setting (inside/outside). The three variables combined additively with the highest subjective probability of rape associated with the seductive/nonaggressive/outside condition.
To test the hypotheses that people believe that certain kinds and styles of clothing are indicative of liberal sexual attitudes and behavior and these beliefs are correct, questionnaires were filled out by 259 subjects. These questionnaires asked each subject for the frequencies with which he wore various items and styles of clothing, his attitude toward premarital sexual relations, the number of persons with whom he had had sexual relations, the frequencies with which he believed sexually liberal men and women wore various items and styles of clothing, and the frequencies with which he felt sexually conservative men and women wore various items and styles of clothing. Correlations showed that, although subjects believed that a large number of items and styles of clothing are indicative of liberal sexual attitudes and behavior, only a few items and styles actually were associated with liberal sexual attitudes and reported behavior.
No laughing matter: Sexual harassment is serious problem for companies
- J Fine
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Defensive attribution: Effects of severity and relevance on the respon-sibility assigned for an accident The Supreme Court—Leading cases Supreme Court upholds EEOC position on sex harassment Equal Times
- R Shaver
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Sexual harassment: The eye of the beholder
- Horgan
Horgan, D., & Reeder, G. (1986). Sexual harassment: The eye of the beholder. Journal of the American Association of Occupational Health Nurses, 34, 83-86.
Estimates of opposite-sex first impressions related to females' clothing style Social perception of the victim's causal role in rape: An exploratory examination of four factors
- D Cahoon
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- D Calhoun
- J Selby
- L Waring
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The Supreme Court—Leading cases
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