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Late Quaternary landscape history and geoarchaeology of two drainages on Black Mesa, northeastern Arizona, USA
Abstract
Two approximately 5- to 6-km drainage segments on Black Mesa preserve unusually complete sequences of late Quaternary alluvium and soils. Radiocarbon- and tree-ring-dated alluvial and soil stratigraphy suggests entrenched paleoarroyos were beginning to aggrade at about >24,260, 11,070, 9660, 8800, 7060, 3500, 2140, and 1870 14C yr B.P. Using the quantity of sediment removal from post-A.D. 1900 arroyos as analogue, at least 77–200% of total valley alluvium has been removed and replaced by younger sediments during an estimated 11 late Pleistocene and Holocene erosion epicycles. Given that most (59%) of the 150 recorded prehistoric sites in the two study areas occur on valley floors where only about 3% of surface alluvium predates Lolomai phase Basketmaker II occupation (˜1900–1600 yr B.P.), it may be inferred that pre-Lolomai phase Basketmaker II sites which may have been located along washes have been removed or buried by fluvial erosion. Identification of five buried hearths in alluvial sections, including White Dog and Lolomai phase Basketmaker II sites (dating about 3500 and 1870 14C yr B.P., respectively) and one possible Early Archaic site, supports this conclusion. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... The complex relationship between widespread environmental changes and the cut-and-fill stratigraphy of ephemeral streams has a rich history of research in the Southern Basin and Range (Bryan, 1925;Antevs, 1952Antevs, , 1962Cooke and Reeves, 1976;Balling and Wells, 1990;Waters, 1991;Webb and Betancourt, 1992;Bull, 1997;Ely, 1997;Elliot et al., 1999;Etheredge et al., 2004;Haynes, 1968bKarlstrom, 2005;Huckleberry and Duff, 2008). A fundamental obstacle for attributing cut-and-fill alluvial cycles to climate change is the role of intrinsic geomorphic controls and complex responses (Patton and Schumm, 1981), but the occurrence of groundwater discharge deposits is a key indicator of increased effective moisture in modern arid landscapes (Quade et al., 2007;Pigati et al., 2008). ...
... Wetland formation resumed in the San Pedro Valley very soon after the appearance/disappearance of Clovis and the last appearance of several megafaunal species, depositing a widespread black mat (Stratum F 2 ) in spring-fed tributary streams between 10.8 and 9.8 ka 14 C BP (12.8 and 11.2 ka cal BP) (Fig. 4). Black mats occur as early as 11.8 ka 14 C BP (13.65 ka cal BP) in the southern Great Basin , but a black mat "maxima" is identified during the YDC (Haynes, 2008;Karlstrom, 2005 Owing to a hydrologic mechanism for black mat formation Haynes et al., 2010), gauging the balance between seasonal recharge and discharge is important for reconstructing paleoclimatic conditions. The widespread stratigraphic sequence of the San Pedro Valley indicates that black mats formed in response to renewed spring discharge during the YDC , but residence times and the contribution of summer and winter rains to the local groundwater reservoirs feeding these paleosprings have not been directly studied (i.e., Baillie et al., 2007;Wahi et al., 2008). ...
... In the Black Mesa area of west-central Arizona, Karlstrom (2005) found a uniquely preserved sequence of late Pleistocene and early Holocene rhythmites, including "black mats," that accumulated during the YDC between approximately 11.1 and 10 ka 14 C BP, and again between 9.7 and 9 ka 14 C BP. The wetland sequence was interrupted by arroyo entrenchment sometime between 11.1 and 10.5 ka 14 C BP (13e11.5 ka cal BP), and just prior to 9.7 14 C BP, but the YDC is not associated with a specific deposit in the sequence. ...
Whether or not abrupt Younger Dryas climate change affected regional paleoenvironments and late Pleistocene hunter-gatherer populations is an important topic in the archaeology of the American Southwest. This paper reviews multiple, age-resolved proxy evidence to gauge the magnitude and direction of Younger Dryas Chronozone (YDC) environmental changes in different settings and systems. There is no record of YDC pluvial lake highstands in Arizona or New Mexico, but there are impressive records of vegetation, faunal, stable isotope, and geomorphological change coincident with the YDC. These correlate with important adaptive changes in human hunting and land use, as revealed in the analysis of the spatiotemporal distribution of late Pleistocene hunting technologies. Clovis and Folsom projectile point distributions do not support extant models of paleoenvironmental conditions in these interpretations. Significant cultural changes that coincide with the YDC include the Clovis-to-Folsom transition, the demise of mammoth hunting and the development of a highly successful emphasis on bison, increased regionalization, and the abandonment of the northwestern Chihuahuan and the Sonoran deserts by mobile, big-game hunters.
... Since the 1960s research projects have been conducted to assess the climate history by interpreting deposits from alluvial reaches throughout the Southwest (Waters and Ravesloot, 2000;Haynes and Huckell, 1986;Onken and Joyal, 2004;Haynes, 1968;Haynes and Huckell, 1995;Johnson et al., 1997). Many of these interpretations of the alluvial record were done for their archaeological implications (Walter, 1986;Homberg and Johnson, 1991;Huckleberry, 2005), others were conducted to better constrain the late Quaternary and historic arroyo formation (Waters and Haynes, 2001;Karlstrom 2005). ...
... Because of its arid to semi-arid climate many entrenched, ephemeral streams, or arroyos, are common in the American Southwest. Arroyo formation in the Southwest first appeared after 8000 ¹⁴C BP (Karlstrom, 2005;Miller and Kochel, 1999;Waters and Haynes, 2001) and has been attributed to climate change and not human impact (Bull, 1997 figure 5 where peaks are found in the bedrock CPDF and troughs are found in the alluvial CPDF suggest arroyo formation; flooding in bedrock reaches causing degradation in the alluvial reaches and thus, channel entrenchment. This is further supported by the strong correlation between region-wide arroyo formation and the divergence of the fluvial CPDF plots. ...
... Together, the two fluvial records indicate that several times during the Holocene large floods in bedrock reaches removed some of the record in alluvial reaches, most likely from channel degradation. These instances correlate very strongly with the Southwest arroyo formation episodes identified by Waters andHaynes, 2001 andKarlstrom, 2005. This nature of the fluvial system cannot be distinguished from the bedrock or alluvial probability curves alone. ...
... Since the 1960s research projects have been conducted to assess their climate history by interpreting deposits from alluvial reaches throughout the south-west (Haynes, 1968;Haynes andHuckell, 1985, 1986;Johnson et al., 1997;Waters and Ravesloot, 2000;Onken and Joyal, 2004). Many interpretations of the alluvial record were done for archaeological purposes and to evaluate longer-term human-river environment interactions (Walters, 1986;Homburg and Johnson, 1991;Diehl, 1997;Huckleberry, 2005), while others were conducted to better constrain Late Quaternary and historical channel and fl oodplain entrenchment histories (Waters and Haynes, 2001;Karlstrom 2005). Additionally, the analysis of slackwater deposits to identify and date large fl oods in bedrock reaches was pioneered in the south-west by Baker and co-workers, leading to a large regional inventory of Holocene palaeofl ood records (Webb, 1985;Ely and Baker, 1985;Ely, 1992;O'Connor et al., 1994;House, 1996). ...
... Major channel and fl oodplain entrenchment in the larger south-western rivers is fi rst documented after 8000 cal. BP (Waters and Haynes, 2001;Karlstrom, 2005). Widespread river incision occurred at about 7500, 2000, 1000, and 500-600 14 C BP (Waters and Haynes, 2001;Karlstrom, 2005) and has been attributed to region-wide changes in hydroclimate. ...
... BP (Waters and Haynes, 2001;Karlstrom, 2005). Widespread river incision occurred at about 7500, 2000, 1000, and 500-600 14 C BP (Waters and Haynes, 2001;Karlstrom, 2005) and has been attributed to region-wide changes in hydroclimate. Entrenchment dates are, however, quite poorly constrained and are also reported in 14 C yrs BP without included uncertainty age ranges making them diffi cult to compare with the CPDF plots. ...
River basins in south-western USA are some of the most extensively studied arid land fluvial systems in the world. Since the early 1960s their hydro-climatic histories have been reconstructed from the analysis of alluvial cut-and-fill cycles, while from the late 1970s there have been investigations of slackwater deposits and palaeostage indicators for large floods in stable-boundary bedrock reaches. However, no studies have regionally integrated Holocene fluvial histories from these two different types of fluvial environments. The current study combines the alluvial archive with flood records from bedrock reaches to generate a probability-based 12,000 year record of flooding in south-western USA. Using more than 700 14C-dated fluvial units, the analysis produces a high resolution (centennial) flood record. Seven episodes of increased flooding occurred at 11,250–10,400, 8800–8350, 8230–7600, 6700–5700, 5600–4820, 4550–3320 and 2000–0 cal. BP. Bedrock reaches are found to record more frequent floods during the middle to late Holocene, while in alluvial rivers more flood units are dated to the early and middle Holocene. These differences are primarily the result of selective preservation with alluvial reaches tending to erode during periods characterised by very large floods. Episodes of major Holocene flooding recorded in slackwater deposits within bedrock systems correspond with periods of increased precipitation in the region and lower temperatures. In contrast, within alluvial rivers above-average flooding probabilities, as well as regionally extensive channel entrenchment episodes, match with reduced annual precipitation and lower temperatures. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the value of the Holocene fluvial archive for reconstructing regional, short-term hydro-climatic change in south-western USA. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Thus, there may well be a widespread phenomenon of channel entrenchment beginning ca. A.D. 900–1000 across the Southwest region as Hall (1977 Hall ( , 1990) observed and as widely exemplified in many different watersheds by a number of authors (Miller & Kochel, 1999; Waters & Haynes, 2001; Waters & Ravesloot, 2001; Nials, 2003; Karlstrom, 2005; Onken, 2005; Onken & Van West, 2005; Huckleberry & Duff, 2008). For example, recent geoarchaeological investigations along Largo Creek and Carrizo Wash in Catron County, New Mexico, identified four late Holocene alluvial events including two arroyo-cutting events at A.D. 900–1030 and A.D. 1300 (Onken, 2005; Onken & Van West, 2005). ...
... Despite some of these correlations in arroyo formation, there appears to be a wide range of temporal variability across the region in terms of Holocene floodplain dynamics. Erosion episodes have been identified elsewhere in the Southwest dating to ca. 7000, 4000, 2500, and 1000 years ago (Miller & Kochel, 1999; Waters & Haynes, 2001; Karlstrom, 2005 ). Except for the last event, these represent different time periods than those observed in the Rio Puerco by Nials (2003) and our studies, as well as those in Chaco Canyon (Hall, 1977; Force et al., 2002; Force, 2004). ...
... 7500–4000 cal yr B.P.; Antevs, 1955). However, the Rio Puerco soils are different in that they do not exhibit the same features of clay and calcium carbonate enrichment that Karlstrom (1986 Karlstrom ( , 2005) observed in early Holocene cumulic soils on Black Mesa, nor calcic B horizon development commonly associated with Altithermal soils and that is likely occurring today in semi-arid environments of New Mexico (Marion, Schlesinger, & Fonteyn, 1985; Cooke, Warren, & Goudie, 1993:59–60). ...
We describe a geoarchaeological survey of a 5-km reach of the Rio Puerco channel and its tributaries, centered on the Guadalupe Ruin, a pueblo of the late 10th–12th centuries A.D. in north-central New Mexico, with associated pollen, charcoal, micromorphological, and radiocarbon analyses. Severe erosion has drastically bisected the Puerco valley with four primary arroyos entering the western side of the Guadalupe reach of the valley: Tapia, Salado, Guadalupe and “No Name.” We recorded an 11-m-tall alluvial sequence marked by four phases of cumulic soil development, interrupted by six major periods of channel entrenchment that occurred at about 4100–3700 B.C. and 2900–2400 B.C., between 2200 B.C. and ca. A.D. 400, pre- and post-ca. A.D. 900–1300, and in the late A.D. 1800s. Relative floodplain stability and associated cumulic soil development occurred prior to ca. 5700 B.C., between ca. 2600 to 2200 B.C. and A.D. 350 and 550, and ca. A.D. 900–1300. Multiple signatures of fires (oxidized sediment and charcoal) were observed in the Arroyo Tapia tributary sequence, especially in deposits dated ca. 6000 and 2600 B.C. These fires may have helped to enhance food resources for game animals by encouraging grass and shrub growth and/or to increase the growth of wild plants and eventually cultigens such as maize. Palynological evidence of maize in the Arroyo Tapia, dated ca. 2600–2200 B.C. may be the earliest thus far identified in the Southwest. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... These arguments also contrast with those citing anthropogenic disturbances as the primary cause of arroyo development by focusing extensively on the timing of paleoarroyo formation. As many as 19 cycles of arroyo cutting and filling have been locally identified during approximately the last 12,000 (Karlstrom, 2005). Many of these paleoarroyos exhibit dimensions that are similar to those of historic arroyos (Leopold, 1951;Balling and Wells, 1990). ...
... While the degree to which arroyo cutting and filling events are synchronous remains a topic of debate (Aby, 2017), numerous investigators have provided convincing arguments that episodes of aggradation and incision correlate within large areas of the southwestern US (Hack, 1942;Haynes, 1968;Leopold, 1976;Graf, 1987;Waters, 1987;Miller and Kochel, 1999;Waters and Hayes, 2001;Hereford, 1982Hereford, , 1986Hereford, , 2002Karlstrom, 2005Karlstrom, , 2008Mann and Meltzer, 2007;Huckleberry and Duff, 2008). Assuming that arroyo development was to some degree synchronous, the question arises as to what were the climatic conditions that initiated cutting and filling events. ...
Arroyos in the American southwest are defined as steep-walled, flat-floored trenches, typically cut into alluvium. Intensive investigation of arroyos for more than a century has shown that arroyo cutting events have been temporally concentrated during the Holocene, the most recent (historic) interval occurring between 1850 and 1915; the 1880s and early 1900s were particularly important periods of formation. The restricted period of historic cutting suggests that their formation is related to semi-synchronous changes in environmental conditions throughout the southwestern U.S. However, determining causality is plagued by multiple, temporally overlapping drivers, that vary in magnitude and intensity over the region and that produce non-linear and divergent geomorphic responses that often lag well-behind the disturbance. The lag in response times is a result of sequential adjustments in vegetation, runoff, sediment yield, groundwater-surface water interactions, and/or the propagation of geomorphic adjustments through the system. In light of these difficulties, it may be more productive from a management perspective to determine the controls on valley/arroyo system response to disturbance and the potential impacts of these geomorphic responses on ecosystem conditions than to concentrate on the causality of arroyo formation.
... Numerous cut-and-fi ll cycles have been documented in alluvial valleys of the American Southwest during the late Quaternary (Bryan, 1941;Hack, 1942;Cooley, 1962;Haynes, 1968;Hall, 1977;Waters, 1985;Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1986;Love, 1986;Waters and Haynes, 2001;Hereford, 2002). Similar timing of incision over a broad geographic area supports an allogenic (climatic) control for arroyo cutting (Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1987;Karlstrom, 2005;Daniels, 2008). However, nonsynchroneity of cutting episodes for some basins in the Holocene indicates that factors other than climatic change may contribute to the timing of arroyo incision (Patton and Schumm, 1981;Patton and Boison, 1986;Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1987;Elliott et al., 1999;Force, 2004). ...
... The calculation simply illustrates that large amounts of sediment are eroded during incision. Support for large amounts of sediment eroded during arroyo incision in the modern and geologic record is highlighted in Karlstrom's (2005) examination of 11 arroyo cycles in late Pleistocene and late Quaternary alluvium for two drainages in Black Mesa, Arizona, where ~17% of the total valley alluvium was removed in the past 100 yr and a cumulative 77%-200% of the total valley alluvium was removed during these 11 arroyo cycles. Our results show that both channel and sheetwash erosion rates are high on the valley alluvium. ...
Arroyos in the American Southwest proceed through cut-and-fill cycles that operate at centennial to millennial time scales. The geomorphic community has put much effort into understanding the causes of arroyo cutting in the late Quaternary and in the modern record (late 1800s), while little effort has gone into understanding how arroyos fill and the sources of this fill. Here, we successfully develop a geographic information system (GIS)-modeled sediment budget that is based on detailed field measurements of hillslope and channel erosion and deposition. Field measurements were made in two arroyo basins draining different lithologies and undergoing different land disturbance (Volcano Hill Wash, 9.30 km(2); Arroyo Chavez, 2.11 km(2)) over a 3 yr period. Both basins have incised channels that formed in response to the late nineteenth-century incision of the Rio Puerco. Large volumes of sediment were generated during arroyo incision, equal to more than 100 yr of the current annual total sediment load (bed load + suspended load) in each basin. Downstream reaches in both arroyos are presently aggrading, and the main source of the sediment is from channel erosion in upstream reaches and first- and second-order tributaries. The sediment budget shows that channel erosion is the largest source of sediment in the current stage of the arroyo cycle: 98% and 80% of the sediment exported out of Volcano Hill Wash and Arroyo Chavez, respectively. The geomorphic surface most affected by arroyo incision and one of the most important sediment sources is the valley alluvium, where channel erosion, gullying, soil piping, and grazing all occur. Erosion rates calculated for the entire Volcano Hill Wash (-0.26 mm/yr) and Arroyo Chavez (-0.53 mm/yr) basins are higher than the modeled upland erosion rates in each basin, reflecting the large contributions from channel erosion. Erosion rates in each basin are affected by a combination of land disturbance (grazing) and lithology-erodible sandstones and shales in Arroyo Chavez compared with basalt for Volcano Hill Wash. Despite these differences, hillslope sediment yields are similar to long-term denudation rates. As the arroyo fills over time from mouth to headwaters, hillslope sediment becomes a more significant sediment source.
... Numerous cut-and-fi ll cycles have been documented in alluvial valleys of the American Southwest during the late Quaternary (Bryan, 1941;Hack, 1942;Cooley, 1962;Haynes, 1968;Hall, 1977;Waters, 1985;Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1986;Love, 1986;Waters and Haynes, 2001;Hereford, 2002). Similar timing of incision over a broad geographic area supports an allogenic (climatic) control for arroyo cutting (Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1987;Karlstrom, 2005;Daniels, 2008). However, nonsynchroneity of cutting episodes for some basins in the Holocene indicates that factors other than climatic change may contribute to the timing of arroyo incision (Patton and Schumm, 1981;Patton and Boison, 1986;Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1987;Elliott et al., 1999;Force, 2004). ...
... The calculation simply illustrates that large amounts of sediment are eroded during incision. Support for large amounts of sediment eroded during arroyo incision in the modern and geologic record is highlighted in Karlstrom's (2005) examination of 11 arroyo cycles in late Pleistocene and late Quaternary alluvium for two drainages in Black Mesa, Arizona, where ~17% of the total valley alluvium was removed in the past 100 yr and a cumulative 77%-200% of the total valley alluvium was removed during these 11 arroyo cycles. Our results show that both channel and sheetwash erosion rates are high on the valley alluvium. ...
Arroyos in the American Southwest proceed through cut-and-fill cycles that operate at centennial to millennial time scales. The geomorphic community has put much effort into understanding the causes of arroyo cutting in the late Quaternary and in the modern record (late 1800s), while little effort has gone into understanding how arroyos fill and the sources of this fill. Here, we successfully develop a geographic information system (GIS)–modeled sediment budget that is based on detailed field measurements of hillslope and channel erosion and deposition. Field measurements were made in two arroyo basins draining different lithologies and undergoing different land disturbance (Volcano Hill Wash, 9.30 km2; Arroyo Chavez, 2.11 km2) over a 3 yr period.
Both basins have incised channels that formed in response to the late nineteenth-century incision of the Rio Puerco. Large volumes of sediment were generated during arroyo incision, equal to more than 100 yr of the current annual total sediment load (bed load + suspended load) in each basin. Downstream reaches in both arroyos are presently aggrading, and the main source of the sediment is from channel erosion in upstream reaches and first- and second-order tributaries. The sediment budget shows that channel erosion is the largest source of sediment in the current stage of the arroyo cycle: 98% and 80% of the sediment exported out of Volcano Hill Wash and Arroyo Chavez, respectively. The geomorphic surface most affected by arroyo incision and one of the most important sediment sources is the valley alluvium, where channel erosion, gullying, soil piping, and grazing all occur. Erosion rates calculated for the entire Volcano Hill Wash (–0.26 mm/yr) and Arroyo Chavez (–0.53 mm/yr) basins are higher than the modeled upland erosion rates in each basin, reflecting the large contributions from channel erosion. Erosion rates in each basin are affected by a combination of land disturbance (grazing) and lithology—erodible sandstones and shales in Arroyo Chavez compared with basalt for Volcano Hill Wash. Despite these differences, hillslope sediment yields are similar to long-term denudation rates. As the arroyo fills over time from mouth to headwaters, hillslope sediment becomes a more significant sediment source.
... The lithostratigraphic and soil stratigraphic similarity across these two localities and their overlapping radiocarbon dates indicate that each of these three stratigraphic units is roughly contemporaneous with the others. FDV 6 and 10 both probably began accumulating in the AD 1000s or AD 1100s (presumably after major downcutting immediately prior; Hereford, 2002;Karlstrom, 2005; Table 2). Sedimentation slowed with the overbank deposition of Unit II in the AD 1400s, which probably corresponded to shallow entrenchment downstream that eroded part of the Tla Kii ruin great kiva (Haury, 1985c). ...
The impact of Indigenous populations on historical fire regimes has been controversial and beset by mismatches in the geographic scale of paleofire reconstructions and the scale of land-use behaviors. It is often assumed that anthropogenic burning is linearly related to population density and not different cultural practices. Here we take an off-site geoarchaeology strategy to reconstruct variability in historical fire regimes (<1000 years ago) at geographic scales that match the archaeological, ethnohistorical, and oral tradition evidence for variability in the intensity of Indigenous land use by two different cultural groups (Ancestral Pueblo and Western Apache). We use multiple, independent proxies from three localities in ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) forests in east-Central Arizona to reconstruct fire regime variability during four phases of cultural use of different intensities. Elevated charcoal with domesticate pollen ( Zea spp.) but otherwise unchanged forest pollen assemblages characterized intensive land use by Ancestral Pueblo people during an early phase, suggesting fire use to support agricultural activities. By contrast, a phase of intensive pre-reservation Western Apache land use corresponded to little change in charcoal, but had elevated ash-derived phosphorus and elevated grass and ruderal pollen suggestive of enhanced burning in fine fuels to promote economically important wild plants.
... Qe2 and Qe3 deposits appear related to periods with greater effective moisture on the southern Colorado Plateau, as do other late Holocene aeolian deposits in the region [3,38], which are concurrent with valley alluviation and backfilling on Black Mesa [24,69,70]. Greater variability in summer precipitation, and in resulting discharge, leads to wider, less vegetated floodplains [9,71], increasing both sediment supply and availability for the aeolian system [9,21]. ...
The Moenkopi dune field in northeastern Arizona covers roughly 1250 km2, but most of the field is inactive. Dune deposits on the Moenkopi Plateau (MP) have remained inactive throughout the Holocene despite periods of elevated aridity or historical reductions of vegetation cover by livestock grazing. We argue that this inactivity is not because of any diminishment of driving forces in the aeolian system (e.g., insufficient winds), but rather because of increased cohesion due to soil development that enhances resistance to wind erosion. Abundant aeolian sediments were supplied to the Black Mesa region by the Little Colorado River and its tributaries during the late Pleistocene (MIS 2 and 3), which enabled the development of climbing dunes and transport of sand over the Adeii Eechii Cliffs and onto the MP. These deposits (Qe1) stabilized during the Pleistocene/Holocene climatic transition (~12–7.5 ka) because of reduced sediment supply and high dust flux which resulted in rapid soil formation. Erosion of climbing dunes/sand ramps from the Adeii Eechii Cliffs eliminated delivery of large quantities of new sand to the MP during the mid to late Holocene. Soil development within the Qe1 mantle increased sediment cohesion and prevented widespread aeolian reactivation during the Holocene, despite the occurrence of conditions (wind speed, climate, etc.) under which dune reactivation would be expected. Drylands comprise roughly 40% of the land cover of earth and climate models predict their expansion. Pedogenic stability is not commonly considered in climate-based models used to predict aeolian activity. To improve predictions of future dune activity in drylands, the degree of soil development in aeolian deposits should be considered when evaluating sediment availability in aeolian systems.
... Radiocarbon dating of organic carbon in extracts of SOM is an often applied technique for obtaining limiting ages on Quaternary deposits and soils in archaeological (e.g. Davis, 2001b;Davis and Schweger, 2004;Davis, 2005;Mandel, 1992Mandel, , 1995Mandel, , 2008Murgunova and Khokhlova, 2013;Forbes et al., 2004;Haas et al., 1986;Karlstrom, 2005;Kim et al., 2004;Mayer et al., 2008;Molnár et al., 2004;Smith and McFaul, 1997;Waters et al., 2009;Kim et al., 2013) and non-archaeological research (e.g. Cheng et al., 2013;Goble et al., 2004;Hatté et al., 2001b,a;Head et al., 1989;Martin and Johnson, 1995;Tonneijick et al., 2006;Wang et al., 1996;Zielhofer et al., 2009). ...
The search for and discovery of early archaeological sites is an inherently geoarchaeological problem. Archaeological sites of late Pleistocene-age are known to be located in the Intermountain West, however, the record of these early sites remains limited to only a few examples. In the lower Salmon River canyon (LSRC), the Cooper’s Ferry site has been shown to be of late Pleistocene age, however this early archaeological record remains limited to this site. In order to accelerate the process of discovery of these early sites in the LSRC, the present study mapped landforms, and investigated several natural exposures of sediments and soils in the Horseshoe Bend area of the Salmon River, Idaho. AMS radiocarbon ages were obtained on bulk soil organic matter from the truncated B horizons and A horizons of several buried soils. Soil morphology, radiocarbon ages, and sedimentary sequences suggest that a stable paleolandscape, signaled by soil formation across several landforms, was buried sometime after 12,700 yr BP in the study area, and has the potential of holding late Pleistocene to early Holocene-age archaeological sites.
... Bollig and Bubenzer, 2009;Woodward, 2010), the southwest USA (e.g. Huckleberry and Duff, 2008;Karlstrom, 2005), and the Peruvian-Chilean (Atacama) Desert (e.g. Goldstein and Magilligan, 2011;Magilligan et al., 2008;Manners et al., 2007;Unkel et al., 2007). ...
Arid geomorphological research continues apace with publications appearing in a diverse range of outlets. Themes common to several recent (2008-2009) books include greater emphasis on the global diversity of arid environments, the improved temporal framework for research findings, and the growing contribution of arid geomorphology to interdisciplinary research fields. Building on previous progress reports, this article touches on all three themes, but particularly highlights how applications of geochronology (e.g. cosmogenic isotope analysis, luminescence dating, and radiocarbon dating) are challenging or revolutionizing understanding of the timing and rates of arid geomorphological change. Four case studies from 'iconic' arid landscapes illustrate changes over different timescales: (1) canyons of the Colorado Plateau region, southwest USA (last ~5-6 Ma); (2) aeolian dunefields in central Australia (last ~1 Ma); (3) palaeolakes in the Kalahari, central southern Africa (last ~300 ka); and (4) alluvial and bedrock-controlled rivers in the southwest USA (last ~12 ka). Other developments across the suite of geochronological techniques are also contributing to improved understanding of arid landscape dynamics and the links with late Cenozoic environmental changes, biological (including hominin) evolution and cultural developments, but many outstanding issues remain. These include: (1) compiling large geochronological data sets to enable rigorous hypothesis testing; (2) establishing guiding conceptual frameworks to aid the selection and interpretation of geochronological data; (3) using multiple chronometers; (4) combining geochronology with other investigative techniques such as computational modelling; and (5) clarifying the causal links between events in different palaeorecords, even when temporal correlation can be established with a high degree of certainty. Despite recent rapid advances, today's understanding of the antiquity and tempo of landscape development in Earth's arid environments undoubtedly will be challenged and extended by further research, with particularly valuable perspectives likely to be provided by arid geomorphological research on other planetary bodies.
... Several studies have examined the timing and scope of landscape change in the alluvial record (e.g. Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1986;McFadden and McAuliffe, 1997;Karlstrom, 2005), but it was Hack (1941) who first noted the geomorphic significance of the widespread eolian deposits and developed a still widely used model that links dune form to sediment supply, wind speed, and vegetation cover. Through alluvial and eolian stratigraphic characterization, Hack (1942) estimated that relict dunes in the most arid, low-elevation areas were deposited during the mid Holocene, but lacking precise age control, the climatic significance of the dunes was not well established. ...
... Several studies have examined the timing and scope of landscape change in the alluvial record (e.g. Karlstrom and Karlstrom, 1986;McFadden and McAuliffe, 1997;Karlstrom, 2005), but it was Hack (1941) who first noted the geomorphic significance of the widespread eolian deposits and developed a still widely used model that links dune form to sediment supply, wind speed, and vegetation cover. Through alluvial and eolian stratigraphic characterization, Hack (1942) estimated that relict dunes in the most arid, low-elevation areas were deposited during the mid Holocene, but lacking precise age control, the climatic significance of the dunes was not well established. ...
Eolian deposition on the semiarid southern Colorado Plateau has been attributed to episodic aridity during the Quaternary Period. However, OSL ages from three topographically controlled (e.g. falling) dunes on Black Mesa in northeastern Arizona indicate that eolian sediments there were deposited in deep tributary valleys as early as 35–30 ka, with most sand deposited before 20 ka. In contrast, the oldest OSL ages for sand sheets fall within the Pleistocene-Holocene climatic transition (~ 12–8 ka). Thus most eolian sediment accumulated on Black Mesa under climatic conditions that were in general cooler, moister, and more variable than today, not more arid, pointing to a considerable increase in sediment supply.
Arroyos, entrenched ephemeral streams that form in desert environments, first appeared in the arid and semiarid American Southwest after 8000 14C yr B.P. For at least 7 k.y. prior to that time, climate, vegetation, and groundwater conditions were not conducive for arroyo formation along the floors of desert valleys. After a hiatus in arroyo formation, the frequency of arroyo cutting and filling increased dramatically after 4000 14C yr B.P. The early Holocene arroyos and increased frequency of arroyo incision after 4000 14C yr B.P. are related to the establishment and changes in postglacial vegetation, climate, and groundwater conditions. As a result, arroyo sequences preserve a record of large-scale climate change and small-scale climatic perturbations that occurred during the Holocene. Human modification of valley flood plains is an additional factor that contributed to mid-nineteenth and early twentieth century arroyo cutting.
An agent-based computational model of Long House Valley, in northern Arizona near Monument Valley, is described and demontrated. The model, that runs from about AD 400 to 1400, consists of artificial adaptive agents (households) who inhabit a digitized version of the Long House Valley landscape. A detailed paleoenvironmental record exists for Long House Valley, based on alluvial geomorphology, palynology, and dendroclimatology. This permits accurate quantitative reconstruction of annual fluctuations in the Valley's potential agricultural production. Agents are given rules of behavior for determining agricultural and residential locations, as well as for reproduction and mortality. Each run of the model generates a unique history of population, agricultural output, and settlement patterns. Results from a large number of runs are then compared to the extensive archaeological data on this area, data resulting from a 100% survey supplemented by limited excavations. To appear in Dynamics of Human and Primate Societies: Agent-Based Modeling of Social and Spatial Processes, edited by T. A. Kohler and G. J. Gumerman, SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations have an area of about 25,000 sq mi and are underlain by sedimentary rocks that range in age from Cambrian to Tertiary, but Permian and younger rocks are exposed in about 95% of the area. Reservations are divided into several hydrogeologic subdivisions on the basis of differences in the exposed sedimentary rocks, structure, and physiography. The occurrence of groundwater in each subdivision is controlled principally by the geology.
Convergent archaeological, geological palynological, dendrochronological, and radiometric data provide a palaeoenvironmental record for the American Southwest at a level of detail and time resolution not previously achieved. Many prehistoric cultural and demographic changes on the Colorado Plateaus coincided with environmental fluctuations defined by precisely dated geoclimatic and bioclimatic indicators. These coincidences support the interpretation that socioeconomic changes and population displacements were commonly triggered by environmental stress.-Authors
Clovis, the earliest clearly defined cultural complex in America, is characterized by robust fluted projectile points, biface reduction, and flake tools derived therefrom including knives, gravers, and end scrapers, in some cases spurred, and large blades commonly triangular in transverse section (Haynes 1982). Bone artifacts include cylindrical, beveledbase compound points, a mammoth bone shaft wrench, and rib segments with rounded and polished ends (Haynes 1982; Haynes and Hemmings 1968; Warnica 1966). On the basis of the Anzick site, caches of exceptionally large and well-made Clovis points along with large bifaces, cylindrical bone rod segments and points, and red ochre appear to be ceremonial grave offerings (Lahren and Bonnichsen 1974; Mehringer 1989; Stanford and Jodry 1988).
This book deals with the rapid erosion of deep stream gullies (arroyos) which have become a feature of many valleys of America's South-western states since the middle of the 19th century. The nature and causes of entrenchment have been a matter of interest and practical concern to research workers in the environmental sciences and some fields of terrain management for many years, but the abundant records of environmental change in California and Arizona relevant to the study of historical arroyos have never before been systematically collated and analysed. Those concerned with environmental change or with an interest in fragile, semi-arid environments.
Geologic-Climatic dating of archaeological finds in the arid and semiarid western United States is based on geology, on the relationship between moisture, vegetation, and geological processes, and on climatic history. The procedure of dating includes 4 main steps, namely, (1) study of beds and geological features, (2) climatic interpretation of beds and features, (3) assignment of the bed with the human record to a particular regional climatic age or phase, and (4) correlation of the regional relative chronology with a dated climatic history. The geological study of the site includes texture, structure, and appearance of the beds or terrace deposits, their modes and conditions of formation, their sequence, fossils, and artifacts, the soil zones, caliche incrustations, and erosions. The climatic interpretation of the beds and features is made in conformity with the delicate regional relationship between climatic conditions and changes and geological processes and deposits.
A chronosequence of 17 soils in late Quaternary alluvium on Black Mesa, northeast Arizona, permits quantification of rates of pedogenesis in a semi-arid region. Based on 24 tree-ring, radiocarbon, and archaeological dates, soil ages range from about 100 to 20,000 to 30,000+ years. Data indicate that ochric, cambic, argillic, natric, and calcic horizons form within about 100, 500, 1000, 3000, and 15,000 years, respectively, whereas mollic epipedons form within 1000 years. Bk horizons with Stage I, I+, II+, and III carbonate morphologies form within about 1000, 4000, 10,000, and 15,000 years, respectively. Thickness of Bt and Bk horizons, and Harden profile development and clay accumulation index values increase in a linear manner with increasing soil age. High resolution dating suggests rates of pedogenesis on Black Mesa are rapid relative to those documented elsewhere in the southwest United States and in the Rocky Mountains. Rates of soil formation recorded on Black Mesa, however, necessarily incorporate the combined effects of slight variations in elevation, climate, vegetation, topography, and parent materials throughout the region, as well as the influence of additions of atmospheric dust at the soil surface. [Key words: soil, pedogenesis, soil geomorphology, Quaternary, Arizona.]
Eleven well-drained soils formed in till parent materials of varying ages in northeastern Pennsylvania were studied to determine changes in the soils with time. Four profiles (three Lackawanna and one Bath) were formed in Woodfordian till (15,000 yr B.P.), and two (Leck Kill) were formed in Altonian till (>28,000, <75,000 yr B.P.). The remaining five (Allenwood) were formed in pre-Wisconsinan till (>75,000 yr B.P.). In these soils, the extractable iron oxide, extractable aluminum oxide, and kaolinite contents increase with age, as do the total clay and fine/total clay ratio. With increasing age, the maximum accumulation of these constituents is found deeper in the profile. The extractable silicon oxide distribution is constant with depth, but it decreases in overall amount with time. Gibbsite is found only in small amounts in the A horizon of Altonian soils, but occurs throughout the profile of pre-Wisconsinan soils, although only in small amounts. In general, differences were found in these soils which separated them into three groups representing varying degrees of soil development. A regression equation was derived to predict the age of soils formed from the Altonian till based on a “clay accumulation index” value for soils of known Woodfordian and Holocene ages. The equation log Y = 1.80 + 0.992(logX) best fit the data, with an r2 value of 0.913. Using this equation, a mean age of 41,000 yr was calculated for the Altonian soils. This date was used to derive a second equation to predict ages for pre-Wisconsinan soils. The equation with the highest r2 value (0.934) was log Y = 1.81 + 0.998(logX). Dates for soils developed in the White Deer till and the Laurelton till of the pre-Wisconsinan stage were calculated to be 86,000 and 91,000 yr B.P., respectively. These dates fall within ages estimated for the Sangamon Interglaciation and thus would appear to be too young for pre-Sangamonian materials. The probable reason for the “too-young age” is that the C-horizon material of the pre-Wisconsinan soils was weathered and did not provide an accurate estimate of clay accumulation for the prediction equation.
Many kinds of desert soils occur along the border of the Rio Grande Valley in southern New Mexico. These include series in the Torripsamments, Torriorthents, Camborthids, Haplargids, Paleargids, Calciorthids, and Paleorthids. Soil morphology and distribution are related to soil age, texture of parent materials, present and past climate, soil biota, geomorphic surface, and degree of landscape stability. Increase in soil development with age is shown by increasing carbonate accumulation, by increasing silicate clay accumulation in some soils, and by increasing thickness of solum.
Radiocarbon ages of buried charcoal show that some soils are of Holocene age while others are much older and started their development at various times in the Pleistocene. Morphology of the Holocene soils indicates present processes of pedogenesis in this desert region. Certain morphological similarities of Holocene soils to those of Pleistocene age also suggest the character of present processes of pedogenesis in soils that started their development in the Pleistocene. The illuviation of carbonate in nearly all soils and the illuviation of silicate clay in some soils are features of pedogenesis at the present time.
The argillic horizons have been turncated in many soils along the valley border and in others have been engulfed by carbonate or mixed by soil biota. Horizons of carbonate accumulation in these soils are commonly compact and some are indurated, thus are more resistant to erosion and disruption by soil biota. Development of the horizon of carbonate accumulation is therefore a more reliable indicator of approximate soil age than morphology of the B horizon.
Soils discussed in this report have formed in alluvial parent materials derived from noncalcareous rocks, and calcareous dust is virtually the sole source of pedogenic carbonate. Percentages of CaCO 3 equivalent for such soils, as determined in the laboratory and controlled by soil morphology, are measures of approximate amounts of dust‐derived illuvial carbonate.
Convergent archeological, geological, palynological, dendrochronological, and radiometric data provide a paleoenvironmental
record for the American Southwest at a level of detail and time resolution not previously achieved. Many prehistoric cultural
and demographic changes on the Colorado Plateaus coincided with environmental fluctuations defined by precisely dated geoclimatic
and bioclimatic indicators. These coincidences support the interpretation that socioeconomic changes and population displacements
were commonly triggered by environmental stress.
Evidence today suggests that by at least 8000 to 8500 B.P., Archaic hunter-gatherer economies were established throughout the North American Southwest. The Early Archaic seems to be a period of considerable variability across the subregions; this may be a product of currently slim knowledge of the period, or it may indicate that the region witnessed considerable flux. With the Middle Archaic period from 5500 to 3500 B.P. there seems to be greater similarity in material culture across the region and a definite increase in the number of known sites. Finally, the Late Archaic/Early Agricultural period from 3500 to 2000 or 1500 B.P. sees the establishment of a mixed farming-foraging economy in much of the Southwest with apparently major changes in subsistence-settlement systems. Preagricultural Archaic land use patterns are known in broad outline but not in detail; high mobility by small social groups in an annual round would have permitted exploitation of diverse biotic communities. In most parts of the region, significant socioeconomic change accompanies the incorporation of agriculture into the late preceramic period, as witnessed by the appearance of longer-term residential sites with pitstructures and storage features.
Black mats are prominent features of the late Pleistocene and Holocene stratigraphic record in the southern Great Basin. Faunal, geochemical, and sedimentological evidence shows that the black mats formed in several microenvironments related to spring discharge, ranging from wet meadows to shallow ponds. Small land snails such asGastrocopta tappanianaandVertigo berryiare the most common mollusk taxa present. Semiaquatic and aquatic taxa are less abundant and include Catinellids,Fossaria parva, Gyraulus parvus,and others living today in and around perennial seeps and ponds. The ostracodesCypridopsis okeechobiandScottia tumida,typical of seeps and low-discharge springs today, as well as other taxa typical of springs and wetlands, are common in the black mats. Several new species that lived in the saturated subsurface also are present, but lacustrine ostracodes are absent. The δ13C values of organic matter in the black mats range from −12 to −26‰, reflecting contributions of tissue from both C3(sedges, most shrubs and trees) and C4(saltbush, saltgrass) plants. Carbon-14 dates on the humate fraction of 55 black mats fall between 11,800 to 6300 and 230014C yr B.P. to modern. The total absence of mats in our sample between 6300 and 230014C yr B.P. likely reflects increased aridity associated with the mid-Holocene Altithermal. The oldest black mats date to 11,800–11,60014C yr B.P., and the peak in the14C black mat distribution falls at ∼10,00014C yr B.P. As the formation of black mats is spring related, their abundance reflects refilling of valley aquifers starting no later than 11,800 and peaking after 11,00014C yr B.P. Reactivation of spring-fed channels shortly before 11,20014C yr B.P. is also apparent in the stratigraphic records from the Las Vegas and Pahrump Valleys. This age distribution suggests that black mats and related spring-fed channels in part may have formed in response to Younger Dryas (YD)-age recharge in the region. However, the inception of black mat formation precedes that of the YD by at least 40014C yr, and hydrological change is gradual, not rapid.
The paleoenvironments of late Pleistocene and early Holocene time on the Southern High Plains have been studied for decades, but regionally extensive or long-term, easily recoverable proxy climate indicators are difficult to find. The stratigraphy of valley fill and upland eolian deposits and stable-carbon isotope data, in addition to geographically limited paleontological data, now provide clues to the environment during this time, which includes the earliest, or Paleoindian period (∼11,200–8000 14C yr B.P.) of human occupation. During the Clovis occupation (∼11,200–10,900 14C yr B.P.), valleys contained perennial streams. This was followed in Folsom time (10,900–10,200 14C yr B.P.) by an abrupt change to lakes and ponds (with water levels fluctuating between several meters depth and no surface water) and marshes and accumulation of sheet sands on uplands, starting the earliest phase of construction of the regional dune fields. These changing conditions indicate a shift from relatively wetter to relatively drier conditions with episodic drought. Stable-C isotopes further indicate that warming characterized the Clovis–Folsom transition. During the rest of the Paleoindian period the environment was relatively cool but fluctuated between wetter and drier conditions with an overall trend toward drying that resulted in further enlargement of the dune fields and culminated in the warm, dry Altithermal beginning ∼8000 14C yr B.P. Clovis time probably was the wettest of any Paleoindian period in terms of runoff and spring discharge. The Folsom period was drier and was the earliest episode of regional wind erosion and eolian deposition and may have been the warmest of Paleoindian times. Evidence of a previously hypothesized “Clovis drought” in this region is sparse.
A soil development index has been developed in order to quantitatively measure the degree of soil profile development. This index, which combines eight soil field properties with soil thickness, is designed from field descriptions of the Merced River chronosequence in central California. These eight properties are: clay films, texture plus wet consistence, rubification (color hue and chroma), structure, dry consistence, moist consistence, color value, and pH. Other properties described in the field can be added when more soils are studied. Most of the properties change systematically within the 3 m.y. age span of the Merced River chronosequence. The absence of properties on occasion does not significantly affect the index. Individual quantified field properties, as well as the integrated index, are examined and compared as functions of soil depth and age.
Of the writers known to have considered the problem, Hough alone has attempted to give a date for the whole area. He says that the process began with the active occupancy of the region by white men thirty years before the date of his address, or in 1875. However, the foregoing review of the existing evidence as to the date when trenching began in southwestern United States indicates that these changes were initiated at slightly different times in each stream and occupied a considerable period in their accomplishment. The change from aggradation and the building of flood plains to dissection and the formation of arroyos in many streams of southern Arizona can be confidently placed in the decade 1880 to 1890, although many tributary streams were not affected until the 90's and some are still undissected. The date in southern Utah, northern Arizona and southern Colorado is apparently earlier, and cutting probably began at some time after 1860. The evidence as to the Rio Puerco in north-central New Mexico is conflicting and needs review. The statements of the early explorers indicate that the arroyos were already well formed at the time of the American conquest in 1846 and 47.
Tertiary history of the Grand Canyon District
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Geochronology of late Quaternary alluvium
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The Fourth World of the Hopis: The epic story of the Hopi Indians as preserved in their legends and traditions
- H Courlander
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Geology of the Navajo Country USGS Professional Paper 93
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Late Pleistocene and Holocene pedogenic and environmental trends in archaeolog-ical sites in plains and mountain areas of Colorado and Wyoming The fluvial system Diatremes and uranium deposits in the Hopi Buttes, Arizona
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Review of Holocene hillslope piedmont and arroyo system evolution in Southwestern United States: Implications to climate-induced landscape modifications in southern California
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The Puebloan florescence and dispersion: Dinnebito and beyond, A.D
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Means of correlation of Quaternary successions
- Haynes, C.V., Jr
Dynamics in human and primate societies: Agent-based modeling of social and spatial processes
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From Klstenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic-Paleo-Indian adaptations
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Statigraphic and pedologic evidence for a relatively moist early Holocene on Black Mesa, northeastern Arizona
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The Anasazi in a changing environment
- T.N.V. Karlstrom