Diversity of saprobic fungi on Magnoliaceae

Abstract

The diversity of fungi found on woody litter of three genera of plants in the family Magnoliaceae is reported and the communities are compared. Saprobic fungi were investigated from 150 samples of decaying woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii. Two-hundred and thirty-nine fungi were identified comprising 92 ascomycetes, 4 basidiomycetes and 143 anamorphic fungi. Corynespora cassiicola (60% frequency of occurrence) was the most common taxon found on Magnolia liliifera samples. Ellisembia opaca and Phaeoisaria clematidis with 27.5% frequency of occurrence were the dominant species from Manglietia garrettii, while Annellophora phoenicis and Ellisembia adscendens (18%) were the most commonly encountered species from Michelia baillonii. Distinct fungal communities were found on samples of the three tree species. In terms of the numbers of taxa recovered, fungi were more diverse on Michelia baillonii than on the other two genera, although the common genera of fungi obtained from woody litter of each host were similar. Seasonal effect on the fungal communities was investigated. Dry season samples supported a significantly more diverse fungal community than samples from the wet season. Relatively few species of woody fungi recorded in this study had been previously recorded from wood samples by other researchers.

Full text

Fungal Diversity
37
Diversity of saprobic fungi on Magnoliaceae
Kodsueb, R.1*, McKenzie, E.H.C.2, Lumyong, S.3 and Hyde, K.D.4,5
1Biology Programme, Faculty of Science and Technology, Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University, Phitsanulok 65000,
Thailand
2Landcare Research, Private Bag 92170, Auckland, New Zealand
3Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiangmai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
4School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Tasud, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
5International Fungal Research & Development Centre, The Research Institute of Resource Insects, Chinese Academy
of Forestry, Balongsi, Kunming 650224, PR China
Kodsueb, R., McKenzie, E.H.C., Lumyong, S. and Hyde, K.D. (2008). Diversity of saprobic fungi on Magnoliaceae.
Fungal Diversity 30: 37-53.
The diversity of fungi found on woody litter of three genera of plants in the family Magnoliaceae is reported and the
communities are compared. Saprobic fungi were investigated from 150 samples of decaying woody litter of Magnolia
liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii. Two-hundred and thirty-nine fungi were identified comprising 92
ascomycetes, 4 basidiomycetes and 143 anamorphic fungi. Corynespora cassiicola (60% frequency of occurrence) was
the most common taxon found on Magnolia liliifera samples. Ellisembia opaca and Phaeoisaria clematidis with 27.5%
frequency of occurrence were the dominant species from Manglietia garrettii, while Annellophora phoenicis and
Ellisembia adscendens (18%) were the most commonly encountered species from Michelia baillonii. Distinct fungal
communities were found on samples of the three tree species. In terms of the numbers of taxa recovered, fungi were
more diverse on Michelia baillonii than on the other two genera, although the common genera of fungi obtained from
woody litter of each host were similar. Seasonal effect on the fungal communities was investigated. Dry season samples
supported a significantly more diverse fungal community than samples from the wet season. Relatively few species of
woody fungi recorded in this study had been previously recorded from wood samples by other researchers.
Key words: lignicolous fungi, Magnolia, Manglietia, Michelia, Magnoliaceae, saprobe
Article Information
Received 4 July 2007
Accepted 24 October 2007
Published online 31 May 2008
*Corresponding authors: Rampai Kodsueb; e-mail: kodsueb@yahoo.com
K.D. Hyde; e-mail: kdhyde1@gmail.com
Introduction
Studies on fungal diversity have increa-
sed over the past decade partly due to the fact
that fungi have great potential in industrial and
biotechnological applications (Hawksworth,
1991; Lodge, 1997; Pointing and Hyde, 2001;
Bills et al., 2002; Sánchez Márquez et al.,
2007). However, many fungi in tropical forests
are yet to be discovered (Hyde, 1997; Rodri-
gues and Petrini, 1997; Rossman, 1997;
Lovelock et al., 2003; Hyde et al., 2007; Hyde
and Soytong, 2007). Most of the earlier studies
were in temperate regions, however knowledge
and interest in microfungi in tropical regions
have grown. There have been several reports of
microfungi on plants in the tropics (Photita et
al., 2002; 2003a, b; Hyde et al., 2002a, b;
Bussaban et al., 2003; 2004; Thongkantha et
al., 2003; Promputtha et al., 2003; 2004a, b, c;
2005). Numerous novel fungi have been
discovered in these studies (e.g. Photita et al.,
2002; 2003a; Bussaban et al., 2003; Promput-
tha et al., 2003; 2004a, b; 2005; Kodsueb et al.,
2006; 2007a, b; Pinnoi et al., 2003a, b; 2004;
2006; 2007; Pinruan et al., 2004a, b, c, 2008).
Previous investigations on parasitic and
saprobic fungi have discussed host-specificity
or host-recurrence (Hooper et al., 2000; Zhou
and Hyde, 2001; Santana et al., 2005). There

38
are many examples of fungal taxa being
recorded as common on a single plant host,
family or order (e.g. Francis, 1975; Hawks-
worth and Boise, 1985; Gonzales and Rogers,
1989; Læssøe and Lodge, 1994; Tokumasu et
al., 1994; Fröhlich and Hyde, 1995; Ju and
Rogers, 1996; Polishook et al., 1996; Huhndorf
and Lodge, 1997; Lodge, 1997; Bucheli et al.
2000, 2001; Burnett, 2003). However, saprobic
fungi are thought to be less host-specific when
compared to pathogens and endophytes (Zhou
and Hyde, 2001).
Several new and interesting saprobic
fungi have been described from leaf litter of
Magnolia liliifera by Promputtha et al. (2003,
2004b, c; 2005), while Cheiromyces magnoliae
was described from M. liliifera wood (Prom-
puttha et al., 2004a). Consequently, it is likely
that woody litter of this plant and also other
plants in tropical forests should contain many
interesting fungi that await discovery. Plant
litter of each host comprises different chemical
contents which may influence the fungi on a
particular host (Hyde et al., 2007). This assum-
ption has been supported by several recent
studies, particularly on leaf litter (Tang et al.,
2005; Paulus et al., 2006).
There are no previous reports on saprobic
fungi on woody litter of Magnoliaceae and
therefore a study was initiated to investigate
biodiversity of saprobic fungi. We recorded the
fungi on decaying wood from three hosts
(Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and
Michelia baillonii) to establish 1) whether the
fungi on each host differed, 2) whether dry and
wet seasons affected the fungal communities
and 3) whether fungi on woody litter are host-
specific or host-recurrent.
Materials and Methods
Study sites
This study was undertaken in an ever-
green forest nearby the Medicinal Plant Garden
in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai
Province, northern Thailand. The 26,106 hect-
are national park is covered by tropical rain
forest and is home to a wealth of biodiversity.
The wet season is from May to October, while
the dry season is between November and April.
August and September are the wettest months
with daily rainfall. The monthly rainfall varies
between 200 and 400 mm during rainy season,
but averages only 30 mm per month in the dry
season. The mean air temperature is 20-23°C
(Dobias, 1982), but temperatures can drop to
6°C in February. The average minimum
temperature is 12°C (January) and average
maximum temperature is 25°C (April). The
average relative humidity ranges from 58% in
March to 89% in September (source: Procee-
dings of the CTFS-AA International Field
Biology Course 2005).
Sample collection and examination
Woody litter of three magnoliaceous
species (Magnolia liliifera (L.) Baill., Mang-
lietia garrettii Craib and Michelia baillonii
(Pierre) Fin. & Gagnep.) was selected. During
each collection trip about 30 dead wood
samples of each tree species were randomly
collected and returned to the laboratory where
they were each separately incubated in plastic
bags. The fungi present on the samples were
examined after one week of incubation and
periodically examined for up to 1 month. The
fungi were identified, recorded, photographed
and fully described if new. Herbarium material
is maintained at CMU. Fungi were identified,
based on morphological characters, using
relevant texts and references (e.g. Ellis, 1971;
1976; Carmichael et al., 1980; Sutton, 1980;
Sivanesan, 1984; Fröhlich and Hyde, 2000;
Hyde et al., 2000; Lu and Hyde, 2000;
Grgurinovic, 2003; Taylor and Hyde, 2003;
Tsui and Hyde, 2003; Wang et al., 2004; Wu
and Zhuang, 2005; Cai et al., 2006; Zhao et al.,
2007) based on morphological character.
Statistical analyses
A 3-dimensional correspondence analysis
(JMP) was performed to examine the differ-
ences in fungal communities at different times
of decay (Anonymous, 1995). The results of
this study are presented in terms of percentage
occurrence of fungi. Fungal taxa with a percen-
tage occurrence higher than 10 are regarded as
dominant species. These fungal taxa were used
to plot changes in the dominant species
throughout the experimental period. Shannon
indices (H') were used to express species
diversity of a community (Shannon and
Weaver, 1949), while species accumulation
curves were used to determine the adequacy of

Fungal Diversity
39
the sampling size. The relative similarities of
microfungal assemblages from woody litter at
different host and season were identified by
cluster analysis. A cluster dendrogram was
produced from PC-ORD version 4.0 (McCune
and Mefford, 1999). Calculations were based
on Sørensen distance and group average as the
cluster distance measure and linkage method,
respectively.
Percentage
Occurrence
Shannon index (H') = - Σ Pi log2 Pi
Where Pi is the probability of finding each
taxon in a collection.
Sorensen’s similarity index = 2c/a + b
Where a = the number of species in host sp. 1
b = the number of species in host sp. 2
c = the number of species in common in
both hosts.
Results
Fungal taxonomic composition
A total of 150 magnoliaceous wood
samples (60 from Magnolia liliifera, 40 from
Manglietia garrettii and 50 from Michelia
baillonii) were examined for fungi. Of the 852
fungal collections, 239 taxa (Table 1) were
identified including 92 ascomycetes (represent-
ting 38% of all taxa), 143 anamorphic taxa
(60%) and 4 basidiomycetes (2%). Species
numbers and composition were unique for each
host species. The list of taxa from each collec-
tion and their frequency of occurrence are
given in Table 1. Species richness, species
evenness, number of fungi per sample,
Shannon–Weiner diversity index (H) and
Simpson diversity index (D) of each collection
were calculated (Table 3). Number of
overlapping taxa between the three hosts is
shown in Table 2. Genera represented by at
least two different species were Acrodictys,
Berkleasmium, Canalisporium, Dactylaria,
Dictyochaeta, Diaporthe, Diatrypella, Ellisem-
bia, Eutypella, Helicomyces, Helicosporium,
Hypoxylon, Massarina, Phomopsis and Tubeu-
fia. Species overlapping between different
seasons and hosts include Dactylaria hyalina,
Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Phaeoisaria clema-
tidis and Sporoschisma saccardoi (Table 1).
Dominant fungi on the woody litter, with
over 10% percentage occurrences are listed in
Table 1 (indicated by number of occurrence in
bold). Only one dominant species, Phaeoisaria
clematidis, overlapped between the three hosts.
The number of overlapping species over the
two seasons on each host was low (see Table
2).
Fungal communities on different hosts and
seasons
Three-dimensional correspondence ana-
lysis (Fig. 1) of fungi obtained from three
magnoliaceous genera showed that there were
at least three distinct fungal communities,
corresponding to each of the three hosts. For
each host the wet and dry season communities
overlapped. The first community represented
fungal community on Magnolia liliifera (MLD
and MLW), while the second and third commu-
nity represented fungal community on Michelia
baillonii (MBD and MBW) and Manglietia
garrettii (MGD and MGW), respectively. The
cluster analysis produced one dendogram,
which divided the fungal communities into
three groups (Fig. 2).
Abundance of fungi on different magnolia-
ceous hosts during wet and dry seasons
In terms of the numbers of taxa recovered
from the different hosts, fungi were slightly
more diverse in Michelia baillonii (93 taxa)
than in Magnolia liliifera (82 taxa) and
Manglietia garrettii (83 taxa). Samples collec-
ted in dry seasons supported greater diversity
of fungi than wet season samples and this is
also indicated by the greater Shannon diversity
index (Table 3).
Abundance of fungi on woody litter of
Magnolia liliifera
In total, 82 fungi were found from Mag-
nolia liliifera wood, comprising 37 ascomy-
cetes, 2 basidiomycetes and 43 anamorphic
fungi. Fifty-eight taxa (28 ascomycetes, 1
basidiomycete, 29 anamorphic fungi) were
recorded from dry season samples, while 41
taxa (14 ascomycetes, 1 basidiomycete, 26
= × 100
Number of wood samples on which each fungus was detected
Total number of wood samples examined

40
Table 1. Overall percentage occurrence of fungi found on woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii collected
during dry and wet seasons.
Host
Magnolia liliifera Manglietia garrettii Michelia baillonii
Taxa
Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall
Acanthostigma minutum 3.3 1.7
Acrodictys deightonii 3.3 1.7 5 2.5
Acrodictys denisii 4 2
Acrodictys globulosa 13.3 6.7 8 4
Acrodictys micheliae 12 4 8
Acrodictys sp. 3.3 1.7
Amphisphaeria sp. 10 5
Annellophora phoenicis 24 12 18
Annulatascus velatisporus 4 2
Anthostomella cf. limitata 3.3 1.7
Anthostomella ludoviciana 26.7 6.7 16.7
Aquaphila albicans 3.3 1.7
Aquaticola ellipsoidea 3.3 1.7
Aquaticola hyalomura 3.3 1.7
Arthrobotrys sp. 4 2
Ascotaiwania wulai 6.7 3.3
Bactrodesmium longispora 5 2.5
Bactrodesmium sp. 4 16 10
Basidiomycete sp. 6.7 3.3
Beltrania rhombica 5 2.5
Beltrania/Beltraniella sp. 5 15 10
Berkleasmium corticola 5 15 10
Berkleasmium inflatum 40 20
Berkleasmium nigroapicale 10 5 7.5
Bisporella sp. 3.3 1.7
Bitunicate ascomycete sp. 1 13.3 6.7
Bitunicate ascomycete sp. 2 3.3 1.7
Bitunicate ascomycete sp. 3 6.7 3.3
Bitunicate ascomycete sp. 4 10 5 7.5
Bitunicate ascomycete sp. 5 15 7.5
Bitunicate ascomycete sp. 6 12 12 12
Bitunicate ascomycete sp. 7 12 6
Botryosphaeria australis 5 2.5
Note: bold indicates overall percentage occurrence of more than 10%.

Fungal Diversity
41
Table 1 (continued). Overall percentage occurrence of fungi found on woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii
collected during dry and wet seasons.
Host
Magnolia liliifera Manglietia garrettii Michelia baillonii
Taxa
Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall
Botryosphaeria sp. 5 2.5
Brachydesmiella caudata 10 16.7 13.3
Caloplaca cerina 8 4
Canalisporium caribense 10 23.3 16.7
Canalisporium cf. caribense 10 15 12.5
Canalisporium exiguum 12 16 14
Canalisporium pallidum 3.3 1.7
Candelabrum brocchiatum 6.7 3.3
Catenosynnema micheliae 8 8 8
Cercophora sp. 3.3 1.7
Chaetosphaeria sp. 1 13.3 6.7
Chaetosphaeria sp. 2 8 4
Chaetosphaerulina sp. 4 2
Chalara sp. 20 10
Chloridium chlamydosporum 28 14
Chloridium virescens 10 5
Coelomycete sp. 1 3.3 1.7
Coelomycete sp. 2 10 5
Coelomycete sp. 3 3.3 1.7
Coelomycete sp. 4 5 5 5
Coelomycete sp. 5 5 5 5
Coelomycete sp. 6 5 2.5
Coelomycete sp. 7 5 2.5
Coelomycete sp. 8 8 4
Coelomycete sp. 9 4 2
Coelomycete sp. 10 12 6
Coprinus sp. 6.7 3.3
Cordana sp. 12 12 12
Corynespora cassiicola 96.7 23.3 60 8 4 6
Curvularia sp. 5 2.5
Dactylaria biseptatum 10 5
Dactylaria cf. hyalina 12 6
Dactylaria hyalina 6.7 3.3 15
7.5 12 8 10
Note: bold indicates overall percentage occurrence of more than 10%.

42
Table 1 (continued). Overall percentage occurrence of fungi found on woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii
collected during dry and wet seasons.
Host
Magnolia liliifera Manglietia garrettii Michelia baillonii
Taxa
Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall
Dactylaria sp. 1 3.3 1.7
Dactylaria sp. 2 12 4 8
Dactylaria sp. 3 8 12 10
Dactylella cf. cylindrospora 8 4 6
Delortia aquatica 4 2
Dendryphion cubense 10 5
Diaporthe sp. 1 3.3 1.7
Diaporthe sp. 2 33.3 16.7
Diaporthe sp. 3 3.3 1.7
Diaporthe sp. 4 20 10
Diatrype disciformis 5 2.5
Diatrypella borassi 12 12 12
Diatrypella sp. 1 10 5
Diatrypella sp. 2 5 2.5
Diatrypella sp. 3 4 2
Dictyochaeta simplex 15 7.5
Dictyosporium manglietiae 30 10 20
Didymosphaeria futilis 3.3 1.7
Didymosphaeria sp. 1 10 5
Didymosphaeria sp. 2 12 6
Diplococcium spicatum 4 20 12
Diplodia sp. 10 5
Dischloridium sp. 5 2.5
Discomycete sp. 1 15 7.5
Discomycete sp. 2 5 2.5
Discomycete sp. 3 8 12 10
Discomycete sp. 4 16 8
Dokmaia monthadangii 3.3 1.7
Dothidotthia sp. 3.3 1.7
Edmundmasonia pulchra
35 17.5
16 8
Ellisembia adscendens 3.3 16.7 10 24 12 18
Ellisembia brachyphus 3.3 20 11.7
5 2.5
Ellisembia cf. brachyphus 5 15 10
Note: bold indicates overall percentage occurrence of more than 10%.

Fungal Diversity
43
Table 1 (continued). Overall percentage occurrence of fungi found on woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii
collected during dry and wet seasons.
Host
Magnolia liliifera Manglietia garrettii Michelia baillonii
Taxa
Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall
Ellisembia cf. magnibrachypus 12 6
Ellisembia magnibrachypus 12 6
Ellisembia opaca 55 27.5
Ellisembia sp. 1 13.3 6.7
Ellisembia sp. 2 30 15
Ellisembia sp. 3 5 2.5
Ellisembia sp. 4 8 8 8
Endophragmia sp. 1 8 12 10
Endophragmia sp. 2 4 2
Endophragmiella sp. 4 2
Eutypa sp. 15 7.5
Eutypella sp. 1 15 7.5
Eutypella sp. 2 4 2
Fenestella sp. 4 2
Gliomastix masseei 5 2.5
Gonytrichum macrocladum 20 10
Gonytrichum sp. 13.3 6.7
Graphina acharii 20 10
Graphis asterizans 15 7.5
Halotthia posidoniae 3.3 1.7
Harpographium sp. 6.7 3.3
Helicoma ambiens 12 4 8
Helicoma dennisii 4 8 6
Helicoma viridis 3.3 6.7 5
Helicomyces bellus 6.7 3.3
Helicomyces roseus 12 4 8
Helicosporium griseum 20 10
16 16 16
Helicosporium pallidum 16.7 8.3
Helicosporium vegetum 3.3 1.7 12 6
Helicosporium velutinum 6.7 3.3
Helicosporium virescens 8 4
Heteroconium sp. 4 2
Hyalosynnema micheliae 12 6
Note: bold indicates overall percentage occurrence of more than 10%.

44
Table 1 (continued). Overall percentage occurrence of fungi found on woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii
collected during dry and wet seasons.
Host
Magnolia liliifera Manglietia garrettii Michelia baillonii
Taxa
Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall
Hyphomycete sp. 1 5 15 10
Hyphomycete sp. 2 5 2.5
Hyphomycete sp. 3 10 5
Hyphomycete sp. 4 5 2.5
Hyphomycete sp. 5 4 2
Hyphomycete sp. 6 4 2
Hyponectriaceae 4 2
Hypoxylon cohaerens cf. section annulatum 8 4
Hypoxylon multiforme 8 4
Hypoxylon sp. 1 15 7.5
Hypoxylon sp. 2 8 4
Hysterium sp. 1 5 5 5
Hysterium sp. 2 4 4 4
Idriella mycoyonoidea 10 5
Keissleria montaniensis 3.3 1.7
Keissleria xantha 8 12 10
Keissleriella fusispora 13.3 6.7
Kirschsteiniothelia thujina 3.3 1.7
Kostermansinda minima 15 7.5
Lachnum sp. 10 5
Lachnum virgineum 13.3 6.7
Lasiodiplodia cf. theobromae 10 3.3 6.7 5 2.5 12 6
Leptosphaeria sp. 5 2.5
Linkosia sp. 4 4 4
Massarina cf. walkerii 3.3 3.3 3.3
Massarina sp. 1 26.7 13.3
Massarina sp. 2 10 5
Melanochaeta hemipsila 6.7 3.3 5 2.5
Melanographium palmicolum 5 2.5
Menisporella assamica
20 4 12
Microporus xanthopus 8 4
Monochaetia sp. 10 5
Monodictys sp. 1 10 5
Monodictys sp. 2 4 12 8
Note: bold indicates overall percentage occurrence of more than 10%.

Fungal Diversity
45
Table 1 (continued). Overall percentage occurrence of fungi found on woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii
collected during dry and wet seasons.
Host
Magnolia liliifera Manglietia garrettii Michelia baillonii
Taxa
Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall
Monodictys sp. 3 12 6
Monodisma fragilis 5 2.5
Mycena sp. 16 8
Mycomicrothelia sp. 4 2
Mycosphaerella sp. 8 4
Nectria coccinea 3.3 16.7 10
Nectria sp. 12 8 10
Oedemium micheliae 8 4
Ophioceras sp. 5 2.5
Ophiochaeta lignicola 3.3 1.7
Penicillium sp. 1 10 5
Penicillium sp. 2 3.3 1.7 5 15 10
Penicillium sp. 3
12 12 12
Penicillium sp. 4 4 2
Periconia byssoides 5 2.5
Periconia sp. 1 5 2.5
Periconia sp. 2 8 4
Phaeoisaria clematidis 10 30 20 40 15 27.5 24 12
Phaeoisaria sp. 10 5
Phaeosphaeria cf. canadensis 10 6.7 8.3
Phaeosphaeria sp. 1 10 5
Phaeosphaeria sp. 2 12 6
Phaeosphaeria sp. 3 8 4
Phaeostalagmus cyclosporus 8 8 8
Phoma sp. 20 10
Phomopsis sp. 1 23.3 11.7
Phomopsis sp. 2 5 2.5
Phomopsis sp. 3 5 2.5
Pithomyces chatarum 5 2.5
Pleurophragmium acutum 3.3 10 6.7
Pleurophragmium sp. 8 4 6
Pseudospiropes loturus 4 4 4
Pseudospiropes sp. 8 4
Pseudospiropes subuliferus 10 5
Note: bold indicates overall percentage occurrence of more than 10%.

46
Table 1 (continued). Overall percentage occurrence of fungi found on woody litter of Magnolia liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii
collected during dry and wet seasons.
Host
Magnolia liliifera Manglietia garrettii Michelia baillonii
Taxa
Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall Dry Wet Overall
Pyrenochaeta sp. 5 2.5
Quintaria sp. 5 2.5
Rhinocladiella cf. intermedia 3.3 1.7
Saccardoella sp. 1 6.7 3.3
Saccardoella sp. 2 10 5
Solosympodiella cylindrospora 5 2.5
Sporidesmiella hyalosperma 6.7 3.3
Sporidesmiella intermedia 5 2.5
Sporidesmium sp. 1 20 6.7 13.3
Sporidesmium sp. 2 3.3 1.7
Sporidesmium sp. 3 5 2.5
Sporidesmium sp. 4 5 2.5
Sporidesmium sp. 5 4 2
Sporoschisma saccardoi 3.3 1.7 5 5 5 12 6
Stachybotrys chlorohalonata 3.3 1.7
Stilbella aciculosa 6.7 3.3
Stilbohypoxylon moelleri 12 6
Stilbohypoxylon quisquiliarum 3.3 1.7
Taeniolella stilbospora 8 4
Tetraploa biformis 10 5
Togninia sp. 4 2
Torula herbarum 5 2.5
Torula sp. 5 2.5
Trichoderma sp. 12 6
Tubeufia cerea 8 4
Tubeufia cylindrothecia 3.3 6.7 5
Tubeufia paludosa 6.7 3.3 4 4 4
Tubeufiaceous fungi 4 4 4
Unitunicate ascomycete sp. 1 3.3 1.7
Unitunicate ascomycete sp. 2 3.3 1.7
Unitunicate ascomycete sp. 3
30 15
Unitunicate ascomycete sp. 4 5 5 5
Unitunicate ascomycete sp. 5 5 5 5
Unitunicate ascomycete sp. 6 16 4 10
Note: bold indicates overall percentage occurrence of more than 10%.

Fungal Diversity
47
anamorphic fungi) were identified from wet
season samples. Five ascomycetes and 12
anamorphic taxa overlapped between the two
seasons (Table 1). The most common taxon
was Corynespora cassiicola, with 60%
frequency of occurrence. Other dominant
species were Anthostomella ludoviciana
(16.7%), Canalisporium caribense (16.7%),
Diaporthe sp. 2 (16.7%), Brachydesmiella
caudata (13.3%), Massarina sp. (13.3%),
Sporidesmium sp. 1 (13.3%), Ellisembia
brachyphus (11.7%), Phaeoisaria clematidis
(20%) and Phomopsis sp. (11.7%) (Table 1).
Table 2. Overlapping taxa on woody litter of
three hosts (the number in brackets represents
the similarity index).
Manglietia
garrettii
Michelia
baillonii
Magnolia liliifera 8 (0.1) 8 (0.09)
Manglietia garrettii - 6 (0.07)
*overlapping between all host = 4 species
Table 3. Diversity indices of saprobic fungi recovered from wood of three magnoliaceous hosts
during dry and wet seasons.
Sampling Fungi per sample Species
richness
Species
evenness
Shannon-Wiener
indices
Simpson
indices
MLD 1.9 58 0.873 3.546 0.9477
MLW 1.4 41 0.941 3.496 0.9637
MGD 2.9 60 0.921 3.773 0.9688
MGW 2 40 0.964 3.556 0.9679
MBD 2.9 72 0.969 4.145 0.9822
MBW 2.2 56 0.962 3.872 0.9764
Average 2.2 54.5 0.939 3.731 0.9678
*Notes: ML = Mangnolia liliifera, MG = Manglietia garrettii, MB = Michelia baillonii, D = Dry season and W = Wet
season.
Fig. 1. Three-dimensional correspondence analysis of
fungal taxa occurring on woody litter of Magnolia
liliifera, Manglietia garrettii and Michelia baillonii
during the wet and dry seasons (ML = Magnolia liliifera,
MG = Manglietia garrettii, MB = Michelia baillonii, W
= wet season samples, D = dry season samples).
Abundance of fungi on woody litter of Mang-
lietia garrettii
Eighty-three taxa were identified from
Manglietia garrettii wood comprising 27 asco-
mycetes and 56 anamorphic fungi. Sixty-four
taxa (20 ascomycetes, 44 anamorphic fungi)
were recorded from dry season samples, while
40 taxa (16 ascomycetes, 26 anamorphic fungi)
were obtained from wet season samples. Four
ascomycetes and 12 anamorphic fungi over-
lapped between the two seasons (Table 1). One
anamorphic fungus, Dictyosporium manglie-
tiae, has been described as new to science
(Kodsueb et al., 2006). The most common taxa
were Ellisembia opaca and Phaeoisaria clema-
tidis with 27.5% frequency of occurrence.
Other common species were Berkleasmium
inflatum (20%), Dictyosporium manglietiae
(20%), Edmundmasonia pulchra (17.5%),
Ellisembia sp. 1 (15%), Unitunicate Ascomy-
cete sp. 2 (15%), Canalisporium sp. (12.5%)
and Verticillium sp. (12.5%) (Table 1).

48
Fig. 2. Cluster analysis of saprobic fungi on Magnoliaceae woody litter based on Sørensen distance and the group
average method (ML= Magnolia liliifera, MG= Manglietia garrettii, MB= Michelia baillonii, D= Dry season samples
and W= Wet season samples).
Abundance of fungi on woody litter of
Michelia baillonii
Ninety-three taxa were identified on
Michelia baillonii wood comprising 30 asco-
mycetes, 2 basidiomycetes and 61 anamorphic
fungi. Fifty-five taxa (14 ascomycetes, 2
basidiomycetes and 39 anamorphic fungi) were
recorded from wet season samples, while 72
taxa (25 ascomycetes and 47 anamorphic
fungi) were obtained from dry season samples.
Nine ascomycetes and 26 anamorphic fungi
overlapped between the two seasons (Table 1).
Two anamorphic fungi were new to science,
one of which could not be accommodated in
any existing genera. Therefore, the new genus
Catenosynnema was erected (Kodsueb et al.,
2007b) with inclusion of a new species of
Oedemium, O. micheliae. The most common
taxa were Annellophora phoenicis and
Ellisembia adscendens, with 18% frequency of
occurrence. Other common species were
Helicosporium griseum (16%), Canalisporium
exiguum, Chloridium chlamydosporum (14%)
and bitunicate Ascomycete sp. 1, Cordana sp.,
Dictyochaeta sp., Diplococcium sp., Eutypella
sp., Penicillium sp. 1, Phaeoisaria clematidis,
(12%) (Table 1).
Similarity of fungi on different hosts and
season
Cluster analysis (Fig. 2) indicates that the
fungal communities on woody litter of Miche-
lia baillonii collected during the dry and wet
seasons were more similar to each other than to
those on the other two hosts. The fungal
community on woody litter of Magnolia
liliifera appeared to be a sister group to the one
from Mi. baillonii. The fungal community on
both the wet and dry season samples of
Manglietia garrettii clustered together, distant
from the other two hosts. Similarity index of
fungi between the three magnoliaceous woods
collected in dry and wet seasons are shown in
Table 2. Eight overlapping taxa (SI = 0.1) were
obtained from Magnolia liliifera and Manglie-
tia garrettii. Eight and 6 taxa overlapped
between M. liliifera and Michelia baillonii and
Man. garrettii and Mi. baillonii (similarity
index of 0.09 and 0.07), respectively.
Discussion
Fungal diversity and colonization
This is one of only a few studies of fungi
occurring on decaying terrestrial wood in the
tropics and it is the first study to address fungal
diversity on magnoliaceous wood in Thailand.
Investigation of fungi on terrestrial wood in
Thailand began in 1902 (Schumacher, 1982).
Additional studies on fungi on wood have been
reported (Sihanonth et al., 1998; Chatanon,
2001; Inderbitzin et al., 2001; Inderbitzin and
Berbee, 2001). However, knowledge of terres-
trial lignicolous fungi is still poorly understood
and requires further study. Studies by
Thienhirun (1997) and Chatanon (2001) who
investigated the ascomycetes on decaying
wood in Thailand, are the most intensive
studies on non specific terrestrial wood.
In this study we investigated the fungal
diversity on terrestrial magnoliaceous wood
and identified 239 taxa from 150 wood
samples. Fungal diversity is high when
compared to other studies on wood worldwide
Dist ance (Object ive Funct ion)
Information Remaining (%)
1.8E-01
100
5.3E-01
75
8.8E-01
50
1.2E+00
25
1.6E+00
0
MLD
MLW
MBD
MBW
MGD
MGW

Fungal Diversity
49
Table 4. Comparison of studies of fungi on wood of different host species and in different habitats
and regions.
References Number
of fungi
obtained
Substrate Habitat Geographical
area
Tan et al., 1989 20 Avicennia alba Marine-mangrove Tropic
Tan et al., 1989 21 A. lanata Marine-mangrove Tropic
Kane et al., 2002 40 Fagus sylvatica Freshwater Temperate
Kane et al., 2002 28 Pinus sylvestris Freshwater Temperate
Ho et al., 2002 155 Natural occurring submerged wood Freshwater Tropic
Ho et al., 2002 58 Machilus velutina Freshwater Tropic
Ho et al., 2002 58 Pilus massoniana Freshwater Tropic
Sivichai et al., 2002 48 Dipterocarpus alatus Freshwater Tropic
Sivichai et al., 2002 47 Xylia dolabriformis Freshwater Tropic
Maria and Sridhar, 2004 36 Avicennia officinalis Freshwater Tropic
Maria and Sridhar, 2004 37 Rhizophora mucronata Freshwater Tropic
Huhndorf and Lodge, 1997 157 30 sp. of natural occurring wood
and one palm
Terrestrial Tropic
Crites and Dale, 1998 19 Populus tremuloides Terrestrial Temperate
Allen et al., 2000 80 (spring)
and 151
(autumn)
Nothofagus solandri var.
cliffortioides
Terrestrial Temperate
Van Ryckegem and
Verbeken (2005)
46 Phragmites australis Marine Temperate
(e.g. submerged wood: Tan et al., 1989; Ho et
al., 2002; Kane et al., 2002; Sivichai et al.,
2002; Maria and Sridhar, 2004; Van Ryckegem
and Verbeken, 2005; Vijaykrishna and Hyde,
2006: terrestrial wood: Huhndorf and Lodge,
1997; Crites and Dale, 1998; Allen et al.,
2000—Table 4). In terms of number of fungi
(species richness and number of fungi per
wood), Michelia baillonii had the greatest
number of taxa (93), followed by Manglietia
garrettii (83) and Magnolia liliifera (82). This
may result from the bigger size and taller
height of Michelia trees compared to Magnolia
liliifera and Manglietia garrettii (Kodsueb,
pers. obs.). Differences in wood composition
may also play a part (Boddy and Watkinson,
1995). The dominant or most common fungi of
each host (Table 1) differ significantly from
those usually found to be common on
terrestrial wood (Huhndorf and Lodge, 1997;
Crites and Dale, 1998; Allen et al., 2000).
Seasonal effect on the fungal community
Seasonality is one factor believed to
affect the fungal community (Hagn et al., 2003;
Nikolcheva and Bärlocher, 2005; Kennedy et
al., 2006). However, there is no evidence to
clarify how season affects fungal communities.
Nikolcheva and Bärlocher (2005) concluded
that the presence/absence of aquatic hyphomy-
cetes is regulated primarily by season, presu-
mably through temperature.
Surprisingly, in this study, samples
collected in the dry season provided greater
species richness and Shannon diversity index
than the samples collected in the wet season.
The same result applied to all three hosts. A
possible reason for this might be differences in
humidity, or an unsuitable ratio between
moisture content and aeration of wood with
quite high moisture and low aeration during the
wettest period (Rayner and Todd, 1979).
A possible reason for this might be
differences in humidity which is vary within
wet and dry season. Since humidity is needed
for the germination and disposal of fungi
(Pinnoi et al., 2006), consequently, the fungal
communities of wet season samples which
higher humidity are believed to be more
diverse. Surprisingly, according to current
study, the result showed that the fungal
community during the dry season has been
supported greater fungal taxa (see Table 1).
The reason on this result may be the effect of
unsuitable ratio between moisture content and
aeration of wood sample with quite high

50
moisture and low in aeration during the wettest
period (Rayner and Todd, 1979).
Host specificity
Generally, different plant species have a
different chemical composition, and this may
affect the microbial community composition
and biomass (Boddy and Watkinson, 1995;
Mille-Lindblom et al., 2006). Many fungi are
considered to be host-specific or host-recurrent.
Although saprobic fungi are not believed to be
host-specific or host-recurrent (Zhou and Hyde,
2001), there are several examples of saprobic
fungi that have been recorded on only a single
host and may be host-specific (Zhou and Hyde,
2001). The factors that rule certain saprobes to
occur regularly or uniquely on a host are poorly
understood (Zhou and Hyde, 2001).
According to the similarity index
between each host and the identical results
from cluster and 3D-correspondence analyses
which divided the fungal communities into
three different groups, results from this study
suggest a dissimilarity of fungal communities
between the three different hosts. The overlap-
ping taxa between the three hosts were very
low, only 4 out of 239 taxa. Comparison of
fungi obtained from this study with previous
studies showed low similarity in species level
although overlap of gerera on wood is
common. For example, Anthostomella, Asco-
taiwania, Cercophora, Chaetosphaeria, Dia-
trype, Didymosphaeria, Eutypa, Hypoxylon,
Melanochaeta, Nectria, Stilbohypoxylon,
Tubeufia and Xylaria occurred in the present
study and in other studies (Huhndorf and
Lodge, 1997; Thienhirun, 1997; Crites and
Dale, 1998; Chatonon, 2001; Allen et al.,
2000). A possible explanation maybe that of
endophytes, which are growing in living wood,
and continue to grow as saprobes after the
wood dies. The presence of fungi on leaf litter
that then grow into wood may also result in
different fungal communities suggesting host-
specific or host-recurrent.
Conclusion
Different magnoliaceous species suppor-
ted different assemblages and numbers of
fungal taxa. Michelia baillonii had the greatest
diversity of wood litter fungi among the three
tree species. Seasonality also appeared to affect
the fungal community with a low number of
overlapping taxa between dry and wet season
samples. However, the host species had a
greater affect on the fungal community with
only four fungal taxa overlapping between the
three different hosts. Magnolia liliifera, which
is morphologically similar to Manglietia
garrettii, supported a fungal community that
was more similar to that found on Michelia
baillonii. The reason for this result is unclear.
None of the basidiomycetes overlapped
between the differrent hosts and seasons. Many
factors can affect changes in the communities
of fungi, for instance, physical and chemical
properties of the tree, the microclimate of the
growth site and biological interaction within
woody substrate (Rayner and Boddy, 1988;
Renvall, 1995; Holmer and Stenlid, 1996),
effects of endophytes growing on living wood
and leaf litter fungi that may thrive in wood
after it is dead.
Acknowledgements
Rampai Kodsueb would like to thank the
Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture,
Chiang Mai University for laboratory facilities. The
Commission on Higher Education (Thailand) and
Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University are thanked for
providing partial financial support for the first authors
Ph.D. scholarship. Thanks are also extended to J.F.
Maxwell for help in identification of Magnoliaceae.
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