Rafflesia verrucosa (Rafflesiaceae), a new species of small-flowered Rafflesia from eastern Mindanao, Philippines

Abstract

The new parasitic plant species Rafflesia verrucosa from Mt. Kampalili in eastern Mindanao (Philippines) is described, bringing the total number of Philippine Rafflesia to ten. Rafflesia verrucosa is the first small-flowered Rafflesia described from Mindanao Island, and differs notably from similar-sized species by the dense and prominently raised warts on the perigone lobes and diaphragm, the cup-shaped disk ornamented with dense pubescence on the abaxial surface, in the anther sulci and corona extending to the basal third of the disk exterior, the pleated, laminar and interconnected processes, the toroid annulus, and the extremely small and more numerous (20 or 21) anthers. Like R. baletei of Luzon, this new species has bisexual flowers. Rafflesia verrucosa is the third species found in the island of Mindanao where it occurs in montane forest from ca. 1300–1550 m., an exceptionally high elevation range for Philippine Rafflesia. It has the smallest flowers on average in the genus.

Full text

Accepted by M. Christenhusz: 30 Sep. 2010; published: 28 Oct. 2010
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Copyright © 2010 • Magnolia Press
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Article
Rafflesia verrucosa (Rafflesiaceae), a new species of small-flowered Rafflesia
from eastern Mindanao, Philippines
DANILO S. BALETE
1
, PIETER B. PELSER
2
, DANIEL L. NICKRENT
3
& JULIE F. BARCELONA
2, 4
1
Department of Zoology, Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S. Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, USA.
2
School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand.
E-mail: pieter.pelser@canterbury.ac.nz, barceljf@hotmail.com.
3
Department of Plant Biology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901-6509 USA. E-mail: nickrent@plant.siu.edu.
4
Philippine Native Plant Conservation Society, Inc. (PNPCSI), Ninoy Aquino Parks & Wildlife Center (NAPWC), Protected Areas and
Wildlife Bureau (PAWB), Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR), North Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
Abstract
The new parasitic plant species Rafflesia verrucosa from Mt. Kampalili in eastern Mindanao (Philippines) is described,
bringing the total number of Philippine Rafflesia to ten. Rafflesia verrucosa is the first small-flowered Rafflesia
described from Mindanao Island, and differs notably from similar-sized species by the dense and prominently raised
warts on the perigone lobes and diaphragm, the cup-shaped disk ornamented with dense pubescence on the abaxial
surface, in the anther sulci and corona extending to the basal third of the disk exterior, the pleated, laminar and
interconnected processes, the toroid annulus, and the extremely small and more numerous (20 or 21) anthers. Like R.
baletei of Luzon, this new species has bisexual flowers. Rafflesia verrucosa is the third species found in the island of
Mindanao where it occurs in montane forest from ca. 1300–1550 m., an exceptionally high elevation range for Philippine
Rafflesia. It has the smallest flowers on average in the genus.
Key words: Mount Kampalili, eastern Mindanao, parasitic plants
Introduction
Rafflesia Brown (1821: 207; Rafflesiaceae) is a genus of endophytic holoparasitic plants growing in species of
the liana genus Tetrastigma (Miquel 1863: 72) Planchon (1887: 423; Vitaceae) in tropical forests of Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. In his book on Rafflesia, Nais (2001) recognized 18 species, of which
two, R. manillana Teschemacher (1844: 65) and R. schadenbergiana Göppert ex Hieronymus (1885: 3) are
from the Philippines. Nine additional currently accepted species of Rafflesia have been described since Nais’
landmark work. Seven of these are found in the Philippines (Barcelona & Fernando 2002, Fernando & Ong
2005, Barcelona et al. 2006, 2008, 2009a, Galang & Madulid 2006, Madulid et al. 2007; reviewed in
Barcelona et al. 2009b), one was described from Sumatra (R. bengkuluensis Susatya, Arianto & Mat-Salleh
2006: 147), and one from Peninsular Malaysia (R. azlanii Latiff & Wong 2003: 137). These recent discoveries
more than quadrupled the total number of known Philippine Rafflesia in less than a decade. Of the Philippine
species, five are found in Luzon (R. aurantia Barcelona et al. (2009a: 18), R. baletei Barcelona et al. (2006:
232), R. leonardi Barcelona et al. (2008: 224), R. manillana and R. philippensis Blanco (1845: 565)), one in
Samar (R. manillana), two in Panay (R. lobata Galang & Madulid (2006: 2) and R. speciosa Barcelona &
Fernando (2002: 648)), one in Negros (R. speciosa), and two in Mindanao (R. mira Fernando & Ong (2005:
267) and R. schadenbergiana; Fig. 1). The previously known Mindanao species have the largest flowers
among Philippine Rafflesia.

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50 • Phytotaxa 10 © 2010 Magnolia Press
FIGURE 1. Location of known Rafflesia populations in Mindanao. Red circles: extant populations, yellow circle:
historical population not observed in recent years.
In February and March 2010, during a joint Philippine Eagle Foundation – Field Museum small mammal
survey of Mt. Kampalili in eastern Mindanao, we discovered populations of a highly unusual small-flowered
Rafflesia. The morphological features of these populations require recognition as a new species, which is
described below. This new discovery raises the number of Philippine Rafflesia species to ten.
Taxonomic treatment
Rafflesia verrucosa Balete, Pelser, Nickrent & Barcelona, sp. nov. (Figs. 2A–F, 3A–F)
Rafflesiae baleteae floribus bisexualis, et R. leonardae antheris numerosis, 20-21, etiam R. aurantiae formis ramentorum
similis. Autem verrucis prominentibus in perigonio et diaphragmate orae aperturae attingentes, disco cupulato
processibus laminaribus sinuosis consociatis confertim impletis, corona pubiscentia densa ad trientum basilarem
disci externi extensa, annulo latissimo toroido relative laevi, antheris minimus numerosioris ab omnibus aliis
rafflesiis parvis praesertim differt.
Type:—PHILIPPINES: Mindanao Island: Davao Oriental Province: Manay (also known as Man-ay) Municipality: Mt.
Kampalili, 7.29112° N, 126.31520° E, 1470 m, 3 March 2010, Balete 17 (holotype PNH, isotypes CAHUP, F, L,
SING, US).
Endophytic holoparasite. Mature buds to 7.5 cm in diameter. Cupule 2.0 cm high to 6.0 cm wide. Bracts (or
bud scales) numerous in three to four imbricate whorls, outermost smallest, ca. 1.6 cm long, 1.5 cm wide,
innermost largest to ca. 5.1 cm long, 6.5 cm wide. Flowers 14.5–16 cm in diameter when fully expanded,
11.5–13 cm high (Fig. 2A), with a very mild putrescent smell when fresh. Perigone tube ca. 3.5–5.5 cm long,
inner surface with minute pustules (broccoli-like), with a midlayer of sclerenchymatous tissue that extends to
the perigone lobes, this persisting beyond senescence and into fruit maturity, often forming a cup-like
structure on top of the maturing fruit (Fig. 2B). Perigone lobes 5, orbicular to broadly orbicular, 4.2–4.5 cm
long, 6.5–8.0 cm wide, margins irregularly sinuate, reddish orange or cinnamon, becoming dark brown with
age; adaxial surface verrucose, warts prominently raised, solitary, irregular in shape, size, and density, usually

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RAFFLESIA VERRUCOSA (RAFFLESIACEAE)
roundish, less often rod-like to narrowly elongated, white-tipped in newly opened flowers, with age becoming
concolorous with perigone adaxial surface, abscising upon flower senescence leaving a persistent wood-like
tissue extending from the perigone tube (Fig. 2B); abaxial surface covered with hardened tissue that is
FIGURE 2. A. Newly-opened flower showing verrucose perigone lobes and diaphragm. B. Senescent flower showing
persistent sclerenchymatous perigone tissue after warts have fallen off. C. Close-up of the diaphragm and perigone
showing dense and prominently raised warts. D. Abaxial surface of the perigone lobe revealing pitted surface beneath
corky, cracking and flaking outermost tissue. E. Section through the floral perigone tube showing internal components
including the acicular hairs ornamenting the exterior basal 1/3 of the cup-shaped disk, the laminar, interconnected
processes of the disk, and the shallowly rugose annulus. F. Top view of the perigone tube interior showing the disk, its
processes, and the annulus. A, D–F. Holotype, Balete 17. C. Balete 18. D–F. Specimens in spirit.

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52 • Phytotaxa 10 © 2010 Magnolia Press
irregularly cracked and partially flakes off (sometimes already early in the development of the flower)
revealing a pitted inner layer (Fig. 2D). Diaphragm 7–9 cm in diameter, 2–3.5 cm wide from aperture rim to
base of perigone lobes, 9–11 mm thick at base, becoming thinner towards the aperture; concolorous with or
slightly darker than the adaxial perigone surface; densely covered with prominently raised, pleated, plate-like
warts that are white-tipped in newly opened flowers, these variable in size, larger ones 3–8 mm tall,
intermixed with smaller ones, ca. 1–2 mm tall (Fig. 2C); windows absent; aperture 3.5–4 cm in diameter. Disk
5–5.5 cm in diameter, ca. 1–1.2 cm thick midway between the margin and the point where the disk joins the
column, cup-shaped with a prominently raised margin, concolorous with diaphragm; processes forming an
interconnected system of tightly packed, laminar plates with erose margins, ca. 3–11 mm tall (Fig. 2C, E–F);
column very short, up to ca. 1 cm from the floor of the floral tube to the upper surface of disk, ca. 2.3 cm wide,
deeply grooved, number of sulci corresponds to the number of anthers, septa between sulci ca. 1 cm tall, with
acicular hairs (‘bristles’ sensu Nais 2001) ca. 1.5 mm long; annulus ca. 7–10 mm wide, ca. 5–6 cm in
diameter, doughnut-shaped (toroid), concolorous with the rest of the perigone tube, surface shallowly pitted
and rugose (Fig. 2F). Ramenta to 7 mm long, covered with clavate pustules, polymorphic, filiform to
variously branched or cleaved apically, those at the floor of the perigone tube longer and denser becoming
shorter and more widely spaced on the diaphragm, nearly absent near the aperture rim, white-tipped in newly
opened flowers, becoming concolorous with perigone abaxial surface with age. Flowers bisexual (Fig. 3A);
anthers 20 (or 21), globular, ca. 2 mm in diameter, prominently protruding from very shallow anther sulci that
are 2–3 mm long, 3–4 mm wide (Fig. 3B), basal third of disk formed into a pubescent corona with bristle-like,
acicular hairs to 0.5 mm (Fig. 2E, 3B); ovary ca. 1.5 cm tall, 4.5 cm wide, lenticular or reniform, becoming
broadly and irregularly so as the ovary matures (Fig. 3C); developing fruits to 7 cm in diameter and 4.7 cm
high, sclerenchymatous perigone tissue persistent.
Distribution and habitat:—Rafflesia verrucosa is only known from the southeastern slope of Mt.
Kampalili, Davao Oriental Province, Mindanao Island (Fig. 1). It is found between 1350 and 1550 m. Despite
extensive search efforts in the area, it was not encountered at lower (900–1350 m) or higher (1550–1700 m)
elevation, although the presence of Tetrastigma vines, which is the host for this species, was confirmed
throughout the elevational range explored.
The habitat of R. verrucosa is montane forest in relatively rocky and moderately sloping terrain. Leaf
litter is ca. 2–5 cm thick. The canopy is ca. 15 m tall and emergents reach 20 m. The larger trees in this forest
commonly reach a DBH up to ca. 90 cm. Dominant trees are oaks (Lithocarpus Blume 1826: 526), laurels
(Litsea Lamarck 1792: 574), and myrtles (Syzygium Gaertner 1788: 166). Mosses are common on tree trunks
and branches, and often also at the bases of trunks. Other epiphytes include ferns and lycophytes, Medinilla
Gaudichaud-Beaupré (1830: 484), and orange-flowered Rhododendron Linnaeus (1753a: 392). Understory
vegetation is abundant and composed of tree ferns, other ferns and lycophytes, ground orchids, gingers and
grasses. Canopy vines such as Freycinetia Gaudichaud-Beaupré (1824: 509), climbing bamboos, rattans,
Smilax Linnaeus (1753b: 1028), Tetrastigma, and other lianas are likewise common. Several R. verrucosa
plants were found on Tetrastigma vine roots growing exposed on rocky ground which resulted in deformed
buds and flowers.
Etymology:—The specific epithet of this new taxon is derived from the Latin verruca (wart), which calls
attention to the unique, prominently raised warts on the perigone lobes and diaphragm.
Ecology:—Rafflesia verrucosa is restricted to plants of a single, presently unidentified species of
Tetrastigma (Fig. 3D, specimen not collected). Flowers and buds were only observed on the roots of their host
plants and are absent on prostrate and aerial stems. Tetrastigma roots bearing Rafflesia flowers or scars range
from 6 to at least 25.5 mm in diameter and buds were found on roots buried up to 7 cm below ground level.
A total of 15 clusters of flowers and buds were discovered in an area of ca. 20 m × 1 km. At one site, at
least 30 Rafflesia buds in different stages of development as well as senescent flowers were observed (Fig.
3E). This is equivalent to ca. 7–8 flower clusters per hectare. At the time of discovery of R. verrucosa
(February–March, 2010), a notably large number of senescent flowers and developing fruits were observed.
This suggests that flowering must have peaked around October to December similar to what is reported for R.

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RAFFLESIA VERRUCOSA (RAFFLESIACEAE)
mira, a species found in the adjacent Mt. Candalaga, Compostela Valley (Madulid et al. 2006). Since some
mature buds, newly opened flowers, and early senescent flowers were also observed during our visit in
February–March, flowering appears to continue intermittently throughout the year.
FIGURE 3. A. Longitudinal section through a bud showing both anthers and ovary. B. Cross section through the column
neck showing undersurface of disk with anthers in shallow, pubescent sulci, and corona. C. Longitudinal section through
an early developing fruit showing slightly lunate ovary. D. Tetrastigma sp., host of R. verrucosa. E. Partially cleared area
exposing clusters of buds and senescent flowers attached to the roots of a single host plant. F. Immature bud showing
signs of predation. A. Balete 18. B. Holotype, Balete 17. A–B. Specimens in spirit.
Several buds as well as a maturing ovary of a senescent flower showed evidence of damage by animals,
mainly as bite marks of unidentified small-toothed mammals (Fig. 3F). Systematic trapping in the area where

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54 • Phytotaxa 10 © 2010 Magnolia Press
R. verrucosa occurs yielded at least ten species of native non-volant small mammals, including a gymnure
(Podogymnura), a shrew (Crocidura beatus), a tree shrew (Urogale everetti), two shrew-mice (Crunomys), a
moss-mouse (Tarsomys), an arboreal tree-mouse (Apomys), a forest mouse (Apomys), the large Mindanao
forest rat (Bullimus bagobus) and the common Philippine forest rat (Rattus everetti). Also reported in the area
by local hunters are two species of squirrels (Exilisciurus concinnus and Sundasciurus philippinensis).
Likewise, we also documented the presence of larger mammals, including palm civet (Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus), Philippine warty pig (Sus philippinensis) and Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus). At
ca. 1500 m, wild pig diggings on the ground around three populations of R. verrucosa are extensive but no
sign of feeding on the buds and flowers was observed, although several were trampled upon. The role of these
mammals in Rafflesia dispersal in the Philippines remains unstudied. But in Borneo, for instance, both
squirrels (Callosciurus) and tree shrew (Tupaia) are known to feed on Rafflesia fruits (Emmons et al. 1991).
Conservation:—Rafflesia verrucosa plants grow in the tropical montane forest formation (Fernando et
al. 2008) which is increasingly undergoing disturbance and fragmentation from clearing for abaca (Musa
textilis Née 1801: 123) plantations by native Mandayas. In addition, trees in the area are cut to harvest the
young palm heart of the rattan plants that climb these trees. This practice resulted in areas of up to 100 m
2
in
which tall trees have been cleared and the understory has been damaged. Despite this disturbance, the forest of
the Mt. Kampalili Range is relatively intact and certainly does not suffer from the same degradation and loss
that plague the lowland forest in which the majority of the Philippine Rafflesia are found (Barcelona et al.
2009b). Although R. verrucosa is moderately common in the area, it is not known from any other site on Mt.
Kampalili or elsewhere and we therefore recommend that the clearing of the forest for abaca plantations and
the harvesting of other forest products must be carefully managed in the wider area to ensure the continued
survival of this new species of Rafflesia. We strongly support efforts by local people (e.g. Taocanga Tribal
Council Association), environmental organizations (e.g. Philippine Eagle Foundation) and concerned
government agencies (e.g. Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Department of Tourism
Region XI) to place certain portions of Mt. Kampalili under protected area and ancestral domain management.
Additional specimens examined (paratypes):—PHILIPPINES: Mindanao Island: Davao Oriental Prov.,
Manay (= Man-ay) Municipality: Mt. Kampalili, 7.29796°N, 126.31216°E, ca. 1378 m, 25 February 2010,
Balete 16 (SING); 7.29537°N; 126.31606°E, ca. 1550 m, 1 March 2010, Balete 18 (PUH, US).
Discussion
Rafflesia verrucosa is the first small-flowered Rafflesia species described from Mindanao. The two other
currently accepted species from the island, R. mira and R. schadenbergiana, rank amongst those with the
largest flowers in the genus (R. mira: 45–60 cm in diameter; R. schadenbergiana: 52–80 cm in diameter). The
flowers of this new species are significantly smaller (14.5–16 cm in diameter) and are the smallest in average
size for the genus.
Rafflesia verrucosa further differs from other known Rafflesia species in several other morphological
characters, most notably by the prominently raised warts on the perigone lobes and diaphragm. The warts on
the perigone lobes are unusual in their shape, size, density and deciduous nature. Warts on the diaphragm are
also unusual in their size (large and small) and shape (pleated, plate-like). The diaphragm aperture rim is erose
and in places, shaped like the larger warts. This is in contrast with the wartless diaphragm rim of all other
Rafflesia species. The plate-like, anastomosing disk processes also differ from those of all other species.
These usually have peg-like (R. manillana), spike-like (many Rafflesia species such as R. speciosa), or
solitary blade-like (e.g. R. mira) processes. Some species have poorly developed processes, which may
sometimes even be entirely lacking (e.g. R. leonardi and R. rochussenii). Additionally, the ramenta are longer
(up to 7 mm) than those of all other small flowered Rafflesia except R. aurantia (7–10 mm) and are covered
with minute, clavate, epidermal excrescences. The anther number (20 or 21) is greater than those of all other
similar-sized Philippine Rafflesia, but similar to R. leonardi of Northern Luzon, a species with flowers that are

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RAFFLESIA VERRUCOSA (RAFFLESIACEAE)
twice as large as R. verrucosa. These extremely small anthers (ca. 2 mm) are packed beneath a relatively small
disk. The basal third of the disk is densely pubescent and this extends to the undersurface (the corona) and to
the area surrounding the anther sulci, all features unique to R. verrucosa. Finally, the presence of the
sclerenchymatous tissue in the perigone lobes and tube and its persistence through flower senescence and fruit
formation is unique among Rafflesia species.
Rafflesia verrucosa is not only unique in its morphology, it is also the first species in the Philippines found
growing only in montane forests at elevations between 1350 and 1550 m. All other species of Rafflesia in the
Philippines occur in lowland dipterocarp forest or forest over limestone below 1000 m, rarely extending up to
1270 m in transitional lowland/lower montane forest (Barcelona et al. 2009b). Also R. rochusennii of Java
and Sumatra and R. pricei of Sabah have populations that reach 1500 m. Their elevational range is, however,
much wider than R. verrucosa, extending to the lowlands at ca. 700 m and 400 m, respectively (Nais 2001). At
our current level of knowledge, it is impossible to say if the elevational limits of R. verrucosa are due to range
limits of pollinators or dispersal agents, environmental effects, the range of a particular species of
Tetrastigma, or happenstance.
Although R. verrucosa is the first named small-flowered Rafflesia species from Mindanao, a small-
flowered Rafflesia has previously been collected on Mt. Matutum in south central Mindanao (Barcelona et al.
2006, 2007, 2009b). This specimen is unfortunately too deteriorated to establish its taxonomic identity
(Barcelona et al. 2009b).
A molecular phylogeny is being prepared for Philippine Rafflesia by the coauthors, but at the time of this
writing R. verrucosa DNA was not available for analysis. Despite this, its unusual morphology raises
questions about potential phylogenetic affinities among Rafflesia species. Cladistically, R. verrucosa shows a
number of character states not observed in other Rafflesia species (i.e., autapomorphies). These include 1)
wart morphology, 2) wart abscission from the adaxial perigone surface, 3) perigone lobe sclerenchymatous
inner tissue, 4) cracking and abscission of the adaxial perigone surface, 5) perigone lobe persistence through
fruiting, 6) elaborate warts on the diaphragm surface and rim of the aperture, and 7) a pubescent disk base.
Without experimental or observational evidence, it is difficult to speculate as to any adaptive roles these
features play in the life history of the parasite.
Among all species in the genus Rafflesia, bisexual flowers have only been reported for R. baletei
(Barcelona et al. 2006, 2009b) and now R. verrucosa. It remains to be demonstrated however, whether either
or both species are functionally bisexual. These data update Nais (2001) who stated that no evidence exists for
hermaphroditic flowers in Rafflesia. Bisexual flowers are known in the genus Rhizanthes Dumortier (1829:
14), i.e. R. zippelii (Blume 1827: 422) Spach (1841: 554, see: Meijer 1997, Bänziger & Hansen 2000) and R.
lowii (Beccari 1868: 198) Harms (1934: 287, see Bänziger et al. 2007), and this genus can be considered the
sister group of Rafflesia (the third genus in the family, Sapria Griffith (1844: 216), has only unisexual
flowers). Given the relationship of Rafflesiaceae to Euphorbiaceae and Peraceae (Davis et al. 2007), both with
unisexual flowers, the most parsimonious assumption would be that the presence of unisexual flowers is the
ancestral character state of all three Rafflesiaceae genera. But this scenario requires a reversion from
unisexuality to bisexuality in Rhizanthes and two Rafflesia species, a very rare phenomenon in other
flowering plants (Delph & Wolf 2005; Charlesworth 2006). Is it possible that ancestral Rafflesiaceae had
bisexual flowers? Sexual expression in Rafflesia is still very poorly understood and genetic tools will be
required to determine whether populations are polygamous, monoecious, dioecious, or even sequentially
(temporally) dioecious. As pointed out by Endress (1994), dioecy is rarely absolute and sex changes can occur
in some plants in response to environmental conditions and age. In any event, further investigation along these
lines is warranted to better place Rafflesiaceae floral morphology in a phylogenetic context. For example, do
the small, bisexual flowers of R. verrucosa indicate a relationship to R. baletei or do these represent yet
another case of purported homoplasy in morphological characters for the genus (Barkman et al. 2008,
Bendiksby et al. in press)? It is clear that R. verrucosa stands as one of the most unusual Rafflesia species
described to date and that its further study will help illuminate numerous questions.

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56 • Phytotaxa 10 © 2010 Magnolia Press
Acknowledgements
We dedicate this new species to the Philippine Eagle Foundation whose continuing support and
encouragement of research on Mindanao biodiversity have contributed to the discovery of this remarkable
Rafflesia, and to the Mandaya tribes of Barangay Taocanga for their full support of the biodiversity
conservation of Mt. Kampalili. We are grateful for the assistance extended to us by many people and
organizations while in the field. In particular, the field research would have not been successfully completed
without the expert assistance of J.S. Sarmiento and N. Baron. We are indebted to Philippine Eagle Foundation
Executive Director D. Salvador and his staff, particularly R. Bacquiano, N. Baron, H. Carig, G. Ibañez, J.
Ibañez, G. Opiso and A. Oxales for logistical support and administrative assistance. We also thank Mandaya
chieftains J. Batunan and G. Sumambot for their support of our field research, the family of Kagawad
(Barangay Councilor) G. Sumambot for hosting us and all the good people of Barangay Taocanga who joined
us in the field as guides, cooks and porters. Permit to conduct research was granted by the Taocanga Tribal
Council Association and Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) - Region XI. We thank
DENR-Regional Executive Director J. Sampulna, Protected Areas and Wildlife Division (PAWD) Chief N.
Rivera, J.E. Lechoncito and R. Coligado, Community Environment and Natural Resources Officer (CENRO)
E.V. Ragaza and staff, for permits to transport specimens. M.G. Price reviewed earlier drafts and provided the
Latin diagnosis. We also thank L.R. Heaney for comments of the earlier drafts and for the constant support
and encouragement. Funding for this research was generously provided in part by the Negaunee Foundation,
the Barbara Brown Fund for Mammal Research, the Ellen Throne Smith Fund, and the Marshall Field Fund of
the Field Museum, and IUCN to the Philippine Eagle Foundation.
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